A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive twoterminal electrical component used to store energyelectrostatically in an electric

field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least
two electrical conductors (plates) separated by a dielectric (i.e. insulator). The
conductors can be thin films, foils or sintered beads of metal or conductive
electrolyte, etc. The "nonconducting" dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's
charge capacity. A dielectric can be glass, ceramic, plastic film, air, vacuum,
paper, mica, oxide layer etc. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical
circuits in many common electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor
does not dissipate energy. Instead, a capacitor stores energy in the form of
an electrostatic field between its plates.
When there is a potential difference across the conductors (e.g., when a
capacitor is attached across a battery), an electric field develops across the
dielectric, causing positive charge +Q to collect on one plate and negative charge
Q to collect on the other plate. If a battery has been attached to a capacitor for a
sufficient amount of time, no current can flow through the capacitor. However, if a
time-varying voltage is applied across the leads of the capacitor, a displacement
current can flow.
An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value for its capacitance.
Capacitance is expressed as the ratio of the electric charge Q on each conductor
to the potential difference V between them. The SI unit of capacitance is
the farad (F), which is equal to one coulomb per volt (1 C/V). Typical capacitance
values range from about 1 pF (1012 F) to about 1 mF (103 F).
The capacitance is greater when there is a narrower separation between
conductors and when the conductors have a larger surface area. In practice, the
dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also
has an electric field strength limit, known as the breakdown voltage. The
conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance andresistance.

Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while
allowing alternating current to pass. In analog filternetworks, they smooth the
output of power supplies. In resonant circuits they tune radios to
particular frequencies. In electric power

History[edit]

Battery of four Leyden jarsin Museum Boerhaave,Leiden, the Netherlands

In October 1745, Ewald Georg von Kleist of Pomerania, Germany, found that
charge could be stored by connecting a high-voltage electrostatic generator by a
wire to a volume of water in a hand-held glass jar.[2] Von Kleist's hand and the
water acted as conductors, and the jar as a dielectric(although details of the
mechanism were incorrectly identified at the time). Von Kleist found that touching
the wire resulted in a powerful spark, much more painful than that obtained from
an electrostatic machine. The following year, the Dutch physicist Pieter van
Musschenbroek invented a similar capacitor, which was named the Leyden jar,
after the University of Leiden where he worked.[3] He also was impressed by the
power of the shock he received, writing, "I would not take a second shock for the
kingdom of France."[4]
Daniel Gralath was the first to combine several jars in parallel into a "battery" to
increase the charge storage capacity. Benjamin Franklininvestigated the Leyden
jar and came to the conclusion that the charge was stored on the glass, not in the
water as others had assumed. He also adopted the term "battery",[5][6] (denoting
the increasing of power with a row of similar units as in a battery of cannon),
subsequently applied toclusters of electrochemical cells.[7] Leyden jars were later
made by coating the inside and outside of jars with metal foil, leaving a space at
the mouth to prevent arcing between the foils.[citation needed] The earliest unit of
capacitance was the jar, equivalent to about 1.11 nanofarads.[8]

Leyden jars or more powerful devices employing flat glass plates alternating with
foil conductors were used exclusively up until about 1900, when the invention
of wireless (radio) created a demand for standard capacitors, and the steady
move to higher frequencies required capacitors with lower inductance. More
compact construction methods began to be used, such as a flexible dielectric
sheet (like oiled paper) sandwiched between sheets of metal foil, rolled or folded
into a small package.
Early capacitors were also known as condensers, a term that is still occasionally
used today, particularly in high power applications, like automotive systems. The
term was first used for this purpose by Alessandro Volta in 1782, with reference
to the device's ability to store a higher density of electric charge than a normal
isolated conductor.[9]

Theory of operation[edit]
Main article: Capacitance

Overview[edit]

Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an internal electric field. A dielectric

(orange) reduces the field and increases the capacitance.

A simple demonstration of a parallel-plate capacitor

A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region.

[10]

The non-conductive region is called the dielectric. In simpler terms, the

dielectric is just an electrical insulator. Examples of dielectric media are glass, air,
paper, vacuum, and even a semiconductordepletion region chemically identical to
the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no
net electric charge and no influence from any external electric field. The
conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces,[11] and
the dielectric develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of
one farad means that one coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a
voltage of one volt across the device.[12]
An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined
as the ratio of charge Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them:[10]

Because the conductors (or plates) are close together, the opposite charges
on the conductors attract one another due to their electric fields, allowing the
capacitor to store more charge for a given voltage than if the conductors were
separated, giving the capacitor a large capacitance.
Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its
capacitance to vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of
incremental changes:

Hydraulic analogy[edit]

In the hydraulic analogy, a capacitor is analogous to a rubber membrane sealed

inside a pipe. This animation illustrates a membrane being repeatedly stretched and
un-stretched by the flow of water, which is analogous to a capacitor being repeatedly
charged and discharged by the flow of charge.

In the hydraulic analogy, charge carriers flowing through a wire are

analogous to water flowing through a pipe. A capacitor is like a rubber
membrane sealed inside a pipe. Water molecules cannot pass through the
membrane, but some water can move by stretching the membrane. The
analogy clarifies a few aspects of capacitors:
The current alters the charge on a capacitor, just as the flow of water
changes the position of the membrane. More specifically, the effect of
an electric current is to increase the charge of one plate of the
capacitor, and decrease the charge of the other plate by an equal
amount. This is just as when water flow moves the rubber membrane, it
increases the amount of water on one side of the membrane, and
decreases the amount of water on the other side.
The more a capacitor is charged, the larger its voltage drop; i.e., the
more it "pushes back" against the charging current. This is analogous
to the fact that the more a membrane is stretched, the more it pushes
back on the water.
Charge can flow "through" a capacitor even though no individual
electron can get from one side to the other. This is analogous to the
fact that water can flow through the pipe even though no water
molecule can pass through the rubber membrane. Of course, the flow

cannot continue in the same direction forever; the capacitor will

experience dielectric breakdown, and analogously the membrane will
eventually break.
The capacitance describes how much charge can be stored on one
plate of a capacitor for a given "push" (voltage drop). A very stretchy,
flexible membrane corresponds to a higher capacitance than a stiff
membrane.
A charged-up capacitor is storing potential energy, analogously to a
stretched membrane.

Energy of electric field[edit]

Work must be done by an external influence to "move" charge between
the conductors in a capacitor. When the external influence is removed, the
charge separation persists in the electric field and energy is stored to be
released when the charge is allowed to return to its equilibrium position.
The work done in establishing the electric field, and hence the amount of
energy stored, is[13]

Here Q is the charge stored in the capacitor, V is the voltage across

the capacitor, and C is the capacitance.
In the case of a fluctuating voltage V(t), the stored energy also
fluctuates and hence power must flow into or out of the capacitor. This
power can be found by taking the time derivative of the stored energy:

Currentvoltage relation[edit]
The current I(t) through any component in an electric circuit is
defined as the rate of flow of a charge Q(t) passing through it, but

actual chargeselectronscannot pass through the dielectric layer

of a capacitor. Rather, one electron accumulates on the negative
plate for each one that leaves the positive plate, resulting in an
electron depletion and consequent positive charge on one electrode
that is equal and opposite to the accumulated negative charge on
the other. Thus the charge on the electrodes is equal to
theintegral of the current as well as proportional to the voltage, as
discussed above. As with any antiderivative, a constant of
integration is added to represent the initial voltage V(t0). This is the
integral form of the capacitor equation:[14]

Taking the derivative of this and multiplying by C yields the

derivative form:[15]

The dual of the capacitor is the inductor, which stores energy

in a magnetic field rather than an electric field. Its currentvoltage relation is obtained by exchanging current and
voltage in the capacitor equations and replacing C with the
inductance L.

DC circuits[edit]
See also: RC circuit

A simple resistor-capacitor circuit demonstrates charging of a

capacitor.

A series circuit containing only a resistor, a capacitor, a

switch and a constant DC source of voltage V0 is known as
a charging circuit.[16] If the capacitor is initially uncharged
while the switch is open, and the switch is closed at t0, it
follows from Kirchhoff's voltage law that

Taking the derivative and multiplying by C, gives a firstorder differential equation:

At t = 0, the voltage across the capacitor is zero and

the voltage across the resistor is V0. The initial current
is then I(0) =V0/R. With this assumption, solving the
differential equation yields

where 0 = RC is the time constant of the system.

As the capacitor reaches equilibrium with the
source voltage, the voltages across the resistor
and the current through the entire circuit decay
exponentially. The case of discharging a charged
capacitor likewise demonstrates exponential
decay, but with the initial capacitor voltage
replacing V0 and the final voltage being zero.

AC circuits[edit]

See also: reactance (electronics) and electrical

impedance Deriving the device-specific
impedances
Impedance, the vector sum
of reactance and resistance, describes the phase
difference and the ratio of amplitudes between
sinusoidally varying voltage and sinusoidally
varying current at a given frequency. Fourier
analysis allows any signal to be constructed from
a spectrum of frequencies, whence the circuit's
reaction to the various frequencies may be found.
The reactance and impedance of a capacitor are
respectively

where j is the imaginary unit and is

the angular frequency of the sinusoidal signal.
The j phase indicates that the AC
voltage V = ZI lags the AC current by 90: the
positive current phase corresponds to
increasing voltage as the capacitor charges;
zero current corresponds to instantaneous
constant voltage, etc.
Impedance decreases with increasing
capacitance and increasing frequency. This
implies that a higher-frequency signal or a
larger capacitor results in a lower voltage
amplitude per current amplitudean AC "short

circuit" or AC coupling. Conversely, for very low

frequencies, the reactance will be high, so that
a capacitor is nearly an open circuit in AC
analysisthose frequencies have been "filtered
out".
Capacitors are different from resistors and
inductors in that the impedance
is inversely proportional to the defining
characteristic; i.e., capacitance.
A capacitor connected to a sinusoidal voltage
source will cause a displacement current to flow
through it. In the case that the voltage source is
V0cos(t), the displacement current can be
expressed as:

At sin(t) = -1, the capacitor has a

maximum (or peak) current whereby I0 =
CV0. The ratio of peak voltage to peak
current is due to capacitive
reactance (denoted XC).

XC approaches zero as approaches

infinity. If XC approaches 0, the capacitor
resembles a short wire that strongly passes
current at high frequencies. XC approaches
infinity as approaches zero. If
XC approaches infinity, the capacitor

resembles an open circuit that poorly

passes low frequencies.
The current of the capacitor may be
expressed in the form of cosines to better
compare with the voltage of the source:

In this situation, the current is out

of phase with the voltage by +/2
radians or +90 degrees (i.e., the current
will lead the voltage by 90).

Laplace circuit analysis (s-domain)

[edit]

When using the Laplace transform in

circuit analysis, the impedance of an
ideal capacitor with no initial charge is
represented in the s domain by:

where
C is the capacitance, and
s is the complex frequency.

Parallel-plate model[edit]

Dielectric is placed between two conducting

plates, each of area A and with a separation
of d

The simplest capacitor consists of

two parallel conductive plates
separated by a dielectric (such as air)
with permittivity . The model may
also be used to make qualitative
predictions for other device
geometries. The plates are
considered to extend uniformly over
an area Aand a charge density =
Q/A exists on their surface.
Assuming that the width of the plates
is much greater than their
separation d, the electric field near
the centre of the device will be
uniform with the magnitude E = /.
The voltage is defined as the line
integral of the electric field between
the plates

Solving this for C = Q/V reveals

that capacitance increases with
area of the plates, and decreases
as separation between plates
increases.

The capacitance is therefore

greatest in devices made from
materials with a high
permittivity, large plate area,
and small distance between
plates.
A parallel plate capacitor can
only store a finite amount of
energy before dielectric
breakdown occurs. The
capacitor's dielectric material
has a dielectric
strength Ud which sets
thecapacitor's breakdown
voltage at V = Vbd = Udd. The
maximum energy that the
capacitor can store is therefore

We see that the maximum

energy is a function of
dielectric
volume, permittivity,
and dielectric strength per
distance. So increasing the
plate area while decreasing
the separation between the
plates while maintaining the
same volume has no
change on the amount of

energy the capacitor can

store. Care must be taken
when increasing the plate
separation so that the
above assumption of the
distance between plates
being much smaller than
the area of the plates is still
valid for these equations to
be accurate. In addition,
these equations assume
that the electric field is
entirely concentrated in the
dielectric between the
plates. In reality there are
fringing fields outside the
dielectric, for example
between the sides of the
capacitor plates, which will
increase the effective
capacitance of the
capacitor. This could be
seen as a form of parasitic
capacitance. For some
simple capacitor
geometries this additional
capacitance term can be
calculated analytically.[17] It
becomes negligibly small

when the ratio of plate area

to separation is large.

Several capacitors in parallel

Networks[edit]
See also: Series and
parallel circuits
For capacitors in parallel
Capacitors in a parallel configuration each have the same applied voltage.
Their capacitances add up. Charge is apportioned among them by size.
Using the schematic diagram to visualize parallel plates, it is apparent that
each capacitor contributes to the total surface area.
For capacitors in
series

Several capacitors in
series

Connected in series, the schematic diagram reveals that the separation

distance, not the plate area, adds up. The capacitors each store
instantaneous charge build-up equal to that of every other capacitor in the
series. The total voltage difference from end to end is apportioned to each
capacitor according to the inverse of its capacitance. The entire series acts
as a capacitor smaller than any of its components.

Capacitors are combined in series to achieve a higher working voltage, for

example for smoothing a high voltage power supply. The voltage ratings,
which are based on plate separation, add up, if capacitance and leakage

currents for each capacitor are identical. In such an application, on

occasion, series strings are connected in parallel, forming a matrix. The
goal is to maximize the energy storage of the network without overloading
any capacitor. For high-energy storage with capacitors in series, some
safety considerations must be applied to ensure one capacitor failing and
leaking current will not apply too much voltage to the other series
capacitors.
Series connection is also sometimes used to adapt polarized electrolytic
capacitors for bipolar AC use. See electrolytic capacitor#Designing for
reverse bias.

Voltag
e
distrib
ution
in
parallel
-toseries
networ
ks.
To model the distribution of voltages from a single charged capacitor
connected in parallel to a chain of capacitors in series
:

Note: This is only correct if all capacitance values are equal.

The power transferred in this arrangement is:

Nonideal

behavi
or[edit]
Capacito
rs
deviate
from the
ideal
capacito
r
equation
in a
number
of ways.
Some of
these,
such as
leakage
current
and
parasitic
effects
are
linear, or
can be
assume
d to be
linear,
and can
be dealt
with by

adding
virtual
compon
ents to
the equi
valent
circuit of
the
capacitor
. The
usual
methods
of netwo
rk
analysis
can then
be
applied.
In other
cases,
such as
with
breakdo
wn
voltage,
the
effect is
nonlinear
and

normal
(i.e.,
linear)
network
analysis
cannot
be used,
the
effect
must be
dealt
with
separate
ly. There
is yet
another
group,
which
may be
linear
but
invalidat
e the
assumpti
on in the
analysis
that
capacita
nce is a
constant

. Such
an
example
is
temperat
ure
depende
nce.
Finally,
combine
d
parasitic
effects
such as
inherent
inductan
ce,
resistanc
e, or
dielectric
losses
can
exhibit
nonuniform
behavior
at
variable
frequenc
ies of

operatio
n.

Breakd
own
voltage[
edit]

Main
article: B
reakdow
n
voltage
Above a
particula
r electric
field,
known
as the
dielectric
strength
Eds, the
dielectric
in a
capacito
r
become
s
conducti
ve. The
voltage
at which
this

occurs is
called
the
breakdo
wn
voltage
of the
device,
and is
given by
the
product
of the
dielectric
strength
and the
separati
on
between
the
conduct
ors,[18]
The
maximum
energy that
can be
stored
safely in a
capacitor is

limited by
the
breakdown
voltage.
Due to the
scaling of
capacitance
and
breakdown
voltage with
dielectric
thickness,
all
capacitors
made with a
particular
dielectric
have
approximate
ly equal
maximum e
nergy
density, to
the extent
that the
dielectric
dominates
their
volume.[19]

For air
dielectric
capacitors
the
breakdown
field
strength is
of the order
2 to 5
MV/m;
for mica the
breakdown
is 100 to
300 MV/m;
for oil, 15 to
25 MV/m; it
can be
much less
when other
materials
are used for
the
dielectric.[20]
The
dielectric is
used in very
thin layers
and so
absolute
breakdown

voltage of
capacitors
is limited.
Typical
ratings for
capacitors
used for
general elec
tronics appli
cations
range from
a few volts
to 1 kV. As
the voltage
increases,
the
dielectric
must be
thicker,
making
high-voltage
capacitors
larger per
capacitance
than those
rated for
lower
voltages.
The
breakdown

voltage is
critically
affected by
factors such
as the
geometry of
the
capacitor
conductive
parts; sharp
edges or
points
increase the
electric field
strength at
that point
and can
lead to a
local
breakdown.
Once this
starts to
happen, the
breakdown
quickly
tracks
through the
dielectric
until it
reaches the

opposite
plate,
leaving
carbon
behind and
causing a
short (or
relatively
low
resistance)
circuit. The
results can
be
explosive as
the short in
the
capacitor
draws
current from
the
surrounding
circuitry and
dissipates
the energy.
[21]

The usual
breakdown
route is that
the field
strength

becomes
large
enough to
pull
electrons in
the
dielectric
from their
atoms thus
causing
conduction.
Other
scenarios
are
possible,
such as
impurities in
the
dielectric,
and, if the
dielectric is
of a
crystalline
nature,
imperfection
s in the
crystal
structure
can result in
an avalanch

e
breakdown
as seen in
semiconductor
devices.
Breakdown
voltage is
also
affected by
pressure,
humidity
and
temperature
.[22]

Equivalent
circuit[edit]

Two different

circuit models o
real capacitor

An ideal
capacitor
only stores

and
releases
electrical
energy,
without
dissipating
any. In
reality, all
capacitors
have
imperfection
s within the
capacitor's
material that
create
resistance.
This is
specified as
the equivale
nt series
resistance o
r ESR of a
component.
This adds a
real
component
to the
impedance:

As frequency
approaches
infinity, the
capacitive

impedance (o
reactance)
approaches
zero and the

ESR become

significant. As

the reactance
becomes
negligible,
power
dissipation

approaches P
S

= VRMS /RESR

Similarly to
ESR, the
capacitor's
leads

add equivale
series

inductance o
SL to the
component.

This is usuall

significant on
at relatively
high

frequencies.
inductive
reactance is
positive and

increases wit
frequency,

above a certa
frequency

capacitance w
be canceled
inductance.

High-frequen
engineering
involves

accounting fo

the inductanc
of all
connections
and

components.
If the

conductors a

separated by
material with
small
conductivity

rather than a
perfect

dielectric, the

a small leaka

current flows
directly

between them

The capacito

therefore has
finite parallel
resistance,[12]
d slowly
discharges

over time (tim

may vary
greatly

depending on

the capacitor
material and
quality).

Q factor[edit
The quality
factor (or Q)

a capacitor is

the ratio of its

reactance to

resistance at
given

frequency, an

is a measure

its efficiency.

The higher th

Q factor of th

capacitor, the

closer it

approaches t

behavior of a

ideal, lossles
capacitor.
The Q factor

a capacitor c
be found
through the
following
formula:

where

is an

frequency,
capacitance,

the capacitive

reactance, an
is the series

resistance of
capacitor.

Ripple
current[edit]

Ripple curren

the AC comp

of an applied

source (often

a switched-m

power supply

whose freque

may be cons

or varying. R

current cause
heat to be

generated wi

the capacitor

to the dielect

losses cause

the changing

strength toge

with the curre

flow across th

slightly resist

supply lines o
electrolyte in

capacitor. Th

equivalent se

resistance (E

is the amoun

internal serie

resistance on

would add to

perfect capac

to model this

Some types o
capacitors,

primarily tant

and aluminum

trolytic capac
as well as

some film

capacitors ha

specified ratin

value for max

ripple current
Tantalum

electrolytic

capacitors
solid

manganes
dioxide

electrolyte
limited by

current an
generally

the highes

ESR ratin

the capac
family.

Exceeding

ripple limit

lead to sh

and burnin
parts.

Aluminum

electrolytic

capacitors

most com
type of

electrolytic
suffer a

shortening

life expect

at higher r

currents. I

ripple curr

exceeds t

rated valu

the capac

tends to re

in explosiv
failure.
Ceramic

capacitors

rally have

ripple curr

limitation a

have som

the lowest
ratings.
Film

capacitors

very low E

ratings bu

exceeding

ripple curr

may caus

degradatio
failures.

Capacitanc
instability[e

The capacita

certain capac

decreases as

component a
In ceramic

capacitors, th
caused by

degradation o

dielectric. Th
of dielectric,

ambient oper
and storage

temperatures
the most

significant ag

factors, while

operating vol

has a smaller

effect. The ag

process may
reversed by
heating the

component a

the Curie poi

Aging is faste

near the begi

of life of the

component, a
the device

stabilizes ove

time.[23] Electr

capacitors ag

the electrolyt

evaporates. I
contrast with
ceramic

capacitors, th

occurs towar
end of life of
component.
Temperature
dependence

capacitance i

usually expre

in parts per m

(ppm) per C

can usually b

taken as a br

linear functio

can be notice
non-linear at
temperature

extremes. Th
temperature

coefficient ca

either positive

negative,

sometimes e

amongst diffe

samples of th

same type. In
other words,

spread in the
range of
temperature

coefficients c

encompass z

See the data

in the leakag

current sectio
above for an
example.
Capacitors,

especially ce

capacitors, a

older designs
as paper

capacitors, ca

absorb sound

waves resulti

a microphoni
ct. Vibration

moves the pl
causing the

capacitance t
vary, in turn

inducing AC

current. Som

dielectrics als

generate piez
tricity. The
resulting

interference i
especially

problematic i

audio applica

potentially ca
feedback or
unintended
recording. In
reverse
microphonic

the varying e

field between

capacitor pla

exerts a phys

force, moving

them as a sp

This can gen

audible soun

drains energy
stresses the

dielectric and
electrolyte, if

Current and
voltage
reversal[edit

Current rever
occurs when

current chang

direction. Vol

reversal is th

change of po
in a circuit.
Reversal is
generally

described as

percentage o

maximum rat
voltage that

reverses pola

In DC circuits

will usually be

than 100% (o

in the range o

90%), wherea

circuits exper

100% reversa

In DC circuits

pulsed circuit
current and

voltage rever

are affected b
the damping

system. Volta
reversal is
encountered

in RLC circui
are under-

damped. The
current and

voltage rever

direction, form
a harmonic
oscillator bet

the inductanc
capacitance.
current and

voltage will te
oscillate and

reverse direc

several times

each peak be

lower than th

previous, unt

system reach

equilibrium. T

often referred

as ringing. In
comparison,

lly dampedor

damped syst

usually do no

experience a

voltage rever

Reversal is a
encountered

circuits, wher
peak current

be equal in e
direction.

For maximum

capacitors us

need to be ab
handle the

maximum am

of reversal th
system will

experience. A
circuit will

experience 1

voltage rever
while underdamped DC
circuits will

experience le
than 100%.

Reversal crea

excess electr
fields in the

dielectric, cau

excess heatin

both the diele

and the

conductors, a

can dramatic

shorten the li

expectancy o
capacitor.

Reversal ratin

will often affe

design

consideration

the capacitor

the choice of

dielectric mat

and voltage r

to the types o
internal

connections u
[24]

Dielectric
absorption[

Capacitors m

with some typ

dielectric mat

show "dielect

absorption" o

"soakage". O

discharging a

capacitor and

disconnecting

after a short t

may develop

voltage due t
hysteresis in

dielectric. Th

effect can be

objectionable

applications s
as

precision sam

and hold circ

Leakage[edi
Leakage is

equivalent to

resistor in pa

with the capa

Constant exp

to heat can c
dielectric

breakdown a

excessive lea

a problem oft

seen in older

vacuum tube
circuits,

particularly w

oiled paper a

capacitors we

used. In man

vacuum tube

circuits, inters
coupling

capacitors ar

used to cond

varying signa

the plate of o

tube to the gr
circuit of the

stage. A leak

capacitor can

cause the gri

circuit voltage

be raised from
normal bias

setting, causi

excessive cu

or signal disto

in the downst

tube. In powe

amplifiers this

cause the pla

glow red, or

current limitin
resistors to

overheat, eve
Similar

consideration
apply to
component

fabricated so

state (transis

amplifiers, bu

owing to lowe

heat producti

and the use o

modern polye

dielectric bar

this once-com
problem has

become relat
rare.

Electrolytic
failure from
disuse[edit]
Electrolytic

capacitors ar

ditioned when

manufactured

applying a vo

sufficient to in

the proper int

chemical stat
This state is

maintained b

regular use o

equipment. If

system using
electrolytic
capacitors is
unused for a

period of time
can lose its
conditioning,

will generally

with a short c
when next

operated,
permanently

damaging the

capacitor. To

prevent this i

equipment, th

voltage can b

slowly brough

using a varia
transformer

(variac) on th

mains, over a

twenty or thir

minute interv
Transistor

equipment is

problematic a
such

equipment m

sensitive to lo
voltage
("brownout")

conditions, w

excessive cu

due to improp
bias in some

circuits.[citation ne

Capacitor
types[edit]

Main article:
of capacitor
Practical

capacitors ar
available

commercially

many differen

forms. The ty

internal diele
the structure

plates and th

device packa

all strongly af

the character

of the capaci
and its
applications.

Values availa

range from ve

low (picofara
range; while

arbitrarily low

values are in

principle poss

stray (parasit

capacitance i
circuit is the

limiting factor
about

5 kF superca
rs.
Above

approximatel
microfarad
electrolytic

capacitors ar
usually used

because of th

small size an

cost compare

with other typ

unless their

relatively poo

stability, life a

polarised nat
make them

unsuitable. V

high capacity

supercapacit

use a porous

carbon-based

electrode ma

Dielectric
materials[ed

Capacitor mate

left: multilayer c

ceramic disc, m

polyester film, t

ceramic, polyst

metalized polye

aluminum elect

Major scale div

in centimetres.

Most types o

capacitor incl

dielectric spa

which increas

their capacita

These dielec

are most ofte

insulators.

However, low
capacitance
devices are

available with

vacuum betw

their plates, w

allows extrem
high voltage

operation and

losses. Varia

capacitors wi

their plates o

to the atmosp

were commo

used in radio

tuning circuits

Later designs

polymer foil
dielectric bet

the moving a

stationary pla

with no signif

air space bet

them.
In order to

maximise the

charge that a

capacitor can
the dielectric

material need

have as high

a permittivity

possible, whi

also having a

high a breakd
voltage as
possible.

Several solid

dielectrics are
available,

including pap

astic, glass, m

nd ceramic m

als. Paper wa

used extensiv

older devices

offers relative

high voltage

performance.

However, it is

susceptible to

water absorp

and has been

largely replac
plastic film
capacitors.

Plastics offer

better stabilit
ageing

performance,

which makes

useful in time

circuits, altho
they may be
limited to

low operating

temperatures
frequencies.
Ceramic

capacitors ar

generally sm

cheap and us

for high frequ

applications,

although thei

capacitance v
strongly with

voltage and t

age poorly. T
are broadly
categorized
as class 1

dielectrics, w

have predicta
variation of

capacitance w
temperature
or class 2

dielectrics, w

can operate a

higher voltag

Glass and mi

capacitors ar

extremely rel

stable and to
to high

temperatures

voltages, but

too expensive

most mainstr
applications.
Electrolytic
capacitors

and supercap

rs are used to

store small a

larger amoun

energy,
respectively,

ceramic capa

are often use

in resonators

and parasitic

capacitance o
s in circuits

wherever the

simple condu
insulatorconductor

structure is fo

unintentional

the configura
of the circuit
layout.
Electrolytic

capacitors us

an aluminum
ntalum plate

an oxide diele

layer. The se

electrode is a

liquid electrol

connected to

circuit by ano
foil plate.
Electrolytic

capacitors of

very high

capacitance b

suffer from po

tolerances, h

instability, gra
loss of
capacitance

especially wh
subjected to

and high leak

current. Poor
quality

capacitors m

leak electroly

which is harm

printed circui
boards. The

conductivity o

electrolyte dr

low temperat

which increas

equivalent se

resistance. W

widely used f

power-supply
conditioning,

high-frequenc

characteristic
make them

unsuitable fo

many applica
Electrolytic

capacitors wi

degrade if un
for a period

(around a yea

and when ful

power is app

may short cir

permanently

damaging the

capacitor and

usually blowi

fuse or causi

failure of rect
diodes (for

instance, in o

equipment, a

in rectifier tub
They can be

restored befo

use (and dam

by gradually
applying the

operating vol

often done on

antique vacu

tube equipme

over a period

minutes by u

variable

transformer t

supply AC po

Unfortunately
use of this

technique ma

less satisfact

for some soli

state equipm

which may be
damaged by

operation bel

normal powe

range, requir

that the powe

supply first be

isolated from
consuming

circuits. Such

remedies ma

be applicable

modern high-

frequency po

supplies as th

produce full o

voltage even

reduced inpu
Tantalum

capacitors of

better freque

and temperat

characteristic

than aluminu
but

higher dielec

absorption an
leakage.[25]
Polymer

capacitors (O

CON, OC-CO
KO, AO) use
conductive
polymer (or
polymerized
organic

semiconducto

electrolyte an

offer longer li

and lower ES

higher cost th
standard
electrolytic
capacitors.

A feedthroug

capacitor is a

component th

while not serv

as its main us

has capacitan

and is used t

conduct signa
through a

conductive sh

Several other

types of capa

are available
specialist
applications.

rcapacitors s

large amount
energy.

Supercapacit
made from

carbon aerog

carbon nanot

or highly poro
electrode

materials, off

extremely hig

capacitance (

5 kF as of 20

and can be u

some applica
instead

of rechargeab

batteries.Alte
g

current capac

are specifical

designed to w

on line (main

voltage AC p

circuits. They

commonly us
in electric

motor circuits

are often des

to handle larg

currents, so t
tend to be

physically lar

They are usu

ruggedly

packaged, of

metal cases t

can be easily

grounded/ear

They also are

designed
with direct

current break

voltages of a

five times the

maximum AC
voltage.

Structure[ed

Capacitor

packages: SMD

mic at top left; S

tantalum at bott

left;through-hol

um at top right;
through-hole

electrolytic at b

right. Major sca

divisions are cm

The arrangem

of plates and

dielectric has

many variatio

depending on

desired rating

the capacitor
small values
capacitance
(microfarads

less), cerami

disks use me

coatings, with

leads bonded

the coating. L

values can be

made by mul

stacks of plat

and disks. La

value capacit

usually use a

metal foil or m
film layer

deposited on
surface of a

dielectric film

make the pla

and a dielect
film of
impregnated

or plastic th
are rolled up

save space. T

reduce the se

resistance an

inductance fo

plates, the pl

and dielectric

staggered so

connection is
made at the

common edg
the rolled-up

plates, not at

ends of the fo

metalized film

strips that

comprise the
plates.

The assembl
encased to

prevent mois
entering the

dielectric ea

radio equipm

used a cardb

tube sealed w

wax. Modern
paper or film
dielectric

capacitors ar

dipped in a h

thermoplastic

Large capaci

for high-volta

use may hav

roll form
compressed

into a rectang

metal case, w

bolted termin

and bushings
connections.

dielectric in la
capacitors is
impregnated

liquid to impr

its properties

Several axial-

lead electrolytic
capacitors

Capacitors m
have their

connecting le

arranged in m

configuration

example axia

radially. "Axia

means that th
leads are on

common axis

typically the a

the capacitor

cylindrical bo

the leads ext

from opposite
ends. Radial
might more

accurately be

referred to as

tandem; they

rarely actuall

aligned along

of the body's
circle, so the
is inexact,

although univ

The leads (un

bent) are usu

planes parall

that of the fla

body of the

capacitor, an

extend in the

direction; the

often parallel

manufactured

Small, cheap

discoidal cera

capacitors ha

existed since

1930s, and re

in widespread
Since the

1980s, surfac

mountpackag

for capacitors

been widely u

These packa

are extremely

small and lac

connecting le

allowing them
be soldered
directly onto

surface of pri

circuit boards

Surface mou
components

undesirable h

frequency eff

due to the lea

and simplify
automated
assembly,

although man

handling is m

difficult due to
small size.

Mechanically

controlled va

capacitors all

the plate spa

to be adjuste
example by

rotating or sli

set of movab
plates into

alignment wit

set of station

plates. Low c

variable capa

squeeze toge

alternating la
of aluminum
plastic with

a screw. Elec
control of

capacitance i
achievable

with varactor

varicaps), wh

are reverse-b

semiconducto

diodes whose

depletion reg

width varies w

applied voltag

They are use

in phase-lock

loops, among

other applica

Capacitor
markings

Most capacito

have number

printed on the

bodies to ind

their electrica

characteristic

Larger capac

like electrolyt

usually displa

actual capaci

together with
unit (for

example, 220

Smaller capa

like ceramics

however, use
shorthand
consisting of

numbers and
letter, where

numbers sho
capacitance

in pF (calcula

as XY 10Z f

numbers XYZ

the letter indi

the tolerance

or M for 5%

10% and 2

respectively).

Additionally, t

capacitor ma

show its work

voltage,
temperature

other relevan

characteristic

For typograp

reasons, som

manufacturer

print "MF" on

capacitors to
indicate

microfarads (

Example[ed

A capacitor w

the text 473K

330V on its b

has a capacit

of 47 103 pF

47 nF (10%

a working vol

of 330 V. The

working volta

a capacitor is

highest voltag

that can be a

across it with

undue risk of

breaking dow

dielectric laye

Applicatio
dit]

Main

article: Applic

s of capacitor

This mylar-film,

capacitor has v

inductance and

resistance, to p

high-power (70
megawatt) and

speed (1.2 micr

discharge need

operate a dye la

Energy
storage[edit

A capacitor c

store electric

energy when

disconnected

its charging c

so it can be u
like a

temporary ba

or like other t

of rechargeab

energy storag

system.[27] Ca

rs are commo

used in electr
devices to

maintain pow
supply while
batteries are

changed. (Th

prevents loss

information in

volatile memo

Conventional

capacitors pr
less than

360 joules pe

kilogram of e

density, wher
conventional

ne battery ha

density of 59
kJ/kg.
In car

audio system

large capacit
store energy
the amplifier

on demand. A

for a flash tub

capacitor is u

to hold thehig
voltage.

Pulsed pow
and
weapons[ed

Groups of lar
specially
constructed,

inductance h

voltage capa

(capacitor ba

are used to s
huge pulses
current for

many pulsed

power applica
. These

include electr
netic

forming, Marx
generators,

pulsed lasers
ecially TEA

lasers), pulse
forming

networks, rad

sion research
and particle

accelerators.

Large capaci

banks (reserv
are used as

energy sourc

the exploding
bridgewire

detonators or
per

detonators in

ar weapons a

other special
weapons.

Experimental
is under way
banks of

capacitors as

power source

for electroma
carmour and

electromagne

lguns and co
.

Power
conditionin

10,000 microfar

or in an amplifie
supply

Reservoir

capacitors ar

used in powe

supplies whe
they smooth

output of a fu

half wave rec

They can als

used incharg

pump circuits

the energy st

element in th

generation of

higher voltag

than the inpu

voltage.

Capacitors ar

connected in

parallel with t

power circuits

most electron

devices and l

systems (suc

factories) to s

away and con

current fluctu

from the prim

power source

provide a "cle

power supply

signal or con

circuits. Audio

equipment, fo

example, use

several capa

in this way, to

shunt away p

line hum befo

gets into the

circuitry. The

capacitors ac

local reserve

the DC powe
source, and
bypass AC

currents from

power supply

is used in car

audio applica

when a stiffen
capacitor

compensates

the inductanc

resistance of

leads to the l

acid car batte

Power facto

correction[e

A high-voltage
capacitor bank

for power factor

correction on a

transmission sy

In electric po
distribution,

capacitors ar

used for pow

factor correct

Such capacit

often come a

three capacit

connected as
a three
phase load.

Usually, the v

of these capa

are given not

farads but rat

as a reactive

power in volt-

amperes reac

(var). The pu

is to countera

inductive load

from devices
like electric

motors and tr

ission lines to

make the loa

appear to be

mostly resisti

Individual mo

lamp loads m

have capacito
power factor

correction, or

larger sets of

capacitors (u

with automat

switching dev

may be insta

a load center

within a build
in a large

utility substat

Suppressio
and
coupling[ed

Signal

coupling[edi
Main

article: capac
coupling

Polyester film

capacitors are f

used as couplin
capacitors.

Because

capacitors pa

AC but block

DC signals (w

charged up to
applied dc

voltage), they

often used to
separate the
and DC
components
signal. This

method is kn

as AC couplin
"capacitive

coupling". He

large value o
capacitance,
whose value

not be accura

controlled, bu

whose reacta

s small at the

signal freque
is employed.

Decoupling[
Main

article: decou
capacitor

A decoupling

capacitor is a

capacitor use

protect one p

a circuit from

effect of anot

for instance t

suppress noi

transients. No

caused by ot

circuit elemen

shunted throu

the capacitor
reducing the

they have on

rest of the cir

is most comm

used betwee

power supply
ground. An

alternative na
is bypass
capacitor as

used to bypa

power supply
other high
impedance

component o
circuit.
Decoupling

capacitors ne

not always be
discrete

components.

Capacitors us

these applica
may be built

a printed circ

board, betwe

the various la

These are oft

referred to as
embedded
capacitors.[28]
layers in the

contributing t
capacitive

properties als

function as p
and ground

planes, and h
dielectric in

between them

enabling them
operate as a

parallel plate
capacitor.

High-pass a
low-pass
filters[edit]
Further

information: H
pass

filter and Low

pass filter
Noise

suppression
spikes, and

snubbers[ed
Further

information: H
pass

filter and Low

pass filter

When an indu

circuit is open

the current th

the inductanc

collapses qui

creating a lar

voltage acros

open circuit o

switch or rela

the inductanc

large enough
energy will

generate a sp
causing the

contact point
oxidize,

deteriorate, o

sometimes w
together, or
destroying a
state switch.

A snubberca

r across the n

opened circu

creates a pat

this impulse t

bypass the co

points, thereb

preserving th

life; these we

commonly fo
in contact

breakerignitio

systems, for

instance. Sim

in smaller sca

circuits, the s
may not be

enough to da

the switch bu

still radiate un
able radio
frequency

interference(
which a filter

capacitor abs
Snubber

capacitors ar

usually emplo

with a low-va

resistor in se

to dissipate e

and minimize

Such resistor
capacitor

combinations

available in a

single packag

Capacitors ar
also used in

parallel to int

units of a hig

voltage circui

breaker in ord

equally distrib
the voltage

between thes

units. In this c

they are calle

grading capa
In schematic
diagrams, a

capacitor use

primarily for D

charge storag
often drawn

vertically in c

diagrams with
lower, more

negative, pla
drawn as an

The straight p
indicates the

positive term
the device, if
polarized

(see electroly
capacitor).

Motor
starters[edit
Main article:
capacitor

In single

phase squirre

cage motors,

primary wind

within the mo

housing is no

capable of st

a rotational m

on the rotor, b
capable of

sustaining on

start the moto

secondary "s

winding has a
series non-

polarized sta
capacitor to

introduce a le

the sinusoida

current. Whe

secondary (s

winding is pla

at an angle w

respect to the

primary (run)

winding, a ro

electric field i
created. The

of the rotation
field is not

constant, but

sufficient to s

the rotor spin

When the rot

comes close

operating spe

centrifugal sw
(or current-

sensitive rela

series with th

main winding

disconnects t

capacitor. Th

start capacito

typically mou

to the side of

motor housin

These are ca

capacitor-sta

motors, that h

relatively high

starting torqu

Typically they

have up-to fo

times as muc

starting torqu

than a split-p

motor and ar
used on

applications s

as compress

pressure was

and any sma

device requir
high starting
torques.

Capacitor-run

induction mo
have a
permanently

connected ph

shifting capac

in series with

second windi
The motor is

like a two-pha

induction mo

Motor-starting

capacitors ar

typically nonpolarized

electrolytic ty

while running

capacitors ar
conventional

or plastic film

dielectric type

Signal
processing

The energy s

in a capacitor
be used to

represent info

on, either in b
form, as

in DRAMs, or

analogue form

in analog sam

filters and CC

Capacitors ca

used in analo
circuits as
components

integrators or

complex filter
in negative

feedback loo
stabilization.

Signal proces

circuits also u
capacitors
tointegrate a

current signa
Tuned
circuits[edit]

Capacitors an

inductors are

applied toget

in tuned circu

select inform
in particular

frequency ba

For example,

receivers rely

variable capa

to tune the st
frequency.

Speakers use
passive

analog cross
and analog

equalizers us

capacitors to

select differe

audio bands.

The resonant

frequency f o
tuned circuit

function of th

inductance (L

capacitance (

series, and is
given by:

where L is

in henries an
farads.

Sensing[edi

Main article: capacitive sensing

Main article: Capacitive displacement sensor

Most capacito

designed to m

physical struc

various facto
the structure

and the resul

capacitance c

to sense thos

Changing the
The effects of varying the characteristics of the dielectric can be used for
sensing purposes. Capacitors with an exposed and porous dielectric can
be used to measure humidity in air. Capacitors are used to accurately
measure the fuel level in airplanes; as the fuel covers more of a pair of
plates, the circuit capacitance increases.

Changing the
the plates:
Capacitors with a flexible plate can be used to measure strain or pressure.
Industrial pressure transmitters used for process control use pressuresensing diaphragms, which form a capacitor plate of an oscillator circuit.
Capacitors are used as the sensor in condenser microphones, where one
plate is moved by air pressure, relative to the fixed position of the other
plate. Some accelerometers use MEMS capacitors etched on a chip to
measure the magnitude and direction of the acceleration vector. They are
used to detect changes in acceleration, in tilt sensors, or to detect free fall,
as sensors triggering airbag deployment, and in many other applications.
Some fingerprint sensors use capacitors. Additionally, a user can adjust
the pitch of a theremin musical instrument by moving their hand since this
changes the effective capacitance between the user's hand and the
antenna.

Changing the
plates:

Capacitive touch switches are now used on many consumer electronic

products.

Oscillators[

Further inform

Example of a si

capacitor to fun

A capacitor c

qualities in an

image examp

influence the

npn transisto

values of the

and the capa

capacitor tog

oscillatory fre

Hazards a

Capacitors m

after power is

this charge c

even potentia

damage conn

example, eve

device such a

flash unit pow

battery conta

be charged to

easily capabl

Service proce

devices usua

discharge lar

capacitors, fo

a Brinkley sti
have built-in

dissipate stor

within a few s

removed. Hig

stored with th

protection fro

voltages due

Some old, lar

plastic film ca

contain polyc

biphenyls (PC
waste PCBs

into groundw

Capacitors co

labelled as co

several other

paper capaci

(pre-1975) flu

and other app

Capacitors m

fail when sub

currents beyo

reach their no

or metal inter

create arcing

dielectric fluid

bulging, ruptu

Capacitors us

high-current a
especially in

rolls. Capacit

energy capac

explode when

causes sudde
stored in the

failing unit. H

capacitors ca

even during n

containment,

maintenance

these hazard
High-voltage

from a pre-ch

currents at po

direct current

extend the lif

may mitigate

Swollen caps

special design

capacitors from

This high-ener

adefibrillator c

energy. A resis

the terminals f

energy to be r

Catastrophic f

See also[e