Balancing Learning Theories, Instructional Styles and Technology to meet the Demands of

Teaching High School Mathematics in the 21st Century

Angie Kruzich
Kim Hefty Peer Reviewer
EdTech 504
Theoretical Foundations of Education Technology
Dr. K. Diane Hall
Boise State University
April 22, 2013

Abstract
The focus of this paper is to utilize past and present theories of learning and how the
relationship between the theories impact mathematical education in the classroom, specifically
high school. The ideas within this article embrace both the traditional theory of behaviorism and
the more modern constructivist learning theory. Included are ideas to incorporate student
centered learning environments, educational technology, and the higher demands of Bloom's
Taxonomy in the mathematics classroom and the importance of doing so due to new teacher
evaluation systems. And by doing so, you can create a mathematics classroom that utilizes
technology, higher level cognitive student evaluation and synthesis, as well as a student centered
learning environment.

Comment [H1]: Starting sentence with word

And may not be most effective. Consider using
Additionally, by doing so,

Kruzich | 2

Introduction
As I am sitting here listening to a symphony concert, I am astounded at the inspiration the music
provides me to begin writing down ideas for this paper. The mathematics combined with

Comment [H2]: Consider changing out of first

person since this is an professional paper. This is a
great hook but Be sure you really want first person
for an academic paper.

creativity needed by Gustav Mahler to write Symphony No. 5 is perplexing to a simple

mathematics high school teacher. If only we could get young minded teenagers to understand the
mathematics involved in writing such a masterpiece. Or can we?
Orchestra must be a fantastic class to teach. All the students choose to be there as an elective
class. Every student has something in their hands to do at all times and is always participating.
There are times when the instructor gives feedback on what students should do and then students
have the opportunity to immediately apply it. And there is amazing technology behind such
intricate instruments. I wonder how we can get more math teachers to apply such ideas in a high

Comment [H3]: Eliminate I wonder start with

How can we

school mathematics classroom?

Comment [H4]: Eliminating I wonder will make

this a question.

Learning Theories of the Past and Present and the Mathematics Classroom
There are many existing learning theories including established theories and emerging theories.

Comment [H5]: Add comma

The focus of this paper will pertain to the more traditional objectivism and constructivism. So
first it would be imperative to understand a little behind these two theories.

Comment [H6]: Consider, To begin, it is

imperative
Comment [H7]: Watch your verb tenses

"Objectivism assumes that learning is the process of mapping...concepts onto

Comment [H8]: Should you use a colon?

learners. Objectivism...holds that there is an objective reality that we as learners

assimilate. The role of education is to help students learn about the real world.
Students are not encouraged to make their own interpretations of what they
perceive; it is the role of the teacher or the instruction to interpret events for them.
Learners are told about the world and are expected to replicate its content and
structure in their thinking" (Jonassen 1991).

Comment [H9]: Comma between name and

year? Double check all your citations.

Kruzich | 3

Constructivism is a theory that equates learning with creating meaning from experience (Ertmer
1993). It is not just another way of knowing, but a way of thinking about knowing. It suggests
that each listener or reader will potentially use the content and process the communication in
different ways. It describes learning as an active process, unique to the individual, and consists

Comment [H10]: Use constructivism or this

theory

of constructing conceptual relationships and meaning from information and experiences already

Comment [H11]: Delete space

in the learner's repertoire (Cooper 2009).

"These two theories are generally described as polar extremes on a continuum

Comment [H12]: Use which to make a

complex sentence

Comment [H13]: You need a lead in for this

quote.

from externally mediated reality (objectivism) to internally mediated reality

(constructivism). Most theorists, however, take positions that fall somewhere in
the middle of the continuum." (Jonassen 1991).
This quote by Jonassen summarizes the ideas within this paper well. Similarly in real life, we
need a balance between work and our personal lives, likewise we should maintain a balance
within the mathematics classroom. Balance in a mathematical classroom can be seen when a

Comment [H14]: Consider removing personal

pronouns.

symbiotic relationship exists utilizing both objectivism and constructivism learning theories.

Comment [H15]: Watch your voice. Try saying

A balanced mathematical classroom occurs when

Typically objectivism learning is seen when teaching utilizes a direct instruction approach where

Comment [H16]: Add comma

Comment [H17]: objectivism is when teaching

as constructivism leads to activity based lessons.

Comment [H18]: Add semi-colon after

approach. Whereas is one word

Why choose just one? The ultimate goal when teaching mathematics should be to balance
learning theories and therefore teaching styles to reach the needs of all students when learning

Comment [H19]: Add commas and, therefore,

and using mathematics. Math should not be feared by so many adults such that it is okay to say

Comment [H20]: Add in order to reach

"I don't do math. I wasn't good at it." Of course as they say this, I would like to correct their
English, but they are not saying "I don't do English!" If we are to break the barriers in the United

Comment [H21]: This is a great concept but

seems a little out of place you need to connect it
a bit more.

Kruzich | 4

States where students do not follow a career path that requires a mathematical background, then
math teachers must begin to break down their own barriers.
The New Teacher Evaluation System and the Mathematics Classroom
"Virtually all students are intellectually engaged in challenging content through

Comment [H22]: In order to break down the

barriers in the United States for students who do
not follow a career path that requires a
mathematical background, math teachers must
begin to break down their own barriers.
Comment [H23]: Need a topic sentence to begin
this paragraph. And a lead in to the quote.

well-designed learning tasks and suitable scaffolding by the teacher and fully
aligned with the instructional outcomes. In addition, there is evidence of some
student initiation of inquiry and of student contribution to the exploration of
important content. The pacing of the lesson provides students the time needed to
intellectually engage with and reflect upon their learning and to consolidate their
understanding. Students may have some choice in how they complete tasks and
may serve as resources for one another" (Danielson 2012).
This is just one sub category, engaging students in learning, in the Danielson framework that will

Comment [H24]: Make this the start of the

sentence.

be used to evaluate all teachers in Washington State's new teacher evaluation system. This will
affect all teachers and especially traditional math teachers when the system goes into place. In

Comment [H25]: teachers, especially math

teachers,

the near future, evaluations will involve much more specific targets that was not part of the
previous evaluation system. To reach a distinguished category rating, it will require a teacher to

Comment [H26]: were not previously included

try changing the wording around

do what is described in the above quote. How will a teacher accomplish all this using objectivism

Comment [H27]: requires

learning theory and direct instruction? It will be crucial for teachers to begin exchanging many
direct instruction lessons for a more constructivism based learning style.

Comment [H28]: Hyphenate

And engaging students in learning isn't the only category in which it will be difficult to achieve

Comment [H29]: Remove

Comment [H30]: is not

the highest rating of distinguished. Other categories that will be more difficult to accomplish a

Comment [H31]: If it is a rating category, add

and capitalize.

distinguished rating using purely direct instruction in a math classroom include communicating

Comment [H32]: Add semicolon after

distinguished then other difficult categories
include

with students, using questioning and discussion techniques, demonstrating flexibility and

Kruzich | 5

responsiveness, designing coherent instruction, creating an environment of respect and rapport,

managing classroom procedures, managing student behavior, designing student assessments, and
showing professionalism (Danielson 2012). Although these are the broad titles of the framework,
to be a distinguished teacher within these areas will be essentially impossible when solely using
direct instruction.
The Danielson framework clearly calls for some constructivism learning style when it states
"Students contribute to extending the content and help explain concepts to their classmates" or
"Teacher persists in seeking effective approaches for students who need help, using an extensive
repertoire of instructional strategies and soliciting additional resources from the school or
community" (Danielson 2012). Without a doubt these expectations identify more than just an

Comment [H33]: I would remove without a

doubt and instead say, these expectations clearly

objectivism learning environment. The constructivism learning theory would be more supportive

Comment [H34]: Of what?

by implementing both student centered activities and educational technology. Designing

coherent instruction directly refers to applying technology in the classroom as well.

Comment [H35]: How? Why? elaborate

Complex Instruction and the Mathematics Classroom

"Student

centered

learning

environments

(SCLEs)

provide

interactive

Comment [H36]: Create an intro see

comments previously

complimentary activities that enable individuals to address unique learning

interests and needs, study multiple levels of complexity, and deepen
understanding" (Land 2012).
Complex instruction is a fantastic way to implement student centered activities and involve more

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of the constructivist learning theory into your classroom. Unfortunately, when student centered

Comment [H38]: Comma after centered

activity based instruction first came out, many math teachers failed to make it successful within
their own classroom. What was still missing was how to implement group work in an effective
manner; the organization to make activities work was missing. The teacher has a role to make it

Kruzich | 6

work, but what is it? Before complex instruction, student centered learning environments didn't
work for me either. With every new curriculum came my hope that that text would provide

Comment [H39]: Personal pronouns are better

for reflections

activities that would engage all students. However, the typical complaints by teachers was that

Comment [H40]: See above

one or two students in the group do all the work held true in my classroom as well. I had
basically given up. Then I had the opportunity to attend a complex instruction training in the
summer of 2011. It not only changed the learning environment in my classroom, it also created
something I did not expect; all kids were participating.

Comment [H41]: I would change the voice and

make it more observational

"Complex Instruction (CI) is an instructional approach that allows educators to

address these questions successfully. In CI, teachers use cooperative group work
to teach at a high academic level in diverse classrooms. They assign open-ended,
interdependent group tasks and organize the classroom to maximize student
interaction. In their small groups, students serve as academic and linguistic
resources for one another. When implementing CI, teachers pay particular
attention to unequal participation of students and employ strategies to address
such status problems" (Cohen 1999).
My brief summary of complex instruction doesn't do justice to the process. Teachers that want to
make CI group work and constructivism victorious in their own classroom really need to attend
training and observe other teachers using the process. It is the employment of the strategies from
CI training that make SCLEs and constructivism flourish.
Removing the stigma set forth by students that math is boring is important. And to do so math

Comment [H42]: Quote to indicate that this is

how they feel

teachers must begin to break down their own barriers that is preventing them from using SCLEs.

Comment [H43]: that are maybe add a

comma

Educational Technology and the Mathematics Classroom

Kruzich | 7

Under the structure of CI, a math teacher can find many ways to alter a direct instruction lesson
into a more constructivist activity via technology. It is a very natural transition, placing

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technology into student's hands immediately engages students. Today's students do not know the

Comment [H45]: Either a student or

students plural

world without technology and by giving them technology to work with in the form of computers,
graphing calculators, or iPads, as a teacher you will have a much higher probability of engaging

Comment [H46]: take out as and you it will

clarify

every student in your classroom. When each student has a piece of technology in their hands,

Comment [H47]: change each student to

students, all the rest of words in sentence are plural

they will naturally start pushing buttons and discovering how the technology works. Already,
constructivist learning is taking place. When teachers have to compete for student attention
against video games, you need every tool you can gather.

Comment [H48]: In order to compete with

video games, teachers need every tool they can get.

"Government documents America 2000 and Goals 2000...focused on the need for
education to produce knowledge workers who were proficient in the uses of
technology and communication skills and who possessed high levels of
mathematical literacy. It was evident that computer technology was reshaping the
mathematics that students needed to know now and in the future" (Woodward
2004).
A perfect technology example in the high school math classroom is introduction of the use of a
graphing calculator. This helped many math teachers bridge the gap between students doing

Comment [H49]: Awkward reword

mathematics and students understanding why we do this mathematics. The graphing calculator
technology helped to reframe how mathematics was taught but still remains in a mostly direct
instruction venue.
Geometer's Sketchpad is another fantastic piece of technology that can be used in the
mathematics classroom at many different levels, from elementary math through calculus. It

Comment [H50]: Consider linking all the

technology paragraphs each paragraph needs a
topic sentence and a concluding sentence

Kruzich | 8

allows shapes to be constructed, measured and analyzed such that students can move beyond the
basic information of geometry and into a deeper understanding of geometry.
Recently, graphing calculators made another technological leap by developing wireless
capabilities in the TI-Nspire. This allows math teachers to be more interactive with students.
Teachers can immediately send data back and forth between student and teacher.
Utilizing iPads in the high school math classroom is also occurring. Some school districts are
now issuing an iPad to every student instead of checking out text books (Haselton 2013). There
is a natural integrated use of an iPad in a school as it can work as a replacement for textbooks,
download many different apps for many different subjects and allow for internet research.
Imagine the joy by students, parents and teachers of a de-cluttered student backpack. In the long
run it could save school districts a lot of money. Districts would not be purchasing individual

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textbooks or spending money on computer labs and the maintenance of such labs. Schools would
save space by not needing multiple labs within a building.

Comment [H52]: Make this a complex sentence.

However, there is simply a lack of high school math apps available. Most mathematical apps are

Comment [H53]: At this time

oriented towards elementary and junior high math (Heick 2012). What about high school?
Without these resources, it explains why so many mathematics classrooms are still operating
using a direct instruction technique and not integrating more technology. There is a serious lack
of technology applications above the geometry level (Hannan 2012). When some well written
apps are developed for the high school level including calculus, then more teachers will be apt to
utilize technology in the classroom. Finally, just two months prior to this paper, Texas
Instruments released a TI-Nspire graphing calculator app for the iPad (Johnston 2013). This is a

Kruzich | 9

great step towards progress. But, until there are more applicable student centered activities, many

Comment [H54]: However

higher level mathematics classrooms will remain direct instruction.

Mathematics teachers need the help from the private sector to develop iPad applications but also
need school districts to support them with the training it will take to successfully implement
technological activities.
"...teacher educators need to explicitly teach how the unique features of
affordances of a tool can be used to transform a specific content domain for
specific learners, and that teachers need to be explicitly taught about the
interactions among technology, content pedagogy, and learners." (Angeli 2009)
According to Angeli's research, new and experienced teachers that had been trained to properly
incorporate technology into their specific content areas had students outperform students whose
teachers were without training (Angeli 2009). The training days provided by districts also need
to be authentic for teachers as student centered activities need to be authentic for students. Just

Comment [H55]: to be as authentic

Comment [H56]: Remove, redundant

telling teachers to make use of technology isn't enough, teachers need appropriate training on
how to effectively utilize technology. And math teachers must begin to break down their own

Comment [H57]: Is not

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Comment [H59]: remove

barriers preventing them from moving forward with technology.

Applications in a Mathematics Classroom
When applying the use of technology in a mathematics classroom, it seems like a perfect time to
remove the direct instruction reins and let students begin to construct their own knowledge. The
first three weeks are critical training times for both your students and training of yourself. This

Comment [H60]: Both students and teachers

applies to classroom management as well as integrating a successful SCLE. Just like when my

Comment [H61]: Dont use personal pronouns;

make more generic just like when training a
family dog etc

family took our dog to obedience school, the training was more about training the humans than

Kruzich | 10

the dog. Likewise, changing your teaching technique from direct instruction to a balance

Comment [H62]: a teacher changing

between direct instruction and activities, takes training, teacher commitment and faith in the
process. School districts must begin to spend money on more authentic teacher trainings, rather

Comment [H63]: commit to spending money

than spending money on another ineffective training day. Look around the room on these days, is
every teacher paying attention? Are all teachers participating? Are all teachers learning well?

Comment [H64]: What purpose do these

questions serve in your paragraph. Make them
statements.

So when does a math teacher use an objectivist or constructivist approach in their classroom?
First of all, a complex instruction type SCLE is not always appropriate. In order for group work
to be successful the activity needs to be interdependent. In other words, the activity is too

Comment [H65]: comma

Comment [H66]: must be

complicated for one or even two group members to complete by themselves. This helps to draw
all group members into the process. Another technique that helps to draw in all group members
is not everyone in the group is building the same initial math concept, but then all four group
member results help to build a pattern followed by a group conjecture.

Comment [H67]: reword, its not clear

It is acceptable to still use direct instruction within a high school math classroom. If a concept is
too simple and can be too easily completed, then it isn't a group worthy concept. This could also

Comment [H68]: is not

apply to review concepts and so students already know the outcome. Or the opposite of this is if

Comment [H69]: clarify

a mathematical concept was so complex it would take days to establish an outcome by a group.
Technology would be another example of applying both direct instruction and SCLEs. Perhaps
teachers give students the skills they need by guiding students through GSP for 2-4 activities, but
then students are given the next GSP activity in as CI. Now students are following the
instructions on their own to develop something as complex as the proof for the Pythagorean
Theorem. This could also work using the TI-Nspires. Math teachers must begin to break down
their own barriers to allow for such student growth in a math classroom

Comment [H70]: include in previous paragraph

Kruzich | 11

Conclusion
How do you go about doing all this? First and foremost, there needs to be a shift in how a district

Comment [H71]: create a statement and

combine with next sentence

spends money and trains teachers, especially math teachers. And math teachers need to believe

Comment [H72]: remove

that there is a better way. Without teacher buy-in, he/she will not change. Excellent training and
immediate positive results can help to adjust a teacher's outlook towards student centered
learning. With organization, excellent training opportunities, and appropriate technology, then all
students learning will follow.

Comment [H73]: clarify more directly

The final benefit to mention when applying both learning theories in your classroom is how your

Comment [H74]: remove

Comment [H75]: to make a classroom

classroom will be more appealing. By alternating between activities and direct instruction, it
keeps it more interesting for students. The instructional technique delivery system will depend

Comment [H76]: remove

Comment [H77]: will keep it

upon the math teacher and the topic. Which will work best for today's concept, objectivism or
constructivism? As John Dewey said,
"Mankind likes to think in terms of extreme opposites. It is given to formulating
its beliefs in terms of Either-Ors, between which it recognizes no intermediate
possibilities. When forced to recognize that the extremes cannot be acted upon, it
is still inclined to hold that they are all right in theory but that when it comes to
practical matters circumstances compel us to compromise. Educational
philosophy is no exception" (Dewey 1938)
Math teachers must begin to break down their own barriers by devoting the time to be properly
trained such that you can create a more balanced high school math classroom that utilizes

Comment [H78]: in order to

different learning styles and technology. If you are still teaching solely using a direct instruction

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technique, then take a look around your classroom to truly analyze your results. When direct

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Kruzich | 12

instructing, are all of your students paying attention? Are all students participating? Are all
students learning well?
References
Angeli, C. (2009). Epistemological and methodological issues for the conceptualization,
development, and assessment of ICT TPCK: Advances in technological pedagogical content
knowledge (TPCK). Computers and Education (0360-1315), 52 (1), 154-168.
doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2008.07.006
Cohen, E. G., Lotan, R. A., Scarloss, B. R., & Arellano, A. R. (1999). Complex instruction:
Equity in cooperative learning classrooms. Theory into Practice, 38(2), 80-86. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com/docview/909852737?accountid=9649
Cooper, S. (2009). Constructivism: Constructivist learning theory. Retrieved February 16, 2013
from http://www.lifecircles-inc.com/Learningtheories/constructivism/constructivism.html
Danielson, C. (2012). Danielson framework for teaching rubrics by Washington state criteria
(Version 1.1) Retrieved from Office of the Superintendent of Public Instruction Washington
State http://tpep-wa.org/wp-content/uploads/Danielson-Rubrics-by-criteria.pdf
Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. (p. 17) New York, NY: Macmillan.
Ertmer, Peggy and Newby, Timothy J. (1993). Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism:
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Quarterly
6(4),
50-71.
Retrieved
February
16,
2013
from
http://ocw.metu.edu.tr/file.php/118/Week_6/Ertmer-Newby-beh-cog-const.pdf
Hannan, J. (2012). Top 12 math iPad apps for students and teachers [Web log post]. Retrieved
from http://www.teachhub.com/top-12-math-ipad-apps-students-and-teachers
Haselton, T. (2013). Apple:More than 8 milion iPads sold to education institutions [Web log
post]. Retrieved from http://www.technobuffalo.com/2013/03/03/apple-8-million-ipad-school/
Heick, T. (2012). 12 of the best math iPad apps of 2012 [Web log post]. Retrieved from
http://www.teachthought.com/apps-2/12-of-the-best-math-ipad-apps-of-2012/
Johnston, C. (2013). At long last, TI releases graphing calculator for the iPad. Retr ieved from
http://arstechnica.com/apple/2013/02/at-long-last-ti-releases-graphing-calculator-for-the-ipad/
Jonassen, D. H. (1991). Objectivism versus constructivism: Do we need a new philosophical
paradigm? Educational Technology Research and Development, 39(3), 9-10. doi:
10.1007/BF02296434.
Land, S., Hannafin, M., & Oliver, K. (2012). Student centered learning environments. In D.
Jonassen & S. Land (Eds.), Theoretical foundations of learning environments (pp. 3-25). New
York, NY: Routledge.

Comment [H82]: make these statements

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Woodward, J. (2004). Mathematics education in the united states: Past to present. Journal of
Learning Disabilities, 37(1), 16-31. Retrieved from
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