THE "SAN KOTEN HONKYOKU" OP THE KINKO-RYU:

A STUDY OF TRADITIONAL SOLO MUSIC

FOR THE JAPANESE VERTICAL END-BLOWN FLUTE
THE SHAKUHACHI
by
NORMAN ALLEN STANFIELD
B.Musi, University o f B r i t i s h Columbia, 1970
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF MUSIC
in
THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES
(Department o f Music)
We accept t h i s t h e s i s as conforming
to the required

standard

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

October, 1977

Norman A l l e n S t a n f i e l d , 1977

In presenting

t h i s thesis i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f the

requirements f o r an advanced degree at The U n i v e r s i t y o f

B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree that the Library s h a l l make i t
f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r reference

and study.

I further agree

that permission f o r extensive copying o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r

s c h o l a r l y purposes may be granted by the Head o f my Department or by h i s representatives.

I t i s understood that

copying or p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s thesis f o r f i n a n c i a l gain

s h a l l not be allowed without my written permission.

Department o f Music
The University o f B r i t i s h Columbia
2075 Wesbrook Place
Vancouver, Canada
V6T 1W5
October, 1977

ABSTRACT
The "San Koten Honkyoku" are three

("san") t r a d i t i o n a l

("hon") compositions ("kyoku") which are distinguished and

venerated f o r t h e i r archetypical ("koten") c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
Of the many "schools"

("ryu") of musicians who

claim p r o p r i e -

t o r s h i p or p r o p r i e t a r y c o n t r o l of versions of these melodies,

the Kinko-ryu has the strongest claim to h i s t o r i c i t y .
medium of performance i s the "shakuhachi"a bamboo,

Their
end-

blown, v e r t i c a l f l u t e a n d t h e i r aesthetics i s founded on

Zen

Buddhism.
The progenitor of the shakuhachi most l i k e l y o r i g i n a t e s
from the Mesopotamian c i v i l i z a t i o n s of the fourth millennium
B.C.

A f t e r d i f f u s i o n to China, the v e r t i c a l f l u t e

acquired

a seminal r o l e as the aural manifestation of the Chinese fundamental p i t c h , "huang-chung".

Some time l a t e r i t became a

melody instrument i n the court orchestras, s u f f e r i n g several

recondite changes i n nomenclature and p o p u l a r i t y .
a r r i v e d i n Japan as the Imperial "ch'ih pa"
i t was

When i t

(Jp. shakuhachi)

i n rapid decline, but during the 16th century

i t re-

emerged as an ignoble instrument played by Japanese mendicant

Buddhists c a l l e d "Komo-s5".

The period between the decline

iii
of the Imperial Court's shakuhachi and the r i s e of the Komoso's v e r t i c a l f l u t e i s a void f o r h i s t o r i a n s of the i n s t r u ment, but i t i s suggested i n t h i s t h e s i s that an e a r l i e r
group o f mendicant Buddhist priests/musicians, the "Mo-s5"
biwa players, may have been the source of t h i s renaissance.
By the time of the Edo Period (1600-1868),

the v e r t i -

c a l f l u t e had passed from the hands of the Komo-so, through

the merchant c l a s s who c a l l e d i t the " H i t o y o g i r i " and a
samurai clan who knew i t as the "Tenpuku", to a newly-emerged
group comprised o f "ronin" or masterless samurai who

adopted

the then-defunct Komo-so's way of l i f e i n a manner that

suited t h e i r a r i s t o c r a t i c background.

They c a l l e d themselves

"Komu-so", and t h e i r c o l o r f u l h i s t o r y ranges from clandestine

malevolence to Buddhist s a i n t l i n e s s .
In the 18th century, Kurosawa Kinko and h i s son (Kinko
II, 1741-1811) and grandson (Kinko I I I , 1772-1816) advanced
the p o s i t i v e aspects of the Komu-so's a c t i v i t y by assembling
a u n i f i e d repertoire and organizing an association o f l a y
f l u t i s t s devoted to the p u r s u i t of "Takedd"the

"Way"

of

the bamboo f l u t e a process o f self-enlightenment fashioned

a f t e r Zen Buddhist precepts.
Today, the music theory o f the Kinko-ryu Honkyoku i s
comprised of a b a s i c system o f rudiments tempered by complex

iv
performance p r a c t i c e s which are only accessible through the
o r a l / a u r a l i n s t r u c t i o n o f a sensei.

His pedagogy i s designed

to b r i n g the student t o a u n i f i e d understanding o f the many

aspects of melodic d e t a i l by emphasizing t h e i r r o l e i n animat i n g the simple melodies outlined by the s k e l e t a l notation.
Through a systematic analysis o f the Kinko-ryu "San
Koten Honkyoku", the present study has found that the theoret i c a l p r i n c i p l e s o f these compositions are c l e a r l y demonstrable.

Their inherent pitches are derived from the Japanese "In"

scale and e x i s t i n a hierarchy made manifest i n tonal p r o c l i v i t i e s which are n a t u r a l l y or deceptively resolved.

The h i e r a r -

chies also determine the structures o f the melodies by a r t i c u l a t i n g t h e i r progress.

The conclusion o f t h i s thesis draws together the s o c i ology, history, melodic theory and melodic analyses o f the
Kinko-ryu shakuhachi and i t s Honkyoku by o u t l i n i n g t h e i r r e spective contributions to a unique musical expression o f Zen
Buddhism.

TABLE OP CONTENTS

PREFACE ..

vi

CHAPTER
1.

The Kinko-ryu

2.

A H i s t o r y o f the Shakuhachi

36

3.

Kinko-ryu Melodic Theory

85

4.

San Koten Honkyoku Melodic Analysis

117

CONCLUSION

164

NOTES

167

APPENDICES
A.

Transcriptions

190

B.

Senritsukei

223

C.

Fingering Chart

229

D.

Character Index

233

BIBLIOGRAPHY

256

PREFACE
My graduate studies, culminating with t h i s thesis, were
an amalgam o f three seemingly disparate i n t e r e s t s :
playing, Buddhism and Japan.

The meeting ground of these

i n t e r e s t s was the Shakuhachi, a v e r t i c a l f l u t e which

the

flute

combines

magic of the f l u t e sound with the e s s e n t i a l s p i r i t of

Buddhism and the fascinating temperament o f t r a d i t i o n a l Japan.

The preliminary groundwork f o r my f i e l d studies i n J a pan was g r a t e f u l l y received from my graduate studies superv i s o r . Professor E l l i o t Weisgarber, with further assistance
from Professor Shotaro Iida (Buddhist Studies).

Since my r e -

turn from Japan, I must thank Professor Ming-Yueh Liang and

Professor Donald McCorkle f o r t h e i r many invaluable comments
and c r i t i c i s m s during the d r a f t i n g of my t h e s i s .
I am also deeply indebted to Takeo Yamashiro, Zenryu
Shirakawa, Michel Roffiaen, and Linda Bennett f o r t h e i r help
during the actual preparation o f my

thesis.

The zenith of my studies occurred i n Japan, under the

excellent i n s t r u c t i o n of Tanaka Yudo, Sensei i n the Kinko-ryu,
who taught me so much more than how to play the shakuhachi.
vi

vii
A renaissance figure who teaches as much by example as by
pedagogy, h i s dedication to the highest p r i n c i p l e s o f human
endeavour was c l e a r l y evident i n h i s devotion to "Takedo".
During the same period, I also received a considerable
amount o f valuable information concerning the Meian-ha from
Dr. Toyoaki Kojima Sensei.
It i s hoped that t h i s t h e s i s w i l l serve as a temporary
intermediary between the t r a d i t i o n as i t i s found i n Japan,
and the West which i s j u s t discovering i t .

Ideally, i t w i l l

soon be replaced with the d i r e c t kind of experience between

Sensei and students most valued by the Zen Buddhists:
" e x t r i n s i c teachings, separate from exegetics
no dependence on words and l e t t e r s
pointing d i r e c t l y to the human mind
seeing into one's nature and a t t a i n i n g Buddhahood"
T r a d i t i o n a l l y ascribed t o Bodhidharma

CHAPTER 1
THE KINKO-RYU
1:1

The Kinko-ryu Organization

The Kinko-ryu i s a "school" o f shakuhachi players foun-

ded by Kurosawa Kinko (1710-1771).

The usual t r a n s l a t i o n of

ryu as "school" i s c l e a r l y inadequate, but i t i s the only

English word which approximates i t s meaning.
One o f the c e n t r a l facts o f the Japanese people i s t h e i r
p a r t i c u l a r sense of s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s which i s derived from
Chinese Confucian f a m i l i a l ethics tempered by medieval Japanese
feudalism.

In music c i r c l e s , t h i s c u l t u r a l pattern has been

made manifest i n " f a m i l i e s "

("ryu") comprised o f p a t r i a r c h a l

teachers ("sensei") and " f i l i a l " students ("gakusei") who may

be r e a l or "adopted".

The nature of t h i s teacher-student r e -

l a t i o n s h i p i s discussed i n Chapter 3 (see 2:1).

Kurosawa Kinko was followed by Kinko I I , I I I , and IV,
who were actual p a t r i l i n e a l descendants.

However, Kinko IV

was unable t o succeed, so the ryu's leadership was passed on

to an "adopted" student o f Kinko I I I , a t r a d i t i o n that came
to dominate the Kinko-ryu.

This type o f succession i s prone

1

2
to d i v i s i v e factionalism with the r e s u l t that the kinko-ryu
has formed multiple branches and sub-branches.
necine c o n f l i c t s have developed,

Although

inter-

the r e s u l t o f t h i s d i s p e r s i o n

has been an expanded community and a c e r t a i n amount of freedom

for students wishing to assert t h e i r musical independence.
The b a s i c tenor o f the Kinko school i s very conservative,
which acts both f o r and against i t .

An emphasis on intense

teacher-student r e l a t i o n s h i p s and a conservative r e p e r t o i r e

tends to discourage prospective students, but i t s Zen Buddhist
heritage and conscious conservation o f t r a d i t i o n a l Japanese
values more than compensate f o r such stringency.
The Kinko-ryu i s comprised

o f laymen (upper and middle

class) who u s u a l l y pursue t h e i r ryu a c t i v i t i e s as an avocation,

although some might argue that i t i s t h e i r profession which
i s an avocation, while shakuhachi-playing i s the c e n t r a l f a c t
of t h e i r l i f e .

The ryu i s an urban phenomenon with a c t i v e

centers i n the Kanto (Tokyo) and Kansai

(Osaka-Kyoto) area,

the former being the place of the school's o r i g i n i n the 18th

century.

I t s two major branches stem from the leading students

of Hisamatsu Fuyo" (the successor o f Kinko I I I ) , A r a k i Kodo I I

and Yoshida Itcho.

The more successful l i n e o f Kodo a l s o d i -

vided i n t o several branches dominated by the lineages o f Kawase

Junsuke and Araki Kodo I I I , the former being l e s s conservative
than the l a t t e r .

The t o t a l network o f branches and sub-branches

3
i s so i n t r i c a t e that i t i s v i r t u a l l y impossible t o o u t l i n e .
There are four other ryu besides the Kinko school.

The

Ikkan-ryu, a recondite school, i s conterminous with the Kodo

branch of the Kinko-ryu and various sensei have claimed to be
i n both schools simultaneously.
tory back to Miyagi Ikkan who
1,3).

This school traces i t s h i s -

studied with Kinko I (Sato,

The most popular ryu i s the Tozan-ryu,

Tozan (1876-1956) i n the Kansai area i n 1906.

1966:

founded by Nakao
His school i s

strongly influenced by the West, as evidenced by i t s complex

system of bureaucratic pedagogy s i m i l a r to a n a t i o n a l conservatory of music, and i t s r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e music l i t e r a t u r e
and shakuhachi.

I t s r e p e r t o i r e i s extensive and v a r i e d but

i t does not date before the founding of the school.

The r e -

s u l t of t h i s p o p u l i s t approach i s a membership f a r i n excess

of a l l the other ryu.
When A r a k i Kodo II was a c t i v e i n the Tokyo area, Kondo
Soetsu was

r e p l i c a t i n g the same innovations i n Osaka.

His

work resulted i n the founding o f the Chikuo-ryu with a repert o i r e that u t i l i z e s the pre-1868 Fu-Ho-U" s y l l a b a r y because
M

of an e a r l y association with the Meian-ha (Gekkei, 1971:21).

The Chikuo musicians use p a r t i c u l a r l y long shakuhachi
kan")

("cho-

and perform i n an intense, sotto voce tone augmented by

a wide v a r i e t y of subtle melodic embellishments.

Finally,

the Kinpu-ryu, an outgrowth of the Nezasa-ha, i s another

school which was

founded at the turn of the century.

Its

musicians are also known f o r t h e i r use of chokan but

their

sound i d e a l i s more p l a c i d , c o n s i s t i n g of long tones i n t e r polated with breath pulsations at regular i n t e r v a l s of

two

or three gentle bursts per second i n the manner of an echo.

Aside from the ryu, there are associations of shakuhachi musicians c a l l e d "ken"

or "ha" which are u s u a l l y asso-

c i a t e d with temples ('*ji").

These organizations u s u a l l y con-

s i s t of independant teachers and t h e i r students who

the same r e p e r t o i r e but who

r e t a i n t h e i r own

may

share

"family" s t y l e .

Some o f these " f a m i l i e s " (ryu) became quite established, such

as the Kinpu-ryu.

The two most famous ha are the Nezasa-ha

i n Tohoku (North-East
i n Kyoto.

Honshu Island, Japan) and the Meian-ha

The l a t t e r was

established at Meian-ji i n 1883

as

the Meian Kyokai but the temple i t s e l f has a long t r a d i t i o n

as the major f o c a l point for the Komuso.

Another organization

i s the "Ueda", which has deep roots i n f o l k music.

they are considered

Although

ignoble, I have encountered them i n such

prestigious r e c i t a l s as the National Concerts ("Zenkoku Daikai") which are held i n Meian-ji.

1:2

The Kinko-ryu Shakuhachi

The shakuhachi* played by the Kinko-ryu are made from

a thick-walled type of bamboo c a l l e d "odake", Phyllostacus

Bambusoides (En. Whangee, from the Ch. Huang, as i n Huangchung Kuan, see 2:1).

Because the root-end ("ne") i s i n -

cluded i n the cut, the word "nedake" i s used as a synonym

(see

Gekkei, 1971:18).

However, among Kinko-ryu performers,

the word "take" i s a more common synonym.

The casual appearance o f the f i n a l product i s deceptive
because each instrument requires long hours o f meticulous
craftsmanship.

The " b e l l " i s hewn from a dense knot o f roots

and bent by applying heat and pressure; the bore i s c a r e f u l l y

lacquered t o create a smooth w a l l and evenness o f p i t c h ; and
the mouthpiece,

or "utaguchi", i s hewn a f t e r a b u f f a l o horn

or t o r t o i s e - s h e l l : insert: ("hasamigushi") has been placed i n

it.

The instrument i s u s u a l l y made i n two pieces f o r reasons

concerning tuning, but t h i s expediency has one flaw, i n that

the bamboo i s weakened and therefore prone t o s p l i t t i n g .

For

t h i s reason, shakuhachi are dangerously susceptible t o the

surrounding humidity, and antique shakuhachi are extremely
rare.
Excellent photographs o f the stages o f construction may
be seen i n Bamboo (Austin, 1970:144-51), and the problems o f
construction are w e l l o u t l i n e d i n "The Shakuhachi and the
Kinko-Ryu Notation" (Berger, 1969:35-42).
The three main types o f shakuhachi construction are the

Kinko-ryu, Tozan-ryu, and Meian-ha models.

There i s no u n i -

formity o f construction i n the Meian-ha type which r e f l e c t s

the casual organization o f the association, but two features
which are notable are that a l l o f the shakuhachi are made i n
one piece and the ridges o f the inner nodes are retained.
The s a l i e n t features that d i f f e r e n t i a t e the Kinko and Tozan
instruments were o u t l i n e d by Berger (ibid.) and they may be
summarized and supplemented i n the following manner:
1.

The distance between the thumb-hole and the fourth f i n g e r hole i s 5.4 cm. i n the Kinko shakuhachi and 3 cm. i n the
Tozan shakuhachi.

A l l other holes, i n the instruments o f

both schools, are 5.4 cm. from each other.

2.

The diameter o f the t h i r d finger-hole i s 1 cm. i n the Tozan Shakuhachi and .9 cm. i n the Kinko shakuhachi. A l l
other holes i n both instruments are 1 cm. i n diameter.

3.

The inner wall o f the Kinko instrument i s e n t i r e l y l a c quered, whereas the Tozan instrument has alternate layers
of p l a s t e r o f Paris and lacquer.

4.

The decorative band around the ends o f the j o i n t s i s usua l l y made o f rattan i n the Tozan school, and lacquered i n
the Kinko school.

5.

The bore o f the Tozan shakuhachi i s l a r g e r and f l a r e s at

the end j o i n t , whereas the Kinko shakuhachi c o n s t r i c t s
slightly.

6.

The hasamiguchi are shaped d i f f e r e n t l y , as i n Example 1.

Example 1.

7.

The Kinko and Tozan

Hasamiguchi

The blowing edge of the Tozan utaguchi i s shallower and

wider than the Kinko, making the Tozan instrument much
e a s i e r to p l a y .

Despite t h i s fact, the Kinko-ryu r e t a i n

t h e i r s t y l e o f instrument because i t s "resistance"

offers

more o f a challenge.
The t r a d i t i o n a l range

o f the shakuhachi s l i g h t l y ex-

ceeds two octaves.

Example 2.

>

h_
Vi
a

Shakuhachi T r a d i t i o n a l

^ yC=z

Range

A l l the chromatic notes within the t r a d i t i o n a l , ambitus

can be played, but only f i v e notes i n both the low (RO) and
high (KAN) can be played "naturally",

i . e . , with the head i n

8
a normal p l a y i n g p o s i t i o n .
Example 3.

Natural Shakuhachi Sounds

7
LJ
V;
c

^-v

pj

ai

<J

RO

KAN

The other pitches are sounded by lowering the head by degrees

so that a " n a t u r a l " p i t c h w i l l then sound a h a l f - s t e p lower
("raeri") or a whole step lower

("dai-meri").

The

opposite

motion ( i . e . , r a i s i n g the head) i s c a l l e d " k a r i " , and t h i s i n s t r u c t i o n i s used to cancel meri or dai-meri i n d i c a t i o n s .
The term "shakuhachi"

i s a truncated v e r s i o n o f the

more c o r r e c t a p p e l l a t i o n "ichi-shaku, hachi-sun"

(or " i s s h a -

ku, hassun") which means one foot, eight d e c i - f e e t , using the

ancient Chinese u n i t s of measurement ( i . e . , multiples of ten
as i n the metric system).

An isshakuhassun

i s only one mem-

ber of a consort of i d e n t i c a l - l o o k i n g v e r t i c a l f l u t e s that

vary only i n s i z e

(see Ongaku J i t e n , 1965-66, vol.5, "Kangakki").

Each instrument being one-half step d i f f e r e n t from the next,

the name o f the f l u t e s and t h e i r lowest p i t c h can be
t r a t e d i n the following manner:

illus-

Example 4.

Shakuhachi Consort Names

7_
(?
\

<

Stab

I I

I I

I I I

The only other instrument t o e x h i b i t t h i s k i n d o f cons o r t arrangement i s the "shinobue", a r u r a l f l u t e .

The a r -

chaic H i t o y o g i r i , a prototype o f the shakuhachi, and the

Gagaku Shakuhachi were a l s o b u i l t i n consorts as evidenced
by chronicles and extant c o l l e c t i o n s (Gekkei, 1971:18).
Today, the most frequently used shakuhachi s i z e i s the
isshaku-hassun, although longer shakuhachi

(chokan) were more

often played i n the past and are considered more appropriate

f o r performances

o f Honkyoku (Weisgarber, 1968:316).

Two

other shakuhachi s i z e s have become common i n the Kinko-ryu

t r a d i t i o n ; the "isshaku-sansun"

(a "tankan",

o r s h o r t shaku-

h a c h i ) and t h e "nishaku-sansun"

(a chokan).

Both i n s t r u m e n t s ,

tuned a P e r f e c t F o u r t h h i g h e r and lower, r e s p e c t i v e l y ,

isshaku-hassun, a r e used i n Honkyoku t r i o s

Example 5.

1:3

" M u k a i j i Reibo" T r i o ,

1.

Kumoi C h o s h i

2.

Honte C h o s h i

3.

Akebono C h o s h i

t h a n the

(see Example 5 ) .

F i n a l Cadence

(Chokan)

(Tankan)

The K i n k o - r y u R e p e r t o i r e

The r e p e r t o i r e o f the K i n k o - r y u i s comprised o f app r o x i m a t e l y 200 m e l o d i c c o m p o s i t i o n s

g o r i z e d as e i t h e r "Honkyoku"

("kyoku") w h i c h a r e c a t e -

( i n t r i n s i c melodies),

( e x t r i n s i c m e l o d i e s ) , o r "Shinkyoku"

"Gaikyoku"

(contemporary m e l o d i e s ) .

Honkyoku r e p r e s e n t t h e c o r e o f the r e p e r t o i r e because

s a c r e d and h i s t o r i c a l c o n n o t a t i o n s ; Gaikyoku

are l a t e r

t i o n s which a r e s e c u l a r i n s p i r i t and c o n t e x t .

of

their

addi-

Shinkyoku i s

11
comprised of music written i n the 20th century but the r e l a t i v e l y few compositions i n t h i s category tend to be thought
o f as extraneous to the Kinko-ryu corpus.
While Honkyoku are self-contained compositions, G a i kyoku are a c t u a l l y part-books f o r " J i - u t a " and "Danmono" a r rangements.

The l a t t e r are purely instrumental compositions

while the former are medlies o f songs with instrumental accompaniment and interludes ("tegoto"), played without pause.
The compositional structure of both genres i s heterophonic,
with a lead koto melody "simultaneously v a r i e d " (Meyer,

1956:

234-46) by shamisen and/or shakuhachi (a l a t e r substitute f o r

the kokyu (see Malm, 1959:175,55)) and, i n the case o f J i u t a ,
an interpolated vocal l i n e (Adriaansz, 1973:226).

In Danmono

performances any combination of the instruments can be used

(including i n d i v i d u a l solos) but J i - u t a performances

always

use the e n t i r e instrumental ensemble, u s u a l l y r e f e r r e d t o as

"Sankyoku" (three-part melodies).
The introduction o f Gaikyoku t o the r e p e r t o i r e o f the
Kinko-ryu i s c r e d i t e d to Araki Kodo I I .

(Kondo Soetsu, the

founder o f the Chikuo-ryu, attempted the same a s s i m i l a t i o n

but to a l e s s e r extent.)

This new "populist" trend was promp-

ted by a p r o s c r i p t i o n of a l l Komuso a c t i v i t i e s i n 1871, i n cluding performances of Honkyoku.

In an e f f o r t to sustain

t h e i r ryu (or because they were no longer constrained by

12
t r a d i t i o n a l o b l i g a t i o n s ) , Kodo II and Kondo Soetsu incorporated
the shakuhachi p a r t s of the popular music o f the time (mainly
J i u t a ) into t h e i r ryu systems o f pedagogy and r e p e r t o i r e . H i s tory has shown that t h i s innovation was extremely successful,
r e s u l t i n g i n a continuously expanding r e p e r t o i r e of Sankyoku
arrangements which c u r r e n t l y number over one hundred.
has also prompted

Gaikyoku

further experimentation, r e s u l t i n g i n Shin-

kyoku which employ contemporary ensemble combinations and forms

(see Toyataka, 1956),
The Kinko-ryu Honkyoku c o n s i s t s o f 28 "Dokuso" (solo
melodies), 4 "Seiso" (heterophonic t r i o s f o r three shakuhachi
o f unequal s i z e ) , 4 "Juso" (polyphonic duets f o r two shakuhachi
o f equal s i z e ) , and 2 "Fue-ond5" (polyphonic duets i n free
canon f o r two equal-sized shakuhachi)

There are a l s o several

" u n o f f i c i a l " Honkyoku written by anonymous composers and some

newly-composed Honkyoku ("Sakkyoku") composed by famous shakuhachi performers (Sato, 1966).
The i n d i v i d u a l h i s t o r i e s o f the Honkyoku are from anonymous sources which are u n v e r i f i a b l e and appear to be based on
hearsay (see Tanaka G i i c h i , 1956:303-307).

Kinko I and II

gathered the melodies from various temples as f a r away as Tohoku i n the north and Kyushu i n the south, although t h e i r major
sources were R e i h o - j i and I c h i g e t s u - j i , the two temples near
Tokyo that they d i r e c t e d .

They are to be c r e d i t e d with pro-

13

digious memories, because t h e i r appropriations must have been

by o r a l / a u r a l transmission, and with impeccable diplomacy because t h e i r sources doubtless claimed the t r a d i t i o n a l r i g h t s
of exclusive possession.

Each temple "owned" a small number

of Honkyoku ( i f not j u s t one), the o r i g i n s o f which seem to

have been forgotten although the Komuso organization was
than a hundred years o l d .

less

Many o f the Honkyoku from d i f f e r e n t

temples had the same name so a p p e l l a t i o n s were devised to d i s t i n g u i s h them from each other.

Unfortunately, most of these

appellations have meanings which have become l o s t and consequently can only be guessed at (see Kikkawa Eishi:,RCA

Victor).

The 28 Dokuso can be d i v i d e d i n t o s i x categories according to t h e i r common surname:

1.

Kyorei:

Shin Kyorei
Kinsan Kyorei
Uchikae Kyorei
Shimotsuke Kyorei

The word "Kyorei" i s comprised o f "Kyo", the Japanese word

f o r the Buddhist concept o f no-thingness

(Sk. sunyata),

and

"Rei", which roughly t r a n s l a t e s as " s p i r i t " or " s o u l " .

"Kinsan" may be an abbreviation f o r "Koto/Shamisen" i n d i cating some unknown s t r i n g music background; "Shimotsuke"
i s an ancient province i n Honshu; and "Uchi-kae"

("close-

addendum" ) may be a reference to an i n t e r p o l a t i o n o f t h i s

1 4

s p e c i f i c " K y o r e i " i n t o a Komuso r i t u a l .

Shin Kyorei

will

be d e a l t w i t h p r e s e n t l y .
2.

Reibo:

M u k a i i i Re i b o

Y o s h i y a Reibo

Koku Re i b o

Igusa Reibo

G i n r v u Koku

(Reibo)

Namima Reibo

Kyo(to)_ Reibo

Sokaku Reibo

Izu

Reibo Nagashi

Reibo

Kyushu Reibo
The word "Reibo" c o n s i s t s o f " R e i " , "a s m a l l h a n d b e l l " ,
and "Bo",

"yearning".

R e i a r e used by B u d d h i s t s i n e v e r y

c o u n t r y where Buddhism i s p r a c t i c e d .

Although Rei are

used t o a r t i c u l a t e B u d d h i s t s e r v i c e s , t h e r e f e r e n c e h e r e
i s t o P'u hua

(Fuke) who

c o n s t a n t l y rang h i s l a r g e Rei

( i . e . , "takti") d u r i n g h i s supposed p e r e g r i n a t i o n s t h r o u g h
graveyards.

A common synonym f o r Reibo i s "Renbo" which

s i m p l y means " y e a r n i n g " .

names.

"Nagashi"

Kyoto, I z u and Kyushu a r e p l a c e -

("to flow") means "mendicant m u s i c i a n " ;

"Namima" i s a synonym f o r "sea" ( i . e . , " k a i " , as i n "Mukaiji");

of

and "Sokaku" t r a n s l a t e s as " n e s t i n g c r a n e " , a

o l d age and wisdom.

lations are:
nym

"Igusa"

Other, more p r o b l e m a t i c a l
("reed"), perhaps a t r u n c a t e d

f o r " a s h i - b u e " ("reed f l u t e " ,

"Yoshiya"

see 2:1,

symbol
transsyno-

"Wei-Yueh");

( " b u c o l i c " ) ; and " G i n r y u " ("sound d r a g o n " ) , an

obtuse r e f e r e n c e t o the mythology which h o l d s t h a t the

1 5

f l u t e could invoke "the sound of a dragon".

3

Sugagaki:

Akita

Sugagaki

Koro Sugagaki
Sanya Sugagaki
Sayama Sugagaki
"Sugagaki" i s a term found i n Wagon and Gaku-so (Gagaku
koto) music which r e f e r s to a melodic pattern played i n
a free, p r e l u d i a l s t y l e c a l l e d "Kaki-awase".

I t also

became the b a s i s f o r l a t e r , metric compositions c a l l e d

"Shirabemono", performed on the koto.
lated, i t means "reed panpipes".^

S t r i c t l y trans-

Sanya Sugagaki i s par-

t i c u l a r l y venerated as a Honkyoku almost as o l d as the

San Koten Honkyoku.

Although i t s name t r a n s l a t e s as

"three v a l l e y s " , the word may be an adaptation o f the

Buddhist Sanskrit term "samaja", meaning "gathering
place".

"Akita" and "Sayama" are place-names, and

"Koro"

("tumble") may be an a l l u s i o n to the "Ko-Ro, Ko-Ro" t e c h nique or some other performance

p r a c t i c e contained w i t h i n

i t s composition.
4.

Shirabe:

Hi, Fu, Mi
combined i n one Honkyoku
Hachi Kaeshi
Banshiki-cho

"Shirabe" means "Prelude".

Hi, Fu, Mi, Hachi. Kaeshi Shirabe

(two combined Honkyoku) may

r e f e r to three steps of alms-

16
begging

("takuhatsu") because i t t r a n s l a t e s as "one, two,,

three; return the bowl".

However, Hi, Fu, Mi probably

r e f e r s t o three constantly recurring tones i n i t s melody

1

(i.e., d , g , and d ), while Hachi Kaeshi may be an o r i g i nal takuhatsu melody.^

Although Banshiki-cho i s a tech-

n i c a l term i n Gagaku music theory which denotes the Gagaku

mode that begins on "b" (both the p i t c h and the mode do
not appear i n the Honkyoku), i t s l i t e r a l t r a n s l a t i o n i s
shallow bowl t r a n s f e r , "cho", ( or,

more properly, "choshi"

or "shirabe"), an obvious synonym f o r Hachi Kaeshi no

7

Shirabe. The "Banshiki-cho" Honkyoku melody explores the

musical ambiance found i n the two tetrachords bounded by
2

2 3

c - f and g -c .

I t i s only heard as a preamble t o "Shin

k y o r e i " and "Shika no Tone", the two most respected Honkyoku i n the r e p e r t o i r e .
5

Kyoku:

Takiochi no Kyoku
Shizu no Kyoku
Yugure no Kyoku
Sagariha no Kyoku

The word "Kyoku" i s a common term f o r "melody". "Takiochi"

t r a n s l a t e s as " w a t e r f a l l "
"Yugure" means "evening".

( l i t e r a l l y , "dragon f l i g h t " ) and

"Shizu" ("desiderative plan")

may be an obtuse reference to r e l i g i o u s awakening or takuhatsu protocol, and "Sagari-ha" ("hanging leaves") may be

an a l l u s i o n t o s h o r t , l o w - p i t c h e d songs i n Nohgaku

(Malm,

1963:29) o r t h e i r r e l a t e d songs, Kami-gata, which use

shamisen t u n i n g s o f 2 P4*s
6.

Shishi:

(Malm,

1959:22).

Sakae S h i s h i
Meguro S h i s h i

" S h i s h i " i s the m y t h i c a l l i o n

virility),
flutes

(an a n c i e n t symbol o f

m u s i c a l l y r e p r e s e n t e d i n f o l k f e s t i v a l s by

(shinobue) and drums ( h a y a s h i )

"Meguro"

is a

p l a c e j u s t o u t s i d e o f Tokyo and "Sakae" means " p r o s p e r i t y " .

7.

Ho-Sho-Su
T h i s c o m p o s i t i o n has a unique t i t l e b u t i s s i m i l a r i n
s t y l e t o Sokaku Reibo and S h i k a no Tone which a r e programmatic

(i.e.,

c o n t a i n performance t e c h n i q u e s t h a t a r e sup-

p o s e d l y onomatopoeic).
nix",

The t r a n s l a t i o n ,

"Young Male

Phoe-

i s an a l l u s i o n t o t h e C h i n e s e l e g e n d i n which s p e c i a l

bamboo t u n i n g tubes (Lu Kuan) were a d j u s t e d so they would

reproduce the sound o f p h o e n i x b i r d s
nix

(a Y i n symbol) and Dragon

(see 2 : 1 ) .

(a Yang symbol)

The

Phoe-

represent

complementary symbols o f I m p e r i a l omniscience, and a r e

u s u a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h v e r t i c a l "Kuan "
t

(i.e., v e r t i c a l

bamboo p i p e s e n d blown f l u t e , panpipe/, mouth organ) and

h o r i z o n t a l "Kuan"'
The f i r s t ,

(transverse f l u t e s )

respectively.

second, and seventh "genres" a r e c o n s i d e r e d

sacred, while the t h i r d ,

fifth

and s i x t h a r e s e c u l a r

("Gaiten

1 8

Honkyoku").

The fourth "genre" consists of purely f u n c t i o n -

a l "preludes".

Further research, beyond the scope o f t h i s

thesis, may determine whether the melodies i n each "genre"

have a common compositional denominator,

but a s u p e r f i c i a l

examination reveals that they do not.

The two Fue-ondo are Shika no Tone and Tsuru no Sugomori (a v a r i a t i o n of 'Sokaku R e i b o ) .
J

Tsuru no Sugomori

(which a l s o t r a n s l a t e s as "nesting cranes") i s more rhythmic a l l y constrained than Shika no T5ne and i s more responsorial
than canonic.

Shika no Tone i s held i n the highest regard by

shakuhachi players and t h e i r audiences; Sato Harebi l i s t s i t

as a "Hikyoku"

(Esoteric Honkyoku) because i t i s the f i n a l

and most s o p h i s t i c a t e d stage of learning and co-operation between sensei and student.

I t i s a programmatic composition

d e p i c t i n g two deer c a l l i n g to each other i n Nara Park (a symb o l i c garden i n Nara that reproduces the deer park i n Sarnath
(Benares), India, where Gautama Buddha gave h i s f i r s t sermon
8
a f t e r a t t a i n i n g enlightenment)
The Juso and Seiso are arrangements of r e l a t e d Dokuso.
The Juso duets juxtapose d i f f e r e n t sections of t h e i r r e l a t e d
Dokuso, each section having been a r b i t r a r i l y defined as
te"

( o r i g i n a l l i n e ) or "Kaede" (added l i n e ) .

"Hon-

The r e s u l t a n t

harmony i s c o i n c i d e n t a l because the l i n e s never diverge from

the same"key"(see "Dan-awase" i n Malm, 1959:181-82).

The

19
heterophony i n the Seiso t r i o s was achieved by transposing
the Honte i n t o two d i f f e r e n t tunings r e l a t e d to the s i z e o f
the shakuhachi that performs them.

The Seiso compositions

only used fragments of r e l a t e d dokuso, chosen i n an a r b i t r a r y

manner, whereas the Juso u s u a l l y employed a l l the r e l a t e d dokuso m a t e r i a l .
The t i t l e s of the duets and t r i o s are:
Juso:

Koku Reibo

Seiso:

Koku Reibo

Koro Sugagaki

Koro Sugagaki

Ginryu Koku (Reibo)

Mukaiji Reibo

A k i t a Sugagaki

Sakae S h i s h i

The " u n o f f i c i a l " Honkyoku are:

Kinuta Sugomori:

a metric "shirabemono", u s u a l l y preceded by

one of two short preludes, Ashi no Shirabe (Reed (flute)

Prelude) or K o t o j i no Shirabe (Koto tuning-bridges Prelude).
Akebono Sugagaki:

a metric shirabemono i n two sections

(dan)

played i n Akebono (high) Choshi, performed on an isshakuhassun.

Sometimes the two dan are played simultaneously

by two shakuhachi ( i . e . , Juso).

Akebono Shirabe: a Prelude which i s an Akebono Choshi o f Hi,
Fu, Mi, Hachi.:Kaeshi no Shirabe, performed on an isshakusansun.
Nagai Shirabe:

a Prelude (also named Kotobuki Shirabe) which

i s a lengthy i n s e r t f o r a point about half-way i n t o Hi,

Fu,Mi,,Hachi

K a e s h i no S h i r a b e , making t h e l a t t e r almost

t w i c e as l o n g

("Nagai").

Four Sakkyoku a r e R e n r i t s u no Mai and T a i H e i Raku by

Y o s h i d a I t c h o , and Y a c h i y o Sugomori and T s u k i no Kyoku by
A r a k i Kodo I I .

These two composers were s t u d e n t s o f Kodo I

who

h e l p e d c a r r y t h e t r a d i t i o n o f shakuhachi p l a y i n g

the

Edo P e r i o d t o t h e M e i j i

from

Period.

There a r e two systems o f c l a s s i f y i n g t h e Honkyoku r e p e r t o i r e t h e p e d a g o g i c a l system

the

"Oraote ( I n t r i n s i c ) - - U r a

Sato, 1966).

(see Weisgarber, 1968:340) and

(Extrinsic)" classifications

The l a t t e r system i s as

Koten Honkyoku:

Oraote Honkyoku:

Mukaiji

Koku Reibo

Shin Kyorei

Gyoso no
4

(see

follows:

Reibo

(with B a n s h i k i no S h i r a b e )

Te:

T a k i o c h i no W * u

Kyushu Re i b o

A k i t a Sugagaki

S h i z u no Kyoku

Koro Sugagaki

Kyo

Reibo

S h i n no Te:
10

Kinsan Kyorei

15

Igusa Reibo

11

Y o s h i y a Reibo

16

Izu

12

Yugure no Kyoku

17

Reibo Nagashi

13

Sakae S h i s h i

18a

Sokaku Reibo

14

Uchikae K y o r e i

18b

T s u r u no Sugomori

Reibo

Ura Honkyoku:

19/20

Akebono/Kumoi Choshi

Mukaiji Reibo

21/22

Akebono/Kumoi Choshi

Koku Reibo

23/24

Akebono/Kumoi Choshi

Koro Sugagaki

25/26

Akebono/Kumoi Choshi

Sakae S h i s h i

27

Sanya Sugagaki

31

28

Shimotsuke Kyorei 32

Sagariha no Kyoku

30

Ginryu Koku

Ho Sho Su

34

Sayama Sugagaki

Hikyoku:
35

Shika no Tone

Therefore, the t r a d i t i o n a l number of Honkyoku i n t h i s

system i s 35

(18 Omote plus 17 Ura).

This c l a s s i f i c a t i o n does

not include the 2 Shirabe which are so i n t e g r a l to the t r a d i t i o n that t h e i r existence i s assumed, and the 4 Juso which
probably d i d not e x i s t independent

of t h e i r r e l a t e d dokuso

u n t i l recently.
The Pedagogical L i s t has 29 t i t l e s .

I t does not include

the 4 Akebono and 4 Kumoi choshi (or the 4 Juso) but i t does
include the 2 Shirabe.

One important d i f f e r e n c e between the

Omote-Ura C l a s s i f i c a t i o n and the pedagogical l i s t i s that the

l a t t e r has a l l the Honkyoku arranged i n the sequential order
of l e a r n i n g .

However, t h i s sequence does not begin with easy

pieces and progress through more d i f f i c u l t compositions.

The

r a t i o n a l e f o r i t s order would require considerable a n a l y s i s ,

not within the parameters of t h i s thesis, but i n i t i a l

impres-

sions suggest that the sequence i s a r b i t r a r y .

The two c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s are b a s i c a l l y a l i k e , as i n the
following:
Pedagogical L i s t

Omote-Ura L i s t

Shoden (basic t r a d i t i o n )

1 = (Hi, Fu, Mi...)

Shoden (basic t r a d i t i o n )

2-7 = 4-9

Shoden (basic t r a d i t i o n )

8-11 = 1-3

Gyoso no Te
Koten Honkyoku, plus
Banshiki no Shirabe

Chuden (intermediate " )

12-28 = 10-18

Shin no Te

Oden

21-29 = 27-35

Ura Honkyoku

(advanced

" )

The "San Koten Honkyoku", the focus o f t h i s thesis, are

"Three Sacred Melodies" that are considered the o l d e s t and most
venerable Honkyoku i n the r e p e r t o i r e .

They were

supposedly

acquired by Kinko I i n 1729 i n Nagasaki, Kyushuthe major p o r t

of trade f o r the Dutch and Chinese merchants since i t s founding
i n 1570, and an important centre f o r c u l t u r a l exchange.

Be-

cause most temples i n Japan had versions o f one or more o f

these three melodies i n t h e i r small repertoires, i t may be
assumed that Kinko I had t r a v e l l e d s p e c i f i c a l l y t o Nagasaki
i n order t o f i n d the "true" San Koten Honkyoku.
The most important Koten Honkyoku i s Shin Kyorei, the
o
"true" Kyorei,* supposedly composed by Chang Po, the f i r s t
d i s c i p l e o f P*u hua (Fuke).

I t i s the only Koten Honkyoku

that has i t s own s p e c i f i c p r e l u d e B a n s h i k i no Shirabe.

The

other two Koten Honkyoku are Koku Reibo (Sunyata Reibo) and
Mukai-ji Reibo (the "Flute of the Foggy Sea" Reibo).

Tradi-

t i o n has i t that they were composed, or heard i n a dream by

Kyochiku, the f i r s t d i s c i p l e of Kakushin, while he was
ding at Kokuzo-do temple i n Ise Province.

resi-

Mukai-ji may be a

reference to the following legend quoted by Oga no Motomasa

(1077-1138) i n h i s Ryumeisho (see Harich-Schneider, 1973:254262):

"The dragon sound came from the sea.

again, bamboo was cut and blown:

To hear h i s voice

i n olden times f i v e holes

(Shakuhachi ?); i n l a t e r times, seven (Ryuteki ? ) .

The " j i " i n Mukai-ji probably r e f e r s to the Chinese
transverse, end-blown f l u t e , "ch'ih" which was supposedly the
aural symbol o f the mythical water dragon (see Schafer, 1967:
217-221) and negative Y i n .
the

aural symbol o f the " a i r

rain) and p o s i t i v e Yang.

The Ryuteki was i t s opposite as

dragon" ( i . e . , thunder during

The extensive t r a d i t i o n of the an-

c i e n t Chinese "Lung-ti" and i t s Japanese counterpart, Ryuteki,

i n the l a t e r Heian Period i s w e l l documented but nothing i s
known about the repertoire of the "Ch'ih".

I t does not seem

to have appeared i n Japan as the " J i " (although i t s name can

occasionally be encountered i n l i t e r a r y settings such as the
title, M u k a i - j i ) I t

may be s i g n i f i c a n t , however, that the

water dragon legend comes from South China ( i b i d . ) , one of the

possible o r i g i n s of the shakuhachi (see 2:4:1).

24
Rather than b e i n g an i s o l a t e d phenomenon, Honkyoku a r e
p a r t o f a t r a d i t i o n t h a t has

f l o u r i s h e d throughout

Japanese

music h i s t o r y t h e " P r e l u d e " .

U s i n g t h i s Western

may

i n the next few pages, i t s de-

d i s t u r b some r e a d e r s , but,

n o t a t i o n w i l l be shown t o be q u i t e a c c e p t a b l e
1959:239,247).

F o r the purposes

ing d e f i n i t i o n w i l l hold:
based

terminology

(see Meyer,

o f t h i s t h e s i s , the f o l l o w -

a Prelude i s a " q u a s i - i m p r o v i s a t i o n "

on the a c c o r d a t u r a o f a mode (and i t s " a f f e c t " ) .

It i s

u s u a l l y arhythraic b u t examples o f rhythmic p r e l u d e s do

exist.

The word " q u a s i - i m p r o v i s a t i o n " i s used because a s k e l e t a l

tation i s u t i l i z e d

no-

f o r each Prelude type b u t t h e i r performance

i s i n t e r p r e t e d i n a manner which a l l o w s the p e r f o r m e r

t o impro-

v i s e w i t h i n t h e l i m i t a t i o n s imposed by h i s s k e l e t a l n o t a t i o n
u s i n g the i n f o r m a t i o n he has a c q u i r e d from o r a l / a u r a l
tion.

(The r e a d e r may

be reminded o f the " F r e e P r e l u d e s " f o r

h a r p s i c h o r d by L o u i s C o u p e r i n which are, i n f a c t ,
s i m i l a r t o Honkyoku and o t h e r Japanese
There a r e two

remarkably

Preludes.)

types o f P r e l u d e s i n Japan

the f u n c t i o n a l P r e l u d e and the independent

mer

tradi-

(and t h e West):

Prelude.The

i s more t r a d i t i o n a l i n t h a t i t always immediately

for-

precedes

a r h y t h m i c a l l y and a r c h i t e c t o n i c a l l y s t r u c t u r e d c o m p o s i t i o n i n
the same mode.

In Gagaku, t h i s i n t r o d u c t o r y music i s g e n e r a l l y

r e f e r r e d t o as "Jo"

(as i n "Jo, Ha,

Kyu".

See Malm, 1959:102).

The wind musicians r e f e r to t h e i r "Jo" music as "Jo-buki" or

"Netori", the s t r i n g players use the terms " J o - h i k i " or "Kakiawase", and the p e r c u s s i o n i s t s denote t h e i r s p e c i a l i z e d "Jo"
as "Uchi-awase" (Harich-Schneider, 1973:110,115-17).

The popu-

l a r music of the Edo Period adopted several o f the Gagaku funct i o n a l i s t Preludes and named them "Mae-biki"

(i.e.,

"Jo-hiki".

See Malm, 1963:34-35) which precede Koto Kumiuta, and "Shirabe"

which precede Koto Danmono (Adriaansz, 1965:65-67,219).
Independent Preludes are a hybrid of the functional Preludes i n that they stand on t h e i r own
other compositions.
shi"

and do not introduce

These have been c o l l e c t i v e l y c a l l e d

(see Chapter 4, Note 3).

The kun-yomi (Japanese

"Cho-

Reading)

of the Chinese character f o r Choshi i s pronounced "Shirabe",

which means " i n v e s t i g a t i o n " or "exploration", c l e a r l y implying
the study of a given mode accordatura.
were Gagaku "Jo-choshi", and " I t t c h o s h i "
1973:557).

The e a r l i e s t

Choshi

(Harich-Schneider,

During the l a t e Heian Period (987-1185), there are

frequent references to songs, dances, and instrumental p e r f o r mances performed i n the improvisatory s t y l e of the choshi (e.g.,
i b i d . , 1973:246).

The Ryuteki, Wagon and Gakuso were the most

popular mediums, and the many i n s t r u c t i o n books which survive

from that period contain abundant Choshi
1973:193,263,272-73).

(Harich-Schneider,

Choshi a l s o entered the Buddhist temples

because the Emperors desired r i t u a l p r e l u d i a l music to accompany

26
requiems

(see Garfias, 1965:22).

During Japan's medieval period (1158-1600),

the t r a d i -

t i o n o f Choshi was adopted by the Noh composers who wrote f o r

the Nohkwan (Noh f l u t e ) .
Choshi:

From that r e p e r t o i r e come two extant

"O-Shirabe" and "So-shidai" ("the mendicant buddhist

monk-style", as i n Mo-so and Komu-so).

Period (1600-1868),

By the time o f the Edo

the Choshi genre had come o f age with the

development o f the koto "Danmono" (also c a l l e d "Shirabe-mono",

see Adriaansz, 1965:10), a development o f the Kagura

Kaki-awase

c a l l e d "Sugagaki" (see Adriaansz, 1965:68), and the shakuhachi

"Honkyoku" which may have sprung from the same source as the
Nohkwan Choshi.
Note that the Honkyoku category described as "Shirabe"
(see Number 4 i n the discussion concerning Honkyoku nomenclature outlined e a r l i e r i n t h i s chapter) i s comprised o f "independent Preludes" which can be performed by themselves, but
which usually precede other Honkyoku.

The Meian-ha has two

famous independent Preludes which also precede performances o f

other Meian-ha Honkyoku.

They are c a l l e d Choshi and Yamato

Choshi; they have never appeared i n the Kinko-ryu r e p e r t o i r e .

Nevertheless, they are the most frequently performed Honkyoku
i n Japan, and have been used i n countless s i t u a t i o n s as protot y p i c a l examples o f the sound o f the meditative shakuhachi.

27
1:4

The Kinko-ryu Musical Experience

"The Japanese c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a t t i t u d e towards music ( i s

that i t i s ) used as a means towards an extra-musical end."

(Harich-Schneider, 1973:515).

This statement

true of the Honkyoku of a l l the various ryu.

the Honkyoku learning process (see 3:1)
"awakening of the consciousness"
The word "enlightenment"

i s particularly
The "end" o f

i s enlightenment,

an

(De Ropp, 1968:21,51).

i n t h i s context i s often con-

fused with the autonomous concept developed during the

"Age

of Enlightenment".

was

the "new"

Eighteenth century "enlightenment"

r e l i g i o n of Europe, founded on r a t i o n a l empiricism.

The men of the Enlightenment foresaw no end to the t r i umphant expansion of reason into a l l areas of s o c i a l
l i f e . But here too reason has foundered upon i t s oppos i t e , upon the surd and unpredictable r e a l i t i e s .
(The
"enlightened" society) requires of man only that he perform competently h i s own p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l function.
(He) becomes i d e n t i f i e d with t h i s function, and the rest
of h i s being i s allowed to subsist as best i t c a n u s u a l l y to be dropped below the surface of consciousness and
forgotten.
Barrett, 1958:35-36
Japanese Zen Buddhism, p a r t i c u l a r l y during the Edo
od (1600-1867) countered the problem of man
man

Peri-

as i n d i v i d u a l and

as a contributing member of a community by developing Budd-

h i s t arts which were aimed at enlightening i n d i v i d u a l consciousnesses while not d i s t u r b i n g the s o c i a l order of the community.
Previous to t h i s period, the p r e r e q u i s i t e to a t t a i n i n g e n l i g h t -

28
enment was to "drop out" o f s o c i e t y and j o i n a Zen Buddhist
establishment.

This condition was revised and enlarged by

the o f f e r i n g o f two options:

the i n d i v i d u a l could s t i l l aban-

don society and j o i n a monastery or, b e t t e r yet, he could pursue the goals o f Zen Buddhism by studying one o f i t s a r t s
while remaining

an a c t i v e member of the community and f u l f i l -

l i n g h i s s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s to h i s family and associates.

There are two perspectives on t h i s " s o c i a l " option which
o f f e r a kind o f p a r a l l a x of the Buddhist

arts.

On the p o s i -

t i v e side, t h i s new development was an evolutionary process o f

s o c i a l i n t e g r a t i o n which allowed Zen Buddhism t o be p r a c t i s e d
by laymen as w e l l as by monks and c l e r g y .

This i s i n l i n e

with the b a s i c doctrine of Mahayana Buddhism, the source o f

Zen Buddhism, which states that the "bodhisattva'' concept o f
enlightenment includes lay people as well as the "sangha" (the
u n i v e r s a l order o f Buddhist monks).

The prime example o f t h i s

Mahayana d o c t r i n e i s found i n the f i r s t century, A.D. V i m a l a k X r t i Nirdesa S u t r a (Jp. Yuimagyo) where the main character,
V i m a l a k T r t i , i s a layman who e x h i b i t s a l l the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
of a bodhisattva.

This sutra exerted a profound influence on

Zen Buddhism and Japan (see Suzuki,

1959:410).

The " s o c i a l " option a l s o o f f e r e d an a l t e r n a t i v e t o the

harsh r e a l i t i e s o f the Edo Period s o c i a l order i n Japan. "Neit h e r i n h i s own home or anywhere e l s e could the person do as he

29
pleased; and the extraordinary person was under the s u r v e i l lance of zealous dependants whose constant duty was to reprove
any breach of usage."

(Hearn, 1904:158).

These repressive

conditions were p a r t i a l l y the r e s u l t of the Tokugawa national

p o l i c i e s of Bushido (Reischauer, 1958:617-18) and Shushigaku
(Chu Hsi, Neo-Confucianism) which were s t r i c t systems o f c l a s s
e t h i c s and morality (Sansom, 1943:509) that discouraged i n d i v i d u a l " e c c e n t r i c i t i e s " while s t a b i l i z i n g Edo Japan's p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l order.

Whereas the d i s s o l u t e world of Ukiyo

offered release for most urban Japanese, the Zen Buddhist a r t s

were the solace o f many upper c l a s s c i t i z e n s (notably ronin)
with the added advantage o f being sanctioned by the government.

1:4:1

Zendo
The "way"

("do") of meditation ("Zen") as a d i s t i n c t sect

of Buddhism was introduced to Kamakura Japan i n the l a t t e r h a l f

of the 12th century.
of development

At that time i t was i n i t s s i x t h century

from the time o f i t s founder, Bodhidharma

(fl.

520), through the dominance o f the Southern o r Abrupt School

of Hui-neng

(638-713), the s i x t h p a t r i a r c h , to the 9th century

dynasty branches of L i n - c h i (Jp. Rinzai) and Ts'ao-tung (Jp.

Soto).

A f t e r arduous pilgrimmages to China, E i s a i (1141-1215)

established the former branch i n Japan, followed by Dogen

(1200-1253) who introduced the l a t t e r .

During the Kamakura

and Muroraachi Periods, Rinzai-shu rose to the most dominant

p o s i t i o n i n Japanese Buddhism because i t was
dorsed by the m i l i t a r y government.

officially

en-

Later, however, Buddhism

i n general suffered a serious decline during the Tokugawa

Period o f r u l e (1600-1868) because of corrupt p r a c t i c e s (part i c u l a r l y i n the o f f i c i a l Rinzai sect) and the Tokugawa governments' allegiance to Neo-Confucianism.
tions to t h i s trend was

One of the few excep-

Hakuin (1685-1768), "the founder of

the modern Japanese Rinzai school of Zen"

who

(Suzuki, 1927:254),

exerted a profound influence on a large segment o f Japanese

society.

Most Rinzai masters trace t h e i r lineage d i r e c t l y to

Hakuin.
The essence and goal of Zen i s the e l i m i n a t i o n o f anguish
(Jp. Ku; Sk. duhkha) by experiencing " s e l f " r e a l i z a t i o n ,
sho",

"ken-

through a unique emotional and i n t e l l e c t u a l catharsis,

"satori".

The r e a l i z a t i o n per se i s r e s o l u t e l y i n e f f a b l e but

i t has been characterized as a discovery that the " s e l f " i s

immaterial

(Jp. Kuy

Sk. Sunyata) and impermanent (Jp. Mujo?

Sk. Anitya) because psychological r e a l i t y i s r e l a t i v e

Mujin Engi? Sk. P r a t i t y a Samutpada).

(Jp.

These f a c t s are equally

applicable to a l l "existents" (Matsunaga, 1969:7).

This u l -

timate knowledge (Jp. Hannya Haramita; Sk. Prajnaparamita) i s

an awakened understanding of the true nature of "mind""mushin no s h i n " t h e mind of no mind.

31

I t i s the b a s i c tenet o f Zen Buddhism that Kensho i s

not a r r i v e d at by d i a l e c t i c s because l o g i c i s time-oriented
and d i s c r i m i n a t i v e , while Kensho i s immediate and "nondualistic"

(Jp. Funij Sk. Advaita).

The l o g i c that does

e x i s t i n Zen Buddhism i s always paradoxical i n i t s conclusions.

Therefore, enlightenment i s derived from i n t u i t i o n

through action, "koi t e k i chokkan".

The n o v i t i a t e begins by learning Zazenthe act o f concentration and absorption.

This i s done by assuming an advan-

tageous posture and p r a c t i c i n g passive meditation

-

taza" o f the Soto sub-sect)

sub-sect).

12

("Shikan-

o r a c t i v e meditation

(Rinzai

Both p r a c t i c e s are begun by developing the powers

of concentration by studied breath c o n t r o l , a u n i v e r s a l d i s c i p l i n e i n a l l s o c i e t i e s that p r a c t i c e meditation.

When the Rinzai n o v i t i a t e has developed h i s a b i l i t y to
concentrate, he i s then graduated t o "mondo"dialogues with
h i s master over the understanding

o f a paradox i n the form o f

a "koan" (e.g., "What i s the sound o f one hand clapping?").

The d i s c r i m i n a t i n g i n t e l l e c t i s purposely brought t o an i n tense impasse c a l l e d " d a i g i j o " .

When the l e v e l of p e r p l e x i t y

and concentration are most intense, the p o s s i b i l i t y

(but not

i n e v i t a b i l i t y ) o f "awakening" i s created through an e c s t a t i c

dissolution of "self".

Through the e n t i r e process, and long

a f t e r , the guiding role o f the Roshi i s c r u c i a l .

32
The p r i n c i p l e s of Zendo may

be summarized i n the

follow-

ing four l i n e s , u s u a l l y a t t r i b u t e d to Bodhidharma:

A s p e c i a l transmission outside the s c r i p t u r e s
No dependence upon words and l e t t e r s
Direct p o i n t i n g to the soul of man
Seeing i n t o one's nature and the attainment of Buddhahood

1:4:2

Takedo

Zen Buddhism of a l l r e l i g i o n s i s the one that most s p e c i f i c a l l y educates the aesthetic impulses, and for that
reason alone i t i s a r e l i g i o n that engages the i n t e r e s t
o f a r t i s t s everywhere, even i n the Western world.
Read, 1967:19
Almost since the advent of Zen Buddhism, various

disci-

p l i n e s outside of the Zen temples have adopted "the way

to great advantage.
m i l i t a r y , who

The

of

Zen"

f i r s t to do t h i s i n Japan were the

applied Zen d i s c i p l i n e to the m a r t i a l a r t s

(e.g.,

bushido, kendo, judo, a i k i d o ) ; l a t e r , i t dominated almost every

Japanese form o f aesthetic expression,
crafts.

p a r t i c u l a r l y i n a r t s and

In e f f e c t , a r t i s t i c expression

r e l i g i o u s expression

came to be equated with

so that the former was

a manifestation

(Jp.

Suijaku; Sk, upaya) of the true nature of the l a t t e r (Jp. Honji;

Sk. prajfia; see Matsunaga, 1969:224-27).
The essence of Zendo i n the a r t s i s also " i n t u i t i o n i n
action".

A f t e r developing

immense powers of concentration

and

technical d i s c i p l i n e under the guidance of a "sensei" (a master

33

teacher whose r o l e i s the same as a Roshi),

comes a koan.
i s how

the a r t form be-

The p r e r e q u i s i t e paradox inherent i n t h i s koan

to a t t a i n the "mind of no-mind" while consciously

strug-

g l i n g with the t e c h n i c a l elements of the a r t .

While t e c h n i c a l t r a i n i n g i s of great importance, i t i s
a f t e r a l l something a r t i f i c i a l l y , consciously, c a l c u l a t i n g l y added or acquired.
Unless the mind that a v a i l s
i t s e l f of the t e c h n i c a l s k i l l somehow attunes i t s e l f to
a state of the utmost f l u i d i t y or mobility, anything acquired or super-imposed lacks spontaneity of natural
growth. This state p r e v a i l s when the mind i s awakened
to a s a t o r i .
Suzuki, 1959:14-15
Successful i n t u i t i o n of the true nature of the mind and
s e l f may

the

t r a n s p i r e during an a r t i s t i c action that i s sponta-

neous, e f f o r t l e s s , and "non-dualistic"

( i . e . , the a r t i s t i s

unaware of the p h y s i c a l or mental d i s t i n c t i o n between himself

and h i s medium).

F a i l u r e r e s u l t s i n the u n i v e r s a l

artistic

transgressionmimicry.
The koan for the shakuhachi performer i s h i s instrument.
In order to experience Kensho he must coincide three b a s i c
elements (Sanmi I t t a i ) of performance:
1. G i t e c h n i q u e
The per forme reacquires
:

lawless- rudimentary - technique

by p e r f e c t i n g Sankyoku and Gaikyoku (see 3:1).

When he per-

forms Honkyoku, h i s t e c h n i c a l concerns are concentrated on performance p r a c t i c e s (see 3:2)

ter d i s c i p l i n e explains why

and correct breathing.

(The

lat-

f l u t e s have always been the c e n t r a l

34

instrument

i n a l l countries that p r a c t i c e meditation.)

The

shakuhachi i s i d e a l l y suited to Zendo* because o f the fundament a l and rigorous emphasis on breath c o n t r o l required t o play
i t properly.

E s s e n t i a l l y , the performer must breathe from the

diaphragm (Tanden).

"The ancient Yoga concepts o f anthropolo-

gy and anatomy play a role, according to which the mind l i e s

a handbreadth below the navel where the home o f our true being
i s to be found." (Dumoulin,

1963:162).

2. Shinmind
The "set and s e t t i n g " o f the mind i s p a r t i c u l a r l y d i f f i c u l t to a t t a i n .

The performer must have a t r a n q u i l (Jaku)

13
composure,

contrary t o such v i s i b l e d i s p l a y s o f "heart-

rending emotion" so common t o Japanese (and Western) p e r f o r mers.

In addition, he must enter a n o n - d u a l i s t i c frame o f

mind by "non-doing" ("Mu-i").

In other words, he does not

s t r i v e for success or attainment,

is divisive.
ner.

because the very act i t s e l f

Also, he performs i n a "natural" (Shizen) man-

The sound o f h i s shakuhachi may be rough and i n c o n s i s -

tent because i t s "natural sound" (Shizen no Ne) i s " S a b i u n pretentious or archaic imperfection, apparent s i m p l i c i t y or
e f f o r t l e s s n e s s i n execution...and

i n e x p l i c a b l e elements that

r a i s e the "medium" i n question to the rank o f an a r t i s t i c production"

(Suzuki, 1959:24).

This l a s t c r i t e r i a i s r e f e r r e d t o

as "Yugen", or "profound mystery", the highest a e s t h e t i c i d e a l

35
i n Noh (Harich-Schneider, 1973:424-25).

"Shizen no Kyoku" i s

played in. a manner which i s seemingly improvisatory.:

In es-

sence, the use o f many performance p r a c t i c e elements i s decided

upon a t random, p a r t i c u l a r l y " k i a i " .

A Sabi Honkyoku melody

i s austere ("Shibui") and aloof, often interpreted as l o n e l i ness (Suzuki, 1959:253-57).

For these reasons, Honkyoku do not

lend themselves e a s i l y to audience appreciation;. .

3. Ken-the instantaneous moment of S a t o r i
Ken,

l i t e r a l l y translated, means "sword".

ManjusrT (Mon-

ju), a common Buddhist deity, c a r r i e s a sword i n h i s r i g h t hand

and a sutra i n h i s l e f t , s i g n i f y i n g two d i f f e r e n t kinds o f
knowledge.
cades.

"The mountain flowers are spread out l i k e gold bro-

Here i s Manjusri s t r i k i n g r i g h t i n t o your eyes."

(Suzu-

k i , 1955:199).
Rather than attempt to define or categorize the "inner
meaning" o f "Ken", Lao-tzu has i n d i r e c t l y suggested the best
explanation:
"Those that speak do not know
Those that know do not speak"
Tao Te Ching, Chapter LVI

CHAPTER 2
A History of the Shakuhachi
Any h i s t o r y of Japanese music h i s t o r y i s troubled by
circumstantial evidence, biased c h r o n i c l e s , and large gaps
in chronological information.

This i s p a r t i c u l a r l y true of

the h i s t o r y of the shakuhachi, which suggests a t r a d i t i o n

that extends back to the fourth millennium B.C.

Despite

these a d v e r s i t i e s , a v e r i s i m i l a r h i s t o r y can be constructed

from the meagre f a c t s .
A broad o u t l i n e of the shakuhachi's h i s t o r y i n Japan
shows two periods of a c t i v i t y seperated by several hundred
years of obscurity.

The f i r s t period (7th to 9th centuries)

i s associated with the music o f the Imperial Court, Gagaku,

while the second period (13th century to the present) i s
dominated by the l i v e s of Buddhist mendicants and middleclass aesthetes.
a c t i v i t y was

The prevalent view i s that each period of

i n i t i a t e d by the a r r i v a l of v e r t i c a l f l u t e s from

China, but only the f i r s t importation from T'ang Dynasty

China (618-907) can be s u c c e s s f u l l y accounted f o r .
century v e r t i c a l f l u t e may

The

have been imported from Ming

36

16th

Dynasty China

(1368-1644) o r the "Indonesian" i s l a n d s ,

may have been an i n d i g e n o u s r e n a i s s a n c e .

or i t

A l l three p o s s i b i -

l i t i e s w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n the next few pages.

2:1

Ch'ih-pa

While t h e r e i s no doubt t h a t t h e Gagaku end-blown v e r tical

f l u t e * and i t s Sino-Japanese nomenclature,

"shakuhachi"

came from China, i t s Chinese p r e c u r s o r , the "Ch'ih-pa", i s

surrounded i n t h e same k i n d o f semantic c o n f u s i o n t h a t t h e
l a t e r Japanese shakuhachi endured.

A l t h o u g h C u r t Sachs (1940

178-82) and S y b i l Marcuse (1975:575-77) have attempted t o unr a v e l the t a n g l e o f Chinese v e r t i c a l f l u t e etymology

and o r -

ganology, t h e f o l l o w i n g pages r e l y more h e a v i l y on p r i m a r y

source m a t e r i a l s and a g r e a t e r range o f d e t a i l e d
The h i s t o r i c a l predominance

o f t h e Ch'ih-pa seems t o

be c o n c e n t r a t e d d u r i n g the T*ang Dynasty

appears r a r e l y ,

(618-907).

Tuan A n - c h i e h

i n h i s comprehensive

i t e l u d e s some contemporary

Even

commen-

( c . 890) does n o t mention t h e Ch'ih-pa

music t r e a t i s e Yvieh-fu T s a - l u

1966), and Tanabe (1965-66:1,518) and K i s h i b e

not

The word

i f a t a l l , before or a f t e r t h i s period.

d u r i n g the T'ang Dynasty,

tators.

information.

(Gimm,

(1951:126) d i d

encounter t h i s i n s t r u m e n t i n t h e i r study o f T'ang Dynasty

music s o u r c e s .

38
Even the word i t s e l f i s somewhat of a mystery.
than t r a n s l a t i n g as " v e r t i c a l

Rather

f l u t e " , the Japanese and Chinese

nomenclature l i t e r a l l y means "1.8

feet".

In the European-

language studies of Japanese music, only Tanabe (1959:25) has

suggested a possible explanation i n the form of a c o r r e l a t i o n
between the length of the Ch*ih-pa and the standard length of
the

Huang-chung bamboo tube.

Josango

(1971:7) o f f e r s a source which substantiates

Tanabe's statement and leads to a f u l l explanation of the

c o r r e l a t i o n mentioned above.

L i u Hsu

(887-946) noted i n h i s

records of the T'ang Dynasty, Chiu T'ang Shu

(Liu, 1959:3338),

that Emperor T'ai-tsung ( r . 627-649) commissioned

Lu t s ' a i (Jp.

Rosai) to "retune the Lu Kuan", a task he performed using a

Ch'ih-pa.
The Lu Kuan were bamboo tubes (Kuan) constructed to
sound the twelve standard pitches (Lu) within an octave.
Their construction was a c o u s t i c a l l y determined by a s c i e n t i f i c
process c a l l e d "San-fen Sun-i Fa" (The law of diminution and
augmentation by f r a c t i o n s of a third) which began with a fundamental generating tone c a l l e d "Huang-chung" (Yellow B e l l ) .
This tone was i n i t i a l l y sounded on a bamboo tube of "auspicious" proportions and then "preserved" by tuning a b e l l
(chung) with sympathetic v i b r a t i o n s passed on through a mono2

chord (chu) from the Huang-chung Kuan (Needham and Robinson,

39
1962:173,186,199).
The p i t c h o f the Huang-chung was a subject o f intense
concern because i t s frequency was a symbol of cosmological
sympathy as perceived by the governing authority embodied i n
the person of the emperor.

This t r a d i t i o n stemmed from the

ancient Chinese concept of " c h ' i " which may be c i r c u i t o u s l y

defined as "pneuraatos".
The c h ' i of earth ascends.
The c h ' i of heaven descends;
Yang and Y i n meet,
Heaven and Earth i n t e r a c t
Thus ( i t i s that) music unites the two.
Shih Chi, "Yo Chi (3),
adapted from Needham
and Robinson, 1962:205.
In ancient times the p r e - h i s t o r i c shamans (Wu)

and

l a t e r Taoist sages used t h e i r r e s p i r a t o r y f a c u l t i e s as metap h y s i c a l "barometers" of the omnipresent c h ' i by blowing

into a v e r t i c a l f l u t e .

I f t h e i r "wind"

(Feng, i . e

personal

ch'i) was " i n tune" with the environmental c h ' i they would
produce the r i g h t "sound"

(Ko).

The assumption i n t h i s equa-

t i o n i s that the dimensions of the Kuan were "auspicious"

(i.e., c o r r e c t ) .

When the Ko (i.e., pitch) became i d e n t i f i e d

as the imperial "Huang-chung" during the f i r s t millennium

B.C.,

the Kuan's dimensions became p a r t i c u l a r l y c r i t i c a l .

The f i r s t descriptions of the dimensions of the Huang-

chung Kuan date from the Ch'in and Han Dynasties (221

B.C.-

40
220 A.D.)

but for some unknown reason, only the length

discussed

(see Needham and Robinson, 1962:212-13).

complete discussion i s found i n the Ch'ien Han

was

The most

Shu by Pan

Ku

(c. 32-92 A.D.), where i t i s recorded that i t s length i s .9

feet ( c h ' i h )
1,276).

and i t s volume equals 1 "Yo"

The Yo was

(Dubs, 1938-44:

a standard volume that could be

by a s p e c i f i c number of m i l l e t seeds, and i t was

occupied

a l s o an

ab-

s t r a c t form of pre-dynastic v e r t i c a l f l u t e of the same name.

The Yo v e r t i c a l f l u t e

(also pronounced Yuen) has been

i d e n t i f i e d as one of the e a r l i e s t instruments

i n Chinese music

h i s t o r y , dating from the mythical Hsia Dynasty (2205-1766

See Legge, 1885:11,274) and even e a r l i e r

(ibid.,

By the time of the Chou Dynasty (1027-249 B.C.)

a music instrument was
chung generator.

B.C.

II,35-36).

i t s r o l e as

superceded by i t s function as a Huang-

The Shin Ching (Karlgren, 1950:24-25,161)

and L i Chi (Couvreur, 1950:112,387;II:2,59) describe the Yo

as a dancer's accoutrement i n the Dance of Peace (Wen

Wu)

sym-

bolozing p o l i t i c a l s t a b i l i t y , imperial authority, and cosmol o g i c a l sympathy i n the form of the o f f i c i a l Huang-chung Kuan.
The Wen

Wu dance and i t s paraphenalia survived i n t o China's

recent past ( c f . Van A a l s t , 1884:31-33) allowing us to c l e a r l y

5
i d e n t i f y the Yo as an abstract form of a v e r t i c a l f l u t e .
Suggesting

that the Yo became abstracted does not lead

to the conclusion that the v e r t i c a l f l u t e as a music

instrument

41
became e x t i n c t during the Chou Dynasty.

Two passages i n the

L i C h i i n d i c a t e that another f l u t e c a l l e d "Kuan" was paired

with the Yo when discussing dance accoutrements

(Couvreur,

1950:11:2,384-85) and accompaniments ( i b i d . . 11:2,59).

Con-

temporary Kuan, also c a l l e d Pi>-li (Jp. H i c h i r i k i ) , are s i n g l e ,

v e r t i c a l bamboo tubes with double reeds inserted i n one end
and finger-holes placed along the length of the body. A l though there may appear to be an organological and semantic
contradiction between the L i Chi Kuan ( v e r t i c a l , f l u t e aerophone with finger-holes, S-H 421.111.12), contemporary Kuan
( v e r t i c a l , double-reed aerophone with finger-holes, S-H 422.
111.2) and the Lu Kuan ( v e r t i c a l , f l u t e aerophone without
finger-holes, S-H 421.111.11), a r e s o l u t i o n i s e a s i l y
by re-defining "Kuan".

attained

(It should be noted that a l l three

Kuan are indicated with the same Chinese character.)

The beginnings of a new d e f i n i t i o n of "Kuan" are hinted
at i n a c l a s s i c i l l u s t r a t i o n o f a T'ang Dynasty court orchestra
comprised o f females

(see Rowley, 1969).

Seven o f the orches-

t r a ' s eight p a i r s o f instruments are i d e n t i c a l , but the anomalous p a i r i s comprised o f a v e r t i c a l , double-reed instrument
and a v e r t i c a l f l u t e instrument

( c f i Kishibe, 1965:116,fn.15).

Obviously, the p a i r i n g o f these instruments i s j u s t i f i e d i n

the fact that they are both v e r t i c a l , end-blown instruments
made from a s i n g l e tube o f bamboo.

42
Further study o f the Kuan shows that the Kuan music
instrument mentioned i n the Chou Dynasty annals was e x c l u s i v e l y a f l u t e aerophone.

In the Shih C h i (Karlgren, 1950:

245-46) and L i Chi (Couvreur, 1950:1:1,360;II:1,76,91-93)

the Kuan i s paired with the "Hsiao" i n enumerations o f i n strument p a i r s .

Because these p a i r i n g s are according to

s i z e (e.g., large and small mouth organ, Yu and Sheng; large

A
and small z i t h e r , Se and Ch'in) one may s a f e l y assume that
Kuan and Hsiao are small and large v a r i e t i e s o f the same
instrument.

However, the nature o f the instrument i s open

to two i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s .
The

f i r s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s the more t r a d i t i o n a l .

There i s ample evidence dating from the Han Dynasty and

e a r l i e r showing that the Hsiao were panpipes (i.e., several
v e r t i c a l f l u t e s arranged i n sequence and joined together).
Assuming that the Kuan and Hsiao are a p a i r , t h i s substant i a t e s the theory that the e a r l y Kuan were the f l u t e
but i t also suggests that Kuan were panpipes.

type,

There are many

casual references to the fact that Hsiao had 16 to 24 pipes

(Couvreur, 1950:11:1,76) and the Kuan had two pipes

(Needham

and Robinson, 1962:136,152) but a contemporary reference i n

the Chou-Li (Biot, 1851:11,34 and Chou L i , 1936:Ch.22,p.6)
c l e a r l y states that the Kuan was a s i n g l e tube.

Further i n -

v e s t i g a t i o n reveals that Kuan were t r a d i t i o n a l l y thought o f

43
as paired, single f l u t e s r e l a t e d according t o the a c o u s t i c a l
p r i n c i p l e of "San-fen Sun-i Fa". Each "superior" (Yang) Kuan
could generate an " i n f e r i o r "
and Robinson, 1962:173).

(Yin) Kuan or "Thung" (Needham

This d u a l i t y i s r e f l e c t e d i n the ex-

pression " f i v e sheng (pentatonic s c a l e ) , s i x Lii (superior p i t ches), 12 Kuan (12 pipes/notes)" (see Needham and Robinson,
1962:139).
A second, l e s s t r a d i t i o n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n could be that
the Chou Dynasty Kuan and Hsiao were small and large v e r t i c a l
f l u t e s which became grouped into double and multiple panpipes
by the time o f the Han Dynasty.

In contemporary Chinese par-

lance, the word "Hsiao" means v e r t i c a l f l u t e , while c l a r i f i cation of t h i s term i s offered i n the dual nomenclatures
"Tung; Hsiao" ( v e r t i c a l f l u t e ) and "P'ai Hsiao" (panpipes).
Therefore, Kuan may be defined as an end-blown, v e r t i c a l
bamboo wind instrument.

In the Chou Dynasty i t was a f l u t e

aerophone that existed i n two forms, without finger-holes

(i.e.,

Lii Kuan) and with finger-holes ( i . e . , music instrument, as i n

"Yo and Kuan" and "Kuan- and Hsiao").

Both Kuan types were

combined i n the form of the "Yo" (a s p e c i a l Lu Kuan, "Huangchung Kuan", which was also a music instrument).

The double-

reed Kuan has a foreign name, " P i - l i " , which could be i n t e r preted as a melding of the e a r l y Kuan construction with an
imported sounding-device ( i . e . , a double-reed.

See Garfias,

44

1965:Table 1 ) .

During the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-220 A.D.), China's

expansive mood generated an intense amount of scholarship
and c r e a t i v e a c t i v i t y fed by new contacts with Western,
"foreign" cultures introduced v i a the newly-developed
road".

"silk

One o f the many a c t i v i t i e s i n i t i a t e d by t h i s c u l t u r a l

effluence was the re-establishment of the Imperial Huangchung, neglected during the d i s s o l u t i o n of the Chou Dynasty.
According to the author of Feng-su-t'ung (Ying Shao, c. 178
B.C.), Ch'iu Chung designed a f l u t e he c a l l e d " T i " and which
seemed to have functioned i n the same dual r o l e as the Chou
Dynasty Yo.

During the Liang Dynasty (502-557), the T i be-

came synonymous with a l l the Lu Kuan (see T'ung Tien by Tu

Yu, 1935:746).

The Chinese character f o r T i i s a combination

of "bamboo" ( t t , i . e . bamboo tube) and "source, median, mean"

(^).

I t s synonym, " T i " (also "Chn"

), i s a combination o f

"bamboo" and "purge or cleanse" suggesting that the T i was

introduced to c l a r i f y and e s t a b l i s h the "true" p i t c h of the
Lu Kuan, e s p e c i a l l y the Huang-chung. The founding of the word
" T i " was probably necessitated by the fact that the o r i g i n a l
word f o r "Huang-chung/music instrument" Kuan, "Yo", had l o s t
i t s i n i t i a l meaning and had become a designate f o r a standard
measure of volume and length (see Dubs, 1938-44:1,276-79).

45
Unfortunately, confusion a r i s e s from another meaning
of " T i " which i s " h o r i z o n t a l f l u t e " .

This d e f i n i t i o n even-

t u a l l y became exclusive with the r e s u l t that Chinese t r a n s verse f l u t e s are now

generally c a l l e d T i , while v e r t i c a l

f l u t e s are r e f e r r e d to by another name, Tung Hsiao.

I sus-

pect that during the Han Dynasty, a transverse f l u t e newly

imported i n t o China (see Gimm, 1966:427) and the newly designed v e r t i c a l f l u t e became associated and named a l i k e

by

v i r t u e of the fact that they were both single-tube, f l u t e

aerophones.
A f t e r the Han Dynasty, v e r t i c a l f l u t e s could be generall y r e f e r r e d to as "Kuan" ( v e r t i c a l , single-tube aerophone),
"Hsiao"

( v e r t i c a l , f l u t e aerophone) or " T i " ( f l u t e aerophone),

but they d i d not have an a l l - i n c l u s i v e ( i . e . , exclusive)

no-

menclature ( i . e . , a term which meant v e r t i c a l , single-tube,

f l u t e aerophone).
By the time o f the T'ang Dynasty (618-907), the three
synonyms f o r v e r t i c a l f l u t e had become completely
"Kuan" became an exclusive synonym for " P i - l i " ,
ferred to "panpipes", and

diffuse.

"Hsiao"

re-

T i " meant transverse f l u t e even

though two of i t s three q u a l i f y i n g adjectives suggested the

meaning of v e r t i c a l f l u t e :
Lung-ti (Jp. Ryu-teki)

a f l u t e with a dragon's

head carved on the mouthpiece symbolizing

the

o f f i c e of the emperor;'
Huang-ti (Jp. O-teki)

a f l u t e which, sounds the

Huang-chung;
Heng-ti (Jp. O-teki)

a transverse Huang-chung

flute.
The nomenclatures that were eventually adopted f o r vert i c a l f l u t e s were "Tung Hsiao" and "Ch'ih-pa".

Organological-

l y the d u a l i t y of the terms probably stems from the d i f f e r e n c e

in- t h e i r mouth-piece construction:

The Tung Hsiao has a

covering over the mouthpiece with a small opening over the

blowing edge which l i m i t s the tonal f l e x i b i l i t y o f the i n s t r u ment ( l i k e a pipe i n a P'ai Hsiao), while the Ch'ih-pa resembles the Japanese Shakuhachi i n i t s open-throated mouthpiece,
allowing complete tonal

flexibility.

Semantically, the Ch'ih-pa seems d i r e c t l y related to the

Han Dynasty T i and Chou Dynasty Yo

As mentioned e a r l i e r , the

Ch'ih-pa was used by Lii t s ' a i to re-tune the Lii Kuan, a r o l e

strongly reminiscent o f Ch'iu Chung's T i . The t r a n s l a t i o n o f
Ch'ih-pa, "1.8 feet", i s probably a reference to the c r i t i c a l
length that i s required f o r the "correct" Huang-chung Kuan,
an obligatory element i n the d e f i n i t i o n s of " T i " and "Yo".

A f t e r the T'ang Dynasty, the term "Tung Hsiao" seems

to have been generalized to include a l l v e r t i c a l f l u t e s , i n cluding those o r i g i n a l l y referred to as "Ch'ih-pa".

Even the

47
Tung H s i a o i n s t r u m e n t seems t o have o v e r - t a k e n t h e Ch* i h - p a
i n nation-wide p o p u l a r i t y w i t h one important e x c e p t i o n .

The

s o u t h e r n c o a s t a l c i t y o f Amoy ( i n F u k i e n P r o v i n c e ) r e t a i n e d
many T'ang and Sung Dynasty

t r a d i t i o n s which had m i g r a t e d

south t o a v o i d t h e Mongol i n v a s i o n s o f t h e 1 3 t h and 1 4 t h c e n turies

(see Lieberman,

1971:1).

One o f these t r a d i t i o n s was

o r c h e s t r a l music c a l l e d "Nan-Kuan" (named a f t e r t h e "Southern

Kuan" [see Notes, Ch.2:10]) which i n c l u d e d a Ch'ih-pa
now c a l l e d "Tung H s i a o " .

In t h e next pages,

flute

I w i l l show t h a t

t h i s instrument may have had an important r o l e i n t h e d e v e l o p ment o f t h e Japanese

2:2

Indigenous

shakuhachi.

Flutes

E v i d e n c e f o r an i n d i g e n o u s v e r t i c a l

f l u t e t h a t may have

c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e development o f the shakuhachi

not n o n - e x i s t e n t .

i s scant, i f

A l t h o u g h Tanabe (1963:18) p r e s e n t s t h e con-

t r o v e r s i a l f l u t e h e l d by a Haniwa f i g u r e from t h e Japanese T u m u l i P e r i o d (3rd t o 7 t h c e n t u r y A.D.), i t i s most l i k e l y an

Ishibue

("Stone f l u t e " )

a stone o c a r i n a o r w h i s t l e .

Second, a Kagura genre c a l l e d "Azuma A s o b i " , e n t e r t a i n

ment music

from t h e i n d i g e n o u s Japanese

"barbarians" o f the

e a s t e r n p r o v i n c e s ( a n c i e n t Azuma, now A i c h i and S h i z u o k a

f e c t u r e s ) , employed a "Chukuan"
more common t o v e r t i c a l

( m i d d l e - s i z e d Kuan)

f l u t e s than t r a n s v e r s e f l u t e s

Pre-

a term
(usually

48
c a l l e d " t e k i " or "bue").

The "discovery" of t h i s music i n the

8th century by the more s o p h i s t i c a t e d Yamato Clan of the western provinces was

followed by a peak of p o p u l a r i t y i n the

10th century, and then a rapid d e c l i n e .

By the Muromachi

Period (1333-1573) the Chukwan had become unknown "and i n

performances of Azuma Asobi i t i s replaced by the Koma-bue
(the nearest i n s i z e ) " according to an entry i n the 16th
tury Gagaku encyclopedia Taiqensho (Harich-Schneider,
392-93).

Since then, no new

cen-

1973:

information has come to l i g h t .

The "Yamato-bue" ("ancient Japanese f l u t e " ) has been

associated with the Wagon i n Kagura (music to accompany Japan's
indigenous Shinto f a i t h and i t s ceremonies) since the Yamato
Period (400-645).

Emperor Sui Wen-ti (581-604) of the Sui

Dynasty (581-618) was

informed of these two instruments by the

f i r s t envoy sent from Japan some time between 581 and

(Theodore de Bary,et a l . , 1958:9).

600

However, the Yamato-bue

i s transverse and i t i s generally considered to be an e a r l y

importation from Korea (Harich-Schneider, 1973:10,12).
Another transverse f l u t e which i s t r a d i t i o n a l l y considered indigenous i s the instrument played by En no Gyoja
(634-707), the patron saint of Japan's mendicant Buddhists
and the founder of the Yamabushi.

This legend i s t o l d i n a

Gagaku dance c a l l e d Somakusha, but recent research (see HarichSchneider, 1973:163,fn.58) has found the o r i g i n s of t h i s dance

49
and legend i n Central A s i a v i a the imported entertainment of
T'ang Dynasty

China.

A l l the a v a i l a b l e evidence to date seems to support

Harich-Schneider's conclusion (ibid.., 1973:12) that f l u t e s ,
v e r t i c a l or otherwise, were scarcely indigenous to Japan, i f
at a l l .

2:3

Gagaku Shakuhachi
During the Yamato Period (400-645) China was

the w e l l -

spring of Japan's p r o l i f i c c u l t u r a l naissance e i t h e r d i r e c t l y

or through Korean intermediaries.

Music, no l e s s than any

other a r t or science, fascinated the Japanese from i t s f i r s t

o f f i c i a l reception i n 453 A.D.

(Garfias, 1975:7) to the end

of the Konin Period (794-894) when the l a s t o f f i c i a l ambassad o r i a l v i s i t to China was cancelled (Reischauer and Fairbank,
1958:506-507).

This bridge of exchange was not re-opened

un-

t i l the E a r l y Muromachi Period (1336-1477) v i s - a - v i s the Ming

Dynasty

(1368-1644) although there were f u r t i v e v i s i t s by

merchants and p i r a t e s

( i b i d . , 560-61) whenever China's turbu-

l e n t era under the Mongols would allow i t .

Therefore, Japan's

early h i s t o r y f a l l s into two periods i n which the f i r s t i s

signaled by wholesale importation of Chinese culture followed
by a long period of respite during which the Chinese influences

50
are assimilated before contact i s resumed.
In 701 A.D.,

the Japanese court founded the Gagaku-ryo

("Office of Gagaku") i n order to organize and codify the

wealth of music coming from the T'ang Dynasty centres of
music.

I t i s i n t h i s f r e n e t i c and exuberant m i l i e u that the

"Ch'ih-pa"

a r r i v e d to become the Japanese "Shakuhachi" i n

the Imperial Court Orchestra, Gagaku.

2:3:1

E a r l y Gagaku Shakuhachi (7th-8th Centuries)

The e a r l i e s t known references to the shakuhachi

are as-

sociated with Buddhist temples because they were the centre

of Japan's new
activities.

r e l i g i o u s celebrations and concomitant

court

Because many of these celebrations were unique

events, many of these temples would immortalize t h e i r c e l e b r a tions by r e t a i n i n g a l l the costumes, implements

(including

music instruments), and records for future p o s t e r i t y .

Judging

by the a v a i l a b l e material, t h e i r foresight has been amply j u s tified.

Seventh century evidence of the shakuhachi's

presence

i s associated with Horyu-ji temple, founded i n 607 and most

active during the Asuka (552-645) and Hakuho (645-710) Periods
as a f o c a l point f o r Japan's early Buddhist devotions.
i t s confines are one extant shakuhachi

Within

(Tanabe, 1964:285-86)

51
and a small, sculptured "angel" (Tennin) playing a shakuhachi.
The l a t t e r i s one of a group of s i x heavenly musicians (Akiyama, 1966:v.2,pi.10 and p.186) placed on a canopy above the
"Shaka Triad" i n the main h a l l
from the Hakuho Period.

(Kondo) and probably dating

The extant shakuhachi i s one of

several extant instruments stored i n the Treasure-house

(Hoko)

of Horyu-ji.
During the eighth century the c a p i t a l moved to Nara,
where i t became the r e c i p i e n t of the majority of the Chinese
importations.

Not s u r p r i s i n g l y , the evidence f o r the e x i s -

tence of the Gagaku shakuhachi i s strongest i n t h i s century.

The most extensive proof comes from the Shoso-in which
i s the treasure-house connected to the T o d a i - j i temple,

the

Nara Period (710-794) equivalent of the e a r l i e r H o r y u - j i .

The extant evidence i s i n the form of eight shakuhachi, four
of. which- are. a c t u a l l y catalogued i n the contemporary Shosoi n catalogue, Kemmotsucho (see Harich-Schneider, 1973:59? Josango, 1971:7).
in Office

They have been amply described by the Shoso-

(1967) and many commentators (e.g., Harich-Schneider,

1973:59-61), so they need not occupy us here.

The Shoso-in also has a number of i l l u s t r a t i o n s of shakuhachi drawn on various objects within i t s c o l l e c t i o n .
famous Dankyu Bow

On the

(Shoso-in O f f i c e , 1967:pls.192-99; Harich-

Schneider, 1973:55-58) are line-drawings of two

shakuhachi

52
players, one standing and one s i t t i n g , and a b u c o l i c scene
painted on a biwa kambachi (plectrum guard) contains a young
man playing e i t h e r an extra-long h i c h i r i k i

( o - h i c h i r i k i ? ) or

a shakuhachi (Shoso-in O f f i c e , 1967:pls.8,182) .

Another iconographic source r e l a t e d to the T o d a i - j i i s
an eight-sided bronze lamp b u i l t i n c. 752 i n front o f the
enormous temple.

On four o f i t s sides are "musical bodhisattva"

(i.e., buddhist " s a i n t s " ) , one of whom i s p l a y i n g a shakuhachi.*

(The other three are playing ryuteki, "sho" fmouth organ], and
"hachi" ([small cymbals] .)
Two contemporary

catalogues document the existence o f

the shakuhachi i n various contexts.

The inventory l i s t o f the

S a i d a i - j i temple, S a i d a i - j i Shizaicho (780) includes one madaradake (mottled bamboo) shakuhachi f o r a l a t e T'ang ensemble
and eight shakuhachi f o r e a r l y T'ang ensembles ( c f . Garfias,
1965:40,Table 2).
Council"

Another catalogue, compiled by a "Grand

(Daijokan) and l a b e l l e d

Daijokanpu

(809), l i s t s

twelve "Togakushi" (masters o f Togaku music) i n c l u d i n g a "Shakuhachi-shi"

(Josango, 1971:7).

F i n a l l y , a 12th century document, the S h i n z e i Kogaku Zu,

i s reputed to be a c o l l e c t i o n o f drawings and anecdotes from
Nara and e a r l y Heian times i l l u s t r a t i n g the many facets o f
contemporary Gagaku (Harich-Schneider, 1973:142-81; Garfias,
1975:fig.26-52).

Line-drawings of a s o l i t a r y shakuhachi p l a y e r

53
(copied from the Dankyu Bow?) and a procession of musicians
performing Rinyu-Gaku which includes a shakuhachi p l a y e r add
more evidence to the hypothesis that the shakuhachi was

active

during the 7th and 8th centuries.

2:3:2

Heian Gagaku Shakuhachi

(9th-10th Centuries)

During the Heian Period (794-1185) the Japanese began

the a s s i m i l a t i o n and adaption of imported Chinese c u l t u r e to
s u i t t h e i r own national character.
process was an anethema.

For the shakuhachi t h i s

References to the instrument are so

rare that one can only assume that i t d i d not survive the c u l t u r a l metamorphoses.
A document from the 12th century, Ryumeisho (1133), cont a i n s a b r i e f anecdote s t a t i n g that Sadayasu Shinno
one of the sons of Emperor Seiwa

(870-924),

(r. 858-876) and a famous

ryuteki (transverse f l u t e ) musician, attempted to revive the

shakuhachi part to the Togaku Kangen composition, "Oshokun"
(Josango, 1971:8).**

Considering the time-gap between the

anecdote and the actual event, and the fact that t h i s anecdote
does not appear i n the other Ryuteki manuals written before
the Ryumeisho, t h i s curious piece of information i s not above
suspicion.
The author of the 10th century d i c t i o n a r y Wa Myo

Ruiju

54
Sho, Minamoto no Shitagu, l i s t s the shakuhachi among r e l a t e d
"oddities",

1 2

the "Yaku" ("a six-hole f l u t e " ) ,

"Cho-teki"

(long f l u t e ) , "Chukwan" (middle-size f l u t e , see 2:2)

teki"

(short f l u t e , c f . Harich-Schneider,

Taigensho entry f o r Chukwan).

and

"Tan-

1973:392-93, r e :

The entry f o r shakuhachi sim-

p l y states that i t i s opposite to the Tan-teki (Minamoto,

1968:v.l,p.289,595).
Murasaki Shikibu, a c o u r t i e r and n o v e l i s t w r i t i n g i n the
f i r s t years of the 11th century, vaguely mentions a

"sakuhachi

(sic) no t e k i " i n her u s u a l l y p u n c t i l i o u s n a r r a t i v e , Genji

Monogatari ("Safflower",

ch.6,

see Josango, 1971:8).

13

Her

obtuse reference most l i k e l y stemmed from i t s r a r i t y .

Koma no Asakuzu noted i n h i s Gagaku encyclopedia ZokuKyokunsho (1270) that i n 1158

a party was held i n a nobleman's

house at which the shakuhachi was played, no doubt as a c u r i o sity.

" I t i s c e r t a i n that i n those l a s t days of Heian, the

a r i s t o c r a t i c s surrounding the i l l - s t a r r e d Goshirakawa (r. 11551158)

must have attained a rare a r t i s t i c p e r f e c t i o n , before

Heian f e l l "

(Harich-Schneider, 1973:272).

The r e v i v a l of the

shakuhachi probably played a part i n t h i s c u l t u r a l effluence

as a n o s t a l g i c reminder of greater times.
These few anecdotes convey the fact that the shakuhachi
had become v i r t u a l l y obsolete i n the Heian Period.

On the other

hand, the " r y u t e k i " (also " o t e k i " and "yokobue") transverse

55
f l u t e had become extremely popular.

According to the Sandai-

Jitsuroku, one of the f i r s t great ryuteki performers was

no Kiyogami (nee Seijo, f l . 833-850) who

Oto

t r a v e l l e d to China

(and died on the return voyage) i n order to receive advance

i n s t r u c t i o n i n the T'ang f l u t e

(Harich-Schneider, 1973:102).

Seijo i s the f i r s t name i n a t r a d i t i o n of d i s t i n g u i s h e d noblemen,

mainly from the Minamoto clan who pursued the technique

of the r y u t e k i .

From the 11th century onwards, Gakunin (pro-

f e s s i o n a l musicians of Gagaku) from the Oga clan i n h e r i t e d

the reputation of s k i l l e d f l u t i s t s .
a c t i v i t y was

The r e s u l t of a l l t h i s

a number of extensive w r i t i n g s i n the ryuteki and

related subjects (Harich-Schneider, 1973:191-212,253-263,274):

Nanchiku-fu by Sadayasu Shinno (870-924)
Chochiku-fu by Minamoto no Hakuga

not extant;

(918-80);

Kaichikusho by Oga no Koresue (1026-94);

Ryumeisho by Oga no Motomasa (1077-1138).
In conclusion, i t would seem that the transverse f l u t e
completely over-shadowed the shakuhachi when Gagaku and i t s
instrumentarium became a s s i m i l a t e d and adopted by the Heian
aesthetes.

No doubt the extensive t r a d i t i o n of the imported

Chinese Lung-ti (Ryuteki) coupled with the early Japanese

penchant f o r "wagon" and " t e k i " mentioned e a r l i e r (see
combined to e s t a b l i s h t h i s preference.
Heian court the transverse f l u t e was

2:2)

A f t e r the f a l l of the

adopted by such diverse

56
concerns as Buddhist temples

(as tuning standards, see Harich-

Schneider, 1973:317,327) and folk ensembles (called "Hayashi",

see i b i d . , 254,414).

Certain echoes o f the c o u r t l y transverse

f l u t e t r a d i t i o n also may have found i t s way i n t o the l a t e r

shakuhachi t r a d i t i o n , as w i l l be shown i n Chapter 4 (see 4:1:2).

2:4

Medieval Shakuhachi
Between the period o f the Gagaku shakuhachi and the ad-

vent o f the Komuso shakuhachi l i e s several hundred years o f

clouded h i s t o r y concerning v e r t i c a l f l u t e s .

The period under

discussion i s concomitant with the Kamakura (1185-1333) and

Muromachi (1333-1573) Eras during which time Japan progressed
through p a i n f u l and d i s r u p t i v e changes from a monarchical to
a feudal s o c i e t y .

Not s u r p r i s i n g l y , music i n general r e f l e c t e d

these changes so much that o l d forms disappeared or mutated

while new genres appeared i n t r a n s i e n t and rapidly.changing
forms.

E s s e n t i a l l y , the c h r o n i c l e r s of Japanese a r t music

found the o l d Heian court music i n acstate o f attenuation,

while the music o f the new m i l i t a r y c l a s s , Nohgaku, and the
popular entertainments of the emerging merchant o f "middle"
c l a s captured t h e i r a t t e n t i o n .
Some o f the confusion surrounding the shakuhachi's h i s tory stems from i t s name.

O r i g i n a l l y , the word "shakuhachi"

(Ch. "Ch'ih-pa") was a s p e c i f i c denotation f o r the imported

Gagaku v e r t i c a l f l u t e , but i t s l a t e r meaning became generalized by Imperial c h r o n i c l e r s describing plebian v e r t i c a l
long a f t e r the Gagaku instrument became e x t i n c t .

flutes

When the

names of these l a t t e r f l u t e s f i n a l l y became acknowledged (i.e.,

"Tenpuku" and " H i t o y o g i r i " ) the term "shakuhachi" disappeared
u n t i l the advent of the Komuso who named t h e i r v e r t i c a l
"shakuhachi".

flute

I t i s t h i s f i n a l denotation which has come down

to us i n the present and which b e l i e s an h i s t o r i c a l c o n t i n u i t y

dating from the 7th century.
The most important d i s t i n c t i o n between the Gagaku Shakuhachi and Medieval Shakuhachi i s that the former was constructed with s i x holes (sounding the Chinese Ryo mode i n the manner of the Chinese Ch* ih-pa) while the l a t t e r was b u i l t with
5 holes, placed to sound the indigenous Japanese music scale
(Ritsu/Yo mode).

This t r a d i t i o n has remained unchanged to the

present.

2:4:1

Komo-so* Shakuhachi
Throughout

the h i s t o r y of Japan since i t s f i r s t contact

with China, there has always been a maverick c l a s s of Japanese,

the Buddhist mendicants.

Their o r i g i n s may be roughly traced

to the 7th and 8th centuries when r u r a l shamanism, l o o s e l y

58
associated with indigenous Shintoism, melded with Buddhism
to
did

create the "Ubasoku-zenji"

(Buddhist laymen masters).

They

not constitute one coherent c l a s s but instead were a l i k e

only i n t h e i r quasi-Buddhist shamanism (Kitagawa, 1966:38-45).

En no Gyoja, mentioned e a r l i e r (see 2:2), was t h e i r u n o f f i c i a l
patron s a i n t .
During the Kamakura Period, when Japan was embroiled i n
constant c i v i l wars and people's l i v e s were constantly d i s rupted, the number of wandering a s c e t i c s increased dramatically,

d e c l a r i n g the a r r i v a l of "Mappo", (the t h i r d Buddhist

cycle when the Buddha's teachings, and consequently the world,

w i l l end), and paths to s a l v a t i o n .

At t h i s time, the mendi-

cants were c a l l e d "shonin" or " h i j i r i " ,

(the l a t t e r being a

development within the Shingon Sect) and they had abandoned

shaman p r a c t i c e s some time e a r l i e r .
Watanabe (1970:35-37) has only the highest regard f o r
the "popular r e l i g i o n i s t s " but the author of the fourteenth
century Tsurezuregusa
h i j i r i or "boroboro"

(Essays i n Idleness) speaks of the

(men o f rags) i n a contemptuous tone

(Keene, 1967:66,98-99).

Remnants of t h i s t r a d i t i o n

e x i s t i n the form of "Yamabushi", or Men of the

still

Mountains.

Prom the very beginning, the biwa played by b l i n d

(Budd-

h i s t ) p r i e s t s (Mo-so) was a major element i n the ubasoku t r a dition.

The o r i g i n s of t h i s genre are unknown,

although

59
Haniwa figurines show that the biwa was extant i n Japan's
p r o t o h i s t o r i c a l period and chronicles such as the Koj i k i
indicate kami (gods), emperors, and noblemen o c c a s i o n a l l y
used s t r i n g instruments during t h e i r shamanistic a c t i v i t i e s .
During the Heian Period the Moso were l o o s e l y organized i n t o
a g u i l d (be) and informally aligned with the Tendai Buddhist
sect, but t h e i r basic roles as mendicants remained

largely

undisturbed.
At f i r s t t h e i r music only consisted of sutra r e c i t a t i o n s with b r i e f interludes played on the biwa.
reason, pre-reforra Buddhist chant

For t h i s

(bombai) figures

prominant-

l y i n t h e i r musical background, although accounts of t h e i r

r e c i t a t i o n s described them as mystical incantations strongly
reminiscent of resident Shinto shrine shamans (Mikanko) and
t h e i r Imperial predecessors (Malm, 1959:42-43).

When the

shonin and p o p u l i s t Buddhist sects increased t h e i r a c t i v i t y

during the v i o l e n t Kamakura period, the Moso created unique
v e h i c l e s f o r t h e i r eschatology i n the form of

"Sekkyo-bushi",

Buddhist b a l l a d dramas, and "Saemon", Buddhist song-sermons.

The most important of these narratives was the Heike -monogatari which evolved i n t o i t s own genre, the Heike -biwa.
Their shaman a c t i v i t i e s were completely replaced by t h e i r
evangelism.
The succeeding Muromachi Period saw the development of

60

a group o f ubasoku musicians who

the Kamakura Mo-so.
priests,

fashioned themselves a f t e r

The "Komo-so", straw-mat (i.e., mendicant)

adopted the v e r t i c a l f l u t e as a r i t u a l instrument f o r

t h e i r "takuhatsu", r e l i g i o u s alms-taking.
not

seem to have lasted beyond 1600

Their movement does

(the beginning of the Edo

Period) and contemporary references to them are scarce.

Per-

haps the f i r s t mention of t h e i r existence i s i n the Sanjuniban

Shokunin Uta-awase (c. 1537) which contains a s l i g h t l y d i s 14
paraging "Waka" ( 3 l - s y l l a b l e poem) about "Komo no Shakuhachi"
(Josango, 1971:9).

Within f i f t y years the Komo-so were d i s -

placed by samurai and chonin (bourgeoisie) who

adopted the

v e r t i c a l f l u t e as a medium o f expression and entertainment.

The reasons f o r t h i s turn of events and the shakuhachi*s rapid
r i s e through Japan's s o c i a l classes w i l l be explained presently.
The renaissance of the shakuhachi i n the hands o f the
Komo-so has provoked a considerable amount of discussion about
i t s origins.

I t i s generally accepted that the Medieval Shaku-

hachi does not have a d i r e c t lineage to the Gagaku Shakuhachi

and that i t was re-introduced from China some time i n the 15th
century.
Impetus f o r the re-introduction theory stems from the
legend of R5an, a Chinese migrant who emigrated to Japan i n
the Bummei Era (1469-86) and s e t t l e d i n U j i (just outside
Kyoto) where he b u i l t a temple which he c a l l e d Kyuko-an.

It

61
i s s a i d that he introduced the v e r t i c a l f l u t e which was to
become named the " H i t o y o g i r i "

(single-section bamboo cut

shakuhachi) one hundred years l a t e r .

Kinko I i s supposed to

have acquired four Honkyoku (see Tanaka, 1956:303-304) nearly

250 years l a t e r , and another legend has i t that Pao Fu

(Hofuku),

the f i r s t master of the Kinsen branch of the Kinko-ryu,

founded

a hermitage i n U j i some 200 years e a r l i e r than Roan.

Whatever

the a u t h e n t i c i t y of these legends, i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g that U j i

should be the common f o c a l point.
Tanabe (1954:218) says that according to t r a d i t i o n ,
Roan may have o r i g i n a l l y come from Foochow, a c i t y i n Fukien
Province.

In a l a t e r book, Tanabe (1959:36) o f f e r s another

clue by saying that "In 1392,

the f i r s t r u l e r of Ming Dynasty

China dispatched 36 families of the province of Fukien to the

Ryukyu Islands to make the islanders conform to the manners
of China."

(At that time the Chinese introduced the "San-

hsien" which was to emigrate to Japan i n the 16th century to

become the "Shamisen".),

The Ryukyu Islands became a major

trading l i n k between the newly formed Ming Dynasty i n China

(1368-1644) and the expansive Ashikaga Shogunate (1336-1477,
see Reischauer and Fairbank, 1958:331).

Malm (1975) has o f -

ferred a f a s c i n a t i n g glimpse of music exchange between China

and Japan v i a Korean and Ryukuan intermediaries during the
Edo Period (1600-1828) but the preceding 150 years have not

62
been w e l l documented.

N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t would seem e n t i r e l y

p o s s i b l e t h a t the v e r t i c a l f l u t e d i d f i n d i t s way t o Japan

d u r i n g t h e 1 5 t h c e n t u r y when c o n t a c t between C h i n a and Japan
reached t h e same i n t e n s i t y as i t had some seven hundred y e a r s
earlier.
Tanabe (1954:218) c l a i m s t h a t the 15th c e n t u r y

vertical

f l u t e p r o b a b l y came t o F u k i e n P r o v i n c e from Indo-China**

(e.g.,

the T h a i " k h l u i " ) o r even " Indonesia** where t h e A r a b i a n "nay"

was p r o b a b l y i n t r o d u c e d d u r i n g the Moslem i n c u r s i o n s (13th15th

c e n t u r i e s ) t o become t h e Indonesian

" s u l i n g " H e

may

have come t o t h i s c o n c l u s i o n , r a t h e r than s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e

shakuhachi

o r i g i n a t e d w i t h t h e n a t i v e Chinese Tung H s i a o , b e -

cause t h e Tung H s i a o and Shakuhachi a r e so d i s s i m i l a r .

How-

ever, r e c e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n s have r e v e a l e d t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e
Amoy Tung H s i a o which i s v e r y s i m i l a r t o t h e shakuhachi and
which i s p r o b a b l y r e l a t e d t o the T'ang Dynasty Ch'ih-pa (see
2:1).

Amoy i s a major c i t y i n Fukien P r o v i n c e .

In c o n t r a d i s t i n c t i o n t o t h e t h e o r y o f i m p o r t a t i o n i s an

indigenous t h e o r y o f development.
quoted

Using a s c a t t e r i n g o f o f t e n -

r e f e r e n c e s , I would l i k e t o suggest a d i r e c t

relation-

s h i p between t h e Komo-so and Mo-so v i s - a - v i s t h e v e r t i c a l

In t h e 13 t h ce.itury, Koma no Chikazane
KySkunsho (1233) t h a t b l i n d p r i e s t s
performers

flute.

reported i n h i s

( S h i n h o s h i ) and Sarugaku

(the p r e d e c e s s o r s o f Nohgaku) p l a y e d t h e shakuhachi

(Josango, 1971:8).

The author of Kojidan (1212), Minamoto no

Daiken, r e l a t e d a legend that says the Ennin (nee Jikaku

Daishi, 794-864) used the shakuhachi as a supplement t o h i s
Shomyo (Buddhist chant) p r a c t i c e s and the author o f ZokuKyokunsho (1270), Koma no Asakuza, recorded another unconfirmed anecdote about the r e v i v a l of the shakuhachi i n 1158,
already described i n t h i s chapter ( i b i d . ) .
The 14th century l i t e r a t u r e seems to contain only one
glancing reference.

Emperor Godaigo

( r . 1318-39),

t i n g h i s years o f e x i l e i n h i s diary, Yoshino-Shui

recoun(1336-39),

mentions that one of h i s entourage played the shakuhachi

(ibid.).
It i s i n the 15th century that the references begin t o
p r o l i f e r a t e , c o i n c i d e n t a l l y during the same century that Roan
i s supposed t o have a r r i v e d i n Japan.

Emperor Gokomatsu

(r. 1392-1412) reported hearing "shakuhachi and haya-uta"

(one of the forms i n "Uta-awase" song f e s t i v a l s ) i n h i s Yamashina Kyogen Kyorikki (1408, i b i d . ) .

Prince Sadanari (nee

Gosukoin, 1372-1456) noted i n h i s d i a r y Kammongyoki

(1417-

1449) that he watched i t i n e r a n t biwa and " f l u t e " players

taking part i n Uta-awase (Harich-Schneider, 1973:411).
Moving i n t o the 16th century, we note that the Gagaku
encyclopedia Taigensho has more information about the shakuhachi than the 13th century encyclopedias, Kyokunsho and

64
Zoku-Kyokunsho Harich-Schneider, 1973:394). F i n a l l y , the most
t e l l i n g evidence i s a p i c t u r e o f a Moso i n the Shokunin Zukushi Uta-awase by Tosa Mitsunobu
Schneider, 1973:pl.17b).
types:

(1434-1525; see Harich-

At h i s feet l i e two v e r t i c a l f l u t e

panpipes (RitsushS) and a small shakuhachi (Dosho?).

As t h i n as t h i s evidence i s , I would l i k e to propose

that the Moso (nee Shinhoshi) o f the Heian Tendai Sect ( c f .

Ennin) adopted two kinds of tuning devices f o r t h e i r biwa
performances, the Ritsu-sho and Do-sho (a common synonym f o r
shakuhachi).

Unlike the Gagaku Shakuhachi, the tuning shaku-

hachi would have been much simpler and smaller i n c o n s t r u c t i o n

(for p o r t a b i l i t y ) and tuned to the indigenous scale (Ritsu/Yo
mode) more f a m i l i a r t o the Moso.

Hence, the development o f

f i v e finger-holes rather than s i x . No doubt the tuning notes

used by the Moso became s t y l i z e d , a t r a d i t i o n long established
i n the Gagaku tuning "preludes" c a l l e d "Netori" and i n the
prelude improvisations performed by c o u r t i e r s

(cf. Genji-

mohoqatari, see Harich-Schneider, 1973:246).

During the 15th

and 16th centuries the Moso probably u t i l i z e d t h e i r s t y l i z e d

tuning preludes during t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n
awase.

i n the popular Uta-

Another group of Buddhist mendicants probably r e a l i z e d

the value o f the shakuhachi and i t s "preludes", and adopted

i t as t h e i r own medium, naming themselves "Komo-so" to d i s t i n g u i s h themselves from the "Mo-so".

65
One f i n a l hypothesis can be drawn to support the above.
The imported Fukien v e r t i c a l f l u t e would have had s i x holes
and an a l i e n scale which would probably not have captured the
i n t e r e s t of the Japanese, just as the Gagaku Shakuhachi d i d
not.
As mentioned e a r l i e r , the Komo-so seemed to have d i s appeared from 16th-century Japanese s o c i e t y a f t e r only
odd years o f existence.

fifty-

No reasons are given i n contemporary

l i t e r a t u r e but one can e a s i l y imagine that the development of

the "Tenpuku",

"Hitoyogiri",

and "Fuke Shakuhachi" (to be d i s -

cussed next) fostered the Komo-so's d i s s o l u t i o n .

v e r t i c a l flutes

The former

( a l l simple v a r i a t i o n s on the shakuhachi) were

played by samurai and chonin (bourgeoisie) who would insure

that v e r t i c a l f l u t e s be r e s t r i c t e d to t h e i r c l a s s
so were people from the lower c l a s s ) .

(the Komo-

In the l i g h t of Japan's

r i g i d code of s o c i a l ethics and t h e i r enforcement, p a r t i c u l a r l y

in the Edo Period, t h i s r e s t r i c t i o n would be easy to impose.
A second suggestion may be that Komo-so were one and the
same with Mo-so, and the v e r t i c a l f l u t e d i d not achieve an i n dependant music and genre status u n t i l i t moved into the upper
classes.

66
2:4:2

Tenpuku

(16th Century)

Rather than a p p e a r i n g

on the main i s l a n d o f Honshu, the

Tenpuku o r i g i n a t e d i n the s o u t h e r n
9th century,

i s l a n d o f Kyushu.

the town o f D a z a i f u was

In the

established i n northern

Kyushu t o a c t as an a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c e n t r e f o r the newlyemerging "Nine Southern

Sugawara no M i c h i z a n e ,

Provinces".

Between 901

and

903,

a renowned s c h o l a r and statesman,

was

v i r t u a l l y e x i l e d t o D a z a i f u a f t e r v a r i o u s a l t e r c a t i o n s a t the
c o u r t i n Kyoto.

D e s p i t e the f a c t t h a t he was

only there f o r

three years, h i s c u l t u r a l i n f l u e n c e , p a r t i c u l a r l y
i s . s t i l l f e l t i n the e n v i r o n s

(Harich-Schneider,

i n music,

1973:417).

Some o f the n o t a b l e music genres from N o r t h e r n Kyushu a r e

Chikuzen

Moso-biwa (12th century)

and the T s u k u s h i - g o t o

the

(17th

century).
In the southern end o f the i s l a n d , c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t y
dominated by the Shimadzu c l a n .

In the 12th c e n t u r y ,

was

Shimadzu

T a d a h i s a e s t a b l i s h e d the c l a n i n the s o u t h e r n p r o v i n c e o f S a t suma.

D u r i n g the same c e n t u r y ,

the Shimadzu sponsored

the

Satsuma Moso w i t h the i n t e n t i o n o f u s i n g them as s p i e s ..because

o f t h e i r u n s u s p i c i o u s demeanor and unhampered t r a d i t i o n
p e r e g r i n a t i o n s a l l o w i n g them t o f r e e l y c r o s s b o r d e r s and
hear c o n v e r s a t i o n s
The

of
over-

(Malm, 1959:135).

f i r s t mention o f the "tenpuku" i s i n the 16th

century.

when Shimadzu Tadayoshi

(1492-1568) encouraged the develop-

ment o f " l i g h t c l a s s i c s " among h i s samurai retainers by i n s t r u c t i n g them to learn how to play the Satsuma-biwa and
tenpuku.

In 1587 the e n t i r e clan was disbanded and d i s s i -

pated by Hideyoshi (1536-1598), with the r e s u l t that nothing

more was heard about the Tenpuku.
In the only thorough study o f the tenpuku, Shirao
(1969:153-69) has concluded that very l i t t l e can be said
with c e r t a i n t y about the instrument and i t s h i s t o r y .

One

reason f o r t h i s unfortunate paucity of information may be

that the disbanding of the clan j u s t twenty years a f t e r Tada>
yoshi's death may not have allowed enough time f o r the i n strument to e s t a b l i s h i t s e l f .
Extant tenpuku resemble miniature shakuhachi, u n l i k e
h i t o y o g i r i which are constructed with ornamental
resembling ryuteki (Malm, 1959:155).

fixtures

The co-incidence o f

the Satsuma biwa and small v e r t i c a l f l u t e i s worth noting i n

17

the context o f t h i s chapter.

2:4:3

H i t o y o g i r i (Late 16th-l7th Centuries)

The name " H i t o - y o - g i r i " means "single section cut" be-

cause the v e r t i c a l f l u t e of the time was made o f one section

of bamboo with the mouthpiece cut obliquely on the bottom of
the section.

Like the shakuhachi,

the nomenclature does not

68
a c t u a l l y name the instrument, b u t r a t h e r d e s c r i b e s i t .

It

was

(bu)

measured i n Japanese f e e t

r a t h e r than i n c h e s
decessor.
was

The

(shaku) and m i c r o - i n c h e s

(sun), making i t s h o r t e r than i t s p r e -

f l u t e e x i s t e d i n many d i f f e r e n t s i z e s ,

a l s o i d e n t i f i e d a c c o r d i n g t o the lowest note i t sounded.

F o r example,-a h i t o y o g i r i t h a t sounded "A"

giri".
ted
of

so i t

was

During the h e i g h t of i t s p o p u l a r i t y ,

called

i t was

"oshiki-

construc-

i n the same manner as the h i c h i r i k i and S t e k i w i t h

d a r k - c o l o r e d wood or twine wrapped around

the f i n g e r - h o l e s
Omori Sokun

i t s body between

(Malm, 1959:155).
(1568-1625) i s the f i r s t

the h i s t o r y o f the h i t o y o g i r i .

He was

major f i g u r e i n

o r i g i n a l l y i n the

v i c e o f Nobunaga, u n t i l the l a t t e r * s death i n 1582,

time Omori became a r e c l u s e p l a y i n g the h i t o y o g i r i .
became so h i g h l y r e p u t e d t h a t the Emperor 'Goyozei
1611)

strips

r e q u e s t e d h i s presence

ser-

a t which
His

skill

(1586-

and a s e t o f h i s i n s t r u m e n t s .

Omori compiled seven s o l o h i t o y o g i r i melodies,

Tanteki Hidenfu

(1608) which were supposedly q u i e t and i n t r o s p e c t i v e i n

character.

A l a t e r anonymous c o l l e c t i o n I k a n o b o r i c o n t a i n e d

f i v e more c o m p o s i t i o n s .

I t has been i m p o s s i b l e t o

reproduce

the melodies w i t h any c e r t a i n t y because t h e r e i s no way

of

knowing what the a c t u a l p i t c h e s o f the n o t a t i o n s y l l a b a r y a r e .

The t i t l e s do not appear i n any l a t e r r e p e r t o i r e s o f known
shakuhachi music,

i n c l u d i n g the K i n k o - r y u

(Josango,

1971:8).

69
A c c o r d i n g t o t h e Doshokyoku, two " s c h o o l s " o f p l a y i n g
developed, t h e Shusa-ryu and N i s h i m i - r y u ; they performed
each o t h e r i n t h e same manner as t h e Uta-awase.

with

Illustrations

and e x p l a n a t i o n s about h i t o y o g i r i p l a y e r s p e r f o r m i n g i n p a i r s
(Fuku-awase) a r e found i n t h e S h i c h i k u Shoshinshu
the J i n r i n Kimmo Z u i (1689).

(1664) and

In t h e Yamato Kosaku E i s h o , t h e

h i t o y o g i r i i s shown b e i n g p l a y e d i n an ensemble c o n s i s t i n g o f
shamisen,

t a i k o and ko-tsuzumi,

accompanying a B o n - o d o r i dance

(ibid.).
The h i t o y o g i r i reached t h e peak o f p o p u l a r i t y d u r i n g t h e
Genroku E r a (1688-1703) and then q u i c k l y f e l l
cause o f a new b e r t i c a l
popular

i n t o d e c l i n e be-

f l u t e t h a t was r a p i d l y becoming more

t h e l a r g e r "Nedake" Shakuhachi

p l a y e d by t h e s u c c e s -

s o r s o f t h e Komo-so, t h e "Komu-so".

2:4:4

Komuso Shakuhachi

(17th-19th C e n t u r i e s )

D u r i n g t h e Momoyama P e r i o d (1573-1600), Japan was s t e e p e d

i n n a t i o n a l w a r f a r e which g e n e r a t e d a d i f f i c u l t s i t u a t i o n i n
the f o l l o w i n g Edo P e r i o d (1600-1868).

Thousands o f samurai who

had been t r a d i t i o n a l l y a l i g n e d t o c l a n s found themselves

out employment because
banded.

with-

t h e i r c l a n s had been d e f e a t e d and d i s -

These "r3nin" c o n s t i t u t e d a dangerous,

ment i n t h e e a r l y p a r t o f t h e Edo P e r i o d .

volatile

ele-

A group o f t h e s e

70
ronin took up the shakuhachi and became wandering
musicians i n the komosS t r a d i t i o n .

mendicant

However, they c a l l e d

themselves "Komu-s5" ("empty nothingness

p r i e s t s " ) to

d i f f e r e n t i a t e themselves from the decidedly lower class of

komoso*.
The Komuso were alleged to be members of a r a d i c a l Zen
sect c a l l e d the Fuke-shu, which was a l l i e d to the Rinzai-shu.
They claimed that t h e i r founder was Kakushin (nee S h i n j i ,
Hotto-zenji, Hotto-emmyo-Kokushi) who

l i v e d i n the e a r l y

years of the Kamakura-jidai (i.e., 1207-1298).

Between the

years 1249 and 1254, he studied Buddhism i n Sung Dynasty

China in: much the same manner as E i s a i (1141-1215) and Dogen
(1200-1253),

the founders of Rinzai-shu and Soto-shu, respec-

t i v e l y , i n Japan.

While i n China, Kakushin studied with

Wu-

men Hui-k'ai (1184-1260) who had compiled the Wu-min Kuan

(Mumonkan), a c o l l e c t i o n o f Rinzai-shu koans that have become
an i n t e g r a l part of Zen Buddhism i n Japan

(see Miura and

Sasaki, 1966:199-203).
A document written i n 1779

(published i n 1795) and en-

t i t l e d "Kyotaku Denki" Kokujikai

graphy of Kyotaku" i n Japanese
of the Fuke-shu.

a Commentary on the "Bio-

purported to be a h i s t o r y

The author, Yamamoto Morihide, based h i s

commentary on a copy of the biography, the o r i g i n a l being

"lost"

(see Ongaku J i t e n , V o l . XL, p.777).

71
Kakushin i s s a i d t o have s t u d i e d w i t h Chang Ts'an

(Cho-

17
san),

the 16th p a t r i a r c h o f the Fuke s e c t i n C h i n a

extending

back t o P'u-hua (Jp. Fuke), the source o f t h e Fuke t r a d i t i o n

and second g e n e r a t i o n from Ma-tsu T a o - i

(Baso D o i c h i

707-

786).
P'u
of
his

one o f the most e c c e n t r i c Ch*an (Zen) monks

T'ang Dynasty C h i n a as e v i d e n c e d by the koans b u i l t

association with Lin-Chi

fn.19).
ing

-hua was

around

( R i n z a i , see Moore, 1967:106-107,

I t i s s a i d t h a t he wandered through g r a v e y a r d s ,

feign-

madness and s h a k i n g a h a n d - b e l l (Jp. R e i ) , a common r i t u a l

implement o f Buddhism.

A t t h a t time, Chang Po

(Cho Haku) asked

P'u-hua i f he might be h i s t e a c h e r , b u t P'u-hua r e f u s e d .

t e r r e d , Chang Po f o l l o w e d h i s master's
of

ringing a b e l l ,

footsteps, but

instead

he blew a s i n g l e note from a v e r t i c a l

Renaming h i m s e l f Hsixto ("Kyotaku"),

a r c h o f the P'u-hua-tsung

Unde-

he became the f i r s t

flute.
patri-

(Fuke-shu).

Kakushin supposedly met Chang Ts'an a t Hu-kuo-ssu Temple

where Wu-men was

r e s i d e n t p a t r i a r c h , and the two o f them s t u d i e d

under Wu-m^n t o g e t h e r .

One

day, a f t e r h e a r i n g Chang Ts'an p e r -

form a c o m p o s i t i o n named a f t e r the f i r s t p a t r i a r c h , Kyotaku

" K y o r e i " ) , Kakushin asked t o be i n i t i a t e d i n t o t h e s e c t .
A f t e r r e t u r n i n g t o Japan i n 1254,

Kakushin

founded

S a i h o - j i Temple ( l a t e r c a l l e d K o k o k u - j i ) i n wakayama P r e f e e -

(or

72
ture where he resided f o r most of h i s remaining

life.

Within

i t s confines he a l l e g e d l y b u i l t a small temple c a l l e d Fuke-an

for

four Chinese l a y d i s c i p l e s of Chang-Ts'an who

panied Kakushin on h i s return voyage.

Fu

had accom-

One of the laymen,

Pao

(Hofuku), i s said to have founded a hermitage at U j i some

time l a t e r .

The Kinsen branch of the Fuke-shu trace t h e i r

o r i g i n s to t h i s

source.

Among Kakushin's Japanese d i s c i p l e s was Yoritake Ryoen

(d.

1298)

who

became i n i t i a t e d i n the way

and renamed himself Kyochiku Z e n j i .

of the shakuhachi

He i s c r e d i t e d with

ini-

t i a t i n g the t r a d i t i o n s of the mendicant p l a y e r / p r i e s t s and

composing "Mukai-ji" and "Koku-ji" ( l a t e r c a l l e d "Koku Reibo")
a f t e r hearing them i n a dream at Kokuzo-do Temple i n Ise Prefecture.

Many t r a d i t i o n a l h i s t o r i a n s confuse Yoritake Ryoen

with another, l a t e r legendary

Kyochiku*s successor was

figure named Roan.

Tengai Myoan who

reizan Meian-ji i n the 13th century.

founded

Kyo-

Thereafter, Meian-ji

became the head temple of the Komuso with the statue of Kyochiku enshrined within i t .

Meian-ha's p a t r i a r c h s are numbered

from Kyochiku Z e n j i , so that the current " p a t r i a r c h " , Fukumoto

Kansai Kyoan, i s 39th successor.
In 1614,

(Keicho 19), Tokugawa Ieyasu

posedly issued a proclamation

(1542-1616) sup-

(okitegaki) which eventually

became known as the Keicho Okitegaki.

Under the b r i e f terms

73
o f the p r o c l a m a t i o n ,
govern t h e i r own

Komuso were allowed

affairs.

in a f i r e ; only copies
A critical

48).

o r i g i n a l document was

destroyed

documents conducted

by

r e p o r t e d h i s f i n d i n g s i n an a r t i c l e

Shakuhachi Shikan

Nakatsuka was

and

exist.

study o f the above two

Nakatsuka Chikuzen, who

t i t l e d Kinko-ryu

The

to "incorporate"

( c f . Tanabe Hisao,

en-

1963:147-

c u r i o u s about the h i s t o r i c i t y o f t h e

"Kyo-

taku Denki" K o k u j i k a i , prompting him t o v i s i t K o k o k u - j i t o study

i t s archives.

He

found t h a t Kyochiku Z e n j i and

were not mentioned i n Kakushin's w r i t i n g s . ^ -

the

He

shakuhachi

then

discovered

t h a t d u r i n g the Kamakura P e r i o d , M e i a n - j i d i d n o t e x i s t as a
temple but as a h o s t e l f o r monks who

were v i s i t i n g t h e

greater

temple complex, T o f u k u - j i , w x t h i n which M e i a n - j i i s s i t u a t e d .

F i n a l l y , Nakatsuka found d i s p a r i t i e s i n the v a r i o u s c o p i e s
the K e i c h o O k i t e g a k i .

H i s c o n c l u s i o n was

komuso o r g a n i z a t i o n was

t h a t t h e Fuke-shu

a c t u a l l y founded sometime d u r i n g

4th Tokugawa Shogun's (1651-1680) r e i g n .

of

the

2 0

A f t e r d i s c o u n t i n g the t r a d i t i o n a l h i s t o r y o f the Komuso,

h i s t o r i a n s have found i t almost i m p o s s i b l e t o p r o v i d e an
n a t i v e based on new

evidence.

Conjecture

on my

alter-

p a r t l e d me

to

the thought t h a t the Komuso/ronin were ex-members o f the S h i madzu c l a n which was

d i s b a n d e d i n 1587.

These w a r r i o r s would

have been f a m i l i a r w i t h the v e r t i c a l f l u t e

(i.e.,

Tenpuku) and

the k i n d o f underground a c t i v i t y performed by the Satsuma Moso.

74
This would also explain why
t h e i r way

H i t o y o g i r i melodies d i d not

find

into the Komuso (and then Kinko-ryu) r e p e r t o i r e s ,

because the l a t t e r instrument and i t s music was

ferentiated from the music of the Tenpuku.

clearly dif-

There i s no

way

of knowing what influence the Komoso exerted on the Komuso

other than e s t a b l i s h i n g a precedent, and supplying a readymade nomenclature, "shakuhachi", to replace t h e i r own terra,
"Tenpuku", which would have thrown suspicion on them.
The Tokugawa government was

aware of the newly-estab-

l i s h e d sect and t h e i r suspicious o r i g i n s .

Nevertheless,

allowed the Meian temple organization to e x i s t and

ferate because i t was

they

proli-

to the advantage of the government to

exercise nominal c o n t r o l over the p o t e n t i a l l y dangerous ronin.

In 1677,

the government issued a "Reitatsu", an " o r d e r - i n -

council", formally organizing and r e s t r i c t i n g the growth and

movement of the Komuso".

C i t i z e n s other than "bushi"

(an

Edo

Period synonym f o r the samurai class) were not allowed to j o i n

or to play the shakuhachi.
drawn up and standardized
were issued.
ranging,

C e r t i f i c a t i o n of the Komuso was

and "passports"

f o r unimpeded t r a v e l

This l a s t s t i p u l a t i o n stemmed from the f a r -

e x t r a - l e g a l a c t i v i t i e s many of the ronin conducted

as spies for the government.

The

role of clandestine

spying

became a major f a c t o r i n the Komuso organization, so much so

that they began wearing hats c a l l e d "Tengai", which e n t i r e l y

75

covered t h e i r heads

( c f . Malm, 1959:pl.51).

Although

the

"tradition"

s t a t e s t h a t these h a t s symbolized m e t a p h y s i c a l

"emptiness"

(sunyata), they were a c t u a l l y a d i s g u i s e

f o r the

s p i e s from the 18th c e n t u r y u n t i l the a b o l i t i o n o f the movement i n 1871.

P r e v i o u s t o t h i s time, t h e i r d r e s s i n c l u d e d

a simple, s h a l l o w h a t .

T h i s can be seen i n the

illustration

o f two Komuso p l a y i n g i n f r o n t o f a t y p i c a l urban house i n

J i n r i n Kimmo Z u i (1689;

see Josango,

1971:12).

The Komuso o r g a n i z a t i o n r a p i d l y expanded t o o t h e r p a r t s

o f Japan,

e i t h e r because

i t was

t o the government's

t o expand t h e i r network o f s p i e s , or because

wandering
ronin.

advantage

the concept

of

monks p l a y i n g shakuhachi appealed t o many d i s s o l u t e

No doubt b o t h reasons were c u r r e n t b u t the p r o p o r t i o n

o f s p i e s t o s i n c e r e komuso w i l l never be known.

Two

temples

which f i g u r e d p r o m i n e n t l y i n the e a r l y d i s s e m i n a t i o n o f the

Komuso o r g a n i z a t i o n were R e i h o - j i i n Ome
Musashi,

b o t h o f which were c l o s e t o Edo

would v e n e r a t e the "San Koten Honkyoku"

and

Ichigetsu-ji in

(Tokyo).

Each

(Three S a c r e d M e l o d i e s )

nnd add a few c o m p o s i t i o n s drawn from the l o c a l i t y .

was

memorized and l e a r n e d through an o r a l / a u r a l

2:4:5

Chonin

temple

A l l music

tradition.

Shakuhachi

D u r i n g the 18th c e n t u r y , the shakuhachi was

adopted

by

76
widely disparate groups of the urban "chonin" (bourgeoisie)
class (see Josango,

1971:12-14).

Despite the fact that the shakuhachi was

supposedly

r e l i g i o u s i n nature, i t became part of the world of the

Japanese demimonde (Ukiyo).

On the one hand, the instrument

succeeded the weaker H i t o y o g i r i i n "popular" music (Zokugaku)

ensembles.

More important, however, was the fact that Komuso

became regular v i s i t o r s to the Ukiyo i n order to spy f o r the

government.

The costume and l e g a l immunity of the Komuso were

often taken advantage of by the Edo "mafia".

At t h i s time,

the Nedake Shakuhachi developed into i t s f i n a l form with remnants of the roots of the bamboo l e f t i n t a c t on the end of
the instrument to become a deadly club.

Moreover, the i n s t r u -

ment became a synonym for f e l l a t i o , and to t h i s day, women

"of proper breeding" w i l l not even say the word "shakuhachi",
21
l e t alone play the instrument.

D i a m e t r i c a l l y opposite to

the v u l g a r i z i n g of the shakuhachi was a movement i n i t i a t e d by

Kurosawa Kinko

(1710-1771).

Born i n Fukuoka Province, Kyushu,

into a samurai family attached to the Kuroda clan, Kinko I

moved to the Tokyo area where he became the c h i e f d i r e c t o r of
shakuhachi playing at I c h i g e t s u - j i and R e i h o - j i .

His most

important contribution was the a c q u i s i t i o n o f several Honkyoku

which he added to the repertoire of h i s own

temples.

he enlarged t h e i r c o l l e c t i o n to a t o t a l of 21 t i t l e s .

In a l l ,
His son

and successor added 6 more Honkyoku and arranged 4 Honkyoku

into t r i o s .
Kurosawa Kinko II (nee Koemon, 1747-1811), succeeded
h i s father at the two temples and continued to propagate the
repertoire compiled by h i s father and himself.
during the l a t t e r part of Kinko I's l i f e ,

Sometime

a clandestine move-

ment at R e i h o - j i was begun, supposedly by Kinko II, c a l l e d

"Suichikumei"

a system of i n s t r u c t i o n and

for laymen (ubasoku).

certification

Despite the pleadings of R e i h 5 - j i o f -

f i c i a l s that t h e i r lay organization was harmless,

government issued Reitatsu i n 1759 and 1774
p r o s c r i p t i o n of laymen i n the Fuke-shu.

reaffirming their

Therefore, a c l a n -

destine movement of "Fuku-awase" (performances

music) was

i n i t i a t e d , and i n 1792

including Kinko I I .
1816)

the Tokugawa

of

shakuhachi

the school had 19 teachers

Kinko Kurosawa III (nee Masajiro,

d i d not succeed h i s father's place at the two

1772-

temples

but, instead, l i v e d i n Nihombashi, Tokyo, devoting himself

e n t i r e l y to p l a y i n g the shakuhachi.
was Hisamatsu Fuyo, who
ly.

His most famous student

w i l l be mentioned i n context present-

The younger brother of Kinko I I I , Kurosawa Kinko IV

Otojiro, d. 1860)

was

(nee

apparently lacking i n t a l e n t , so the

Kinko p a t r i l i n e a g e ended with him, but the i d e a l s and repert o i r e of the Kinko-ryu continued to f l o u r i s h .

However, the

only concession made by the m i l i t a r y government was

to allow

78
men

o t h e r t h a n s a m u r a i i n t o t h e r a n k s o f t h e Komuso* i n
I n a p p o s i t i o n t o t h e K i n k o l i n e was

the Ikkan-ryu

begun by M i y a g i Ikkan, a s t u d e n t o f K i n k o I .
c e s s o r was
II.

The

Ikeda I k k i

(Senzuke)

lineage then passed

who

tive

Fuyo.

Miyagi's sucKinko

f r o m I k e d a t o Yamada J o d o

T h e s e l a s t two

j u s t p r i o r t o Japan's

line,

also studied with

t h e n t o T o y o d a K o d o I ( K a t s u g o r o ) who
Hisamatsu

1847.

was

"sensei"

and

contemporary

with

( t e a c h e r s ) were

great watershed,

the M e i j i

ac-

Resto-

ration.
Before proceeding t o the shakuhachi i n the M e i j i
is

important t o discuss the m o t i v a t i n g force that

Era, i t

sparked

t h e e n t h u s i a s m o f s o many B u d d h i s t l a y m e n d u r i n g t h e

18th

century;
Tokugawa u r b a n
defined groups.

One

ent merchant c l a s s ,
and

t h e l i k e who

t e r s o f "UkiyO"

s o c i e t y may
group

be d i v i d e d

i n t o two

c o n s i s t e d o f members o f t h e

dissolute

s a m u r a i , "demimonde"

( f l o a t i n g w o r l d ) i n Edo,

o t h e r g r o u p was

characters,

O s a k a , K y o t o , . and'
hostels.

c o m p r i s e d o f members O f t h e w a r r i o r

middle class who"aspired

couraged, by the bakufu

and

t o the l o f t y e t h i c s and:morality en-

(Tokugawa j u n t a ) ;

This

c o d e o f b e h a v i o r stemmed f r o m a s t u d y o f " s h u j i "

(1130-1200),

afflu-

p o p u l a t e d and e n l i v e n e d t h e p l e a s u r e g u a r - :

c o u n t l e s s m i n o r c e n t r e s a t c r o s s - r o a d s , and T o k a i d o
The

roughly-

a Sung D y n a s t y

s c h o l a r : who

idealistic
(Chu H s i ,

created a renaissance

of

C o n f u c i a n s t u d i e s t h a t was e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y a d o p t e d b y t h e

C h i n e s e and Japanese.
arise
rior.
the

t h e way o f t h e w a r -

I t was d e v e l o p e d p a r t l y a s a n a r t i f i c i a l
o f s a m u r a i who f o u n d t h e m s e l v e s

their society,

the

important manifestation t o

f r o m t h i s a c t i v i t y was " b u s h i d o "

thousands

in

The f i r s t

control of

anachronistic

and p a r t l y as a s i n c e r e attempt t o p r e s e n t

w a r r i o r s w i t h a new c o d e t h a t t h e y c o u l d l i v e b y .

townsmen f o l l o w e d s u i t
groups

so t h a t a group

a r o s e w h i c h were a n t i t h e t i c a l

idealistic

o f a r t s common t o b o t h

t o the Ukiyo a r t s .

each a r t r e f l e c t e d t h e Zen B u d d h i s t

o n a p e r s o n a l s e a r c h f o r t h e way

t h e a r t s were m a r t i a l - o r i e n t e d ,

of

t h e sword) and " j u d 5 "

s u c h a s "kendo"

Do

emphasis

(Do) t o e n l i g h t e n m e n t .

of

Many

( t h e way

( t h e way o f t h e w r e s t l e r ) , w h i l e

o t h e r p o p u l a r a r t s were t h e t e a ceremony
w r i t i n g and p a i n t i n g w i t h

("shodo"),

The

a r t s o f t h e s e p e o p l e were c o l l e c t i v e l y c a l l e d

(Tao), because

do"),

Many

India

(Cha no Y u , o r " c h a -

I n k a n d a bamboo b r u s h

and f l o w e r a r r a n g i n g ("kado"),

t o name o n l y a f e w .

The p l a y i n g o f t h e s h a k u h a c h i became " T a k e d o " , t h e way o f t h e

bamboo f l u t e
The

(see 4 : 3 ) .

immediate

source o f t h e a e s t h e t i c s i n h e r e n t i n each

Do was t h e a u s t e r e p r i n c i p l e s
melding o f Heian s e n s i b i l i t y
D u r i n g t h e Tokugawa p e r i o d ,

found i n Ashikaga a r tw i t h i t s
t o Zen metaphysics

and f r u g a l i t y .

t h e "Do" a r t s w e r e i n f u s e d

a m u l t i t u d e o f moral o b l i g a t i o n s

(giri)

with

t o o n e s e l f and t o

80
one's sensei and peers which became the foundation of the

Ryu,

q u a s i - p a t r i l i n e a l organizations that were exclusive and often

internecine despite t h e i r s e l f l e s s i d e a l s .

2:5

The Shakuhachi A f t e r the M e i j i Restoration

(1868)

In a sweeping e f f o r t to eliminate the abuses of the previous regime, the M e i j i government disbanded and outlawed a l l
i t i n e r a n t music guilds including the Komuso.

This p r o h i b i t i o n ,

known as the " M e i j i P r o s c r i p t i o n " , only lasted ten years (18711881)

but i t e f f e c t i v e l y ended the existence of the Komuso.

the other hand, the l i f t i n g of the p r o h i b i t i o n was

On

contingent

on the Komuso temples allowing laymen to study t h e i r music and

form lay organizations within t h e i r j u r i s d i c t i o n s .

In

1883,

the most famous of these temples, Meian-ji, became the f o c a l

point for a new
by Prince Kujo.

lay organization

c a l l e d "Meian Kyokai" headed

This democratization

movement also allowed

the many clandestine shakuhachi organizations and t h e i r independant teachers to come out of h i d i n g .
One of the c e n t r a l figures i n the metamorphosis of the
Komuso t r a d i t i o n was Araki Kodo II (nee Hanzaburo, then Chikuo),
1823-1908).

He studied with Hisamatsu Fuyo and Toyoda Kodo I,

allowing him to combine the teachings of the Ikkan and Kinko

schools.

In an e f f o r t to keep the t r a d i t i o n a l i v e , he

tuted a whole new body of l i t e r a t u r e c a l l e d "Gaikyoku"

insti(see

81
1:3)

which

i n c o r p o r a t e d the p o p u l a r music o f the time

the e s t a b l i s h e d K i n k o - r y u system o f i n s t r u c t i o n and

cation.
was

into

certifi-

The "Honkyoku" became e s o t e r i c i n t h a t the n o v i t i a t e

o n l y a l l o w e d t o study them a f t e r g a i n i n g h i s t e c h n i c a l

background

p l a y i n g Gaikyoku

and h i s r e q u i s i t e r e s p e c t o f the

s e n s e i by e s t a b l i s h i n g a r a p p o r t .
The shakuhachi had a l r e a d y been used i n p o p u l a r music
f o r some time b u t A r a k i Kodo I I o f f e r r e d two
draw a t t e n t i o n t o h i s own

repertoire.

First,

incentives to
he was

more

s y s t e m a t i c i n h i s approach t o t h e i r m u s i c a l arrangements.

In

p a r t i c u l a r , he d i s p l a c e d the Kokyu i n the t r a d i t i o n a l Sankyoku

ensemble

(Kokyu", Koto, and Shamisen) by r e p l i c a t i n g i t s r o l e ;

an arrangement

which was

h i g h l y s u c c e s s f u l as e v i d e n c e d by

the almost t o t a l l a c k o f Kokyu i n today's t y p i c a l Sankyoku

22
ensemble.

Second,

he d e v i s e d a rudimentary n o t a t i o n

which proved t o be r e v o l u t i o n a r y f o r the shakuhachi

, Uehara Kyodo
were two prominent

(1848-1913) and Kawase Junsuke

s t u d e n t s o f A r a k i Kodo I I who

shakuhachi a p l a c e i n modern Japan.

system o f rhythmic d i a c r i t i c a l
and p u b l i s h e d a book i n 1896

system
(see 4:1:2).

(1870-1959)
a s s u r e d the

Uehara Kyodo d e v i s e d a

s i g n s f o r Kodo I I ' s n o t a t i o n

e n t i t l e d Zokugaku S e n r i t s u

Ko

which c o n t a i n e d a study o f " P o p u l a r Music" t h e o r y p a r t l y

based on h i s e x p e r i e n c e s w i t h the s h a k u h a c h i .

Kawase

Junsuke

founded a movement which e v e n t u a l l y became a s e p e r a t e b r a n c h

8 2

o f the K i n k o l i n e a g e devoted t o the p o p u l a r i z i n g o f t h e K i n k o ryu by p u b l i s h i n g Uehara Kyodo's n o t a t e d music

Schneider,

(Harich-

1973:591).

A r a k i Kodo I I was succeeded by h i s son, A r a k i Kodo I I I

(nee S h i n n o s u e ) .

One o f the l a t t e r ' s s t u d e n t s

Judo (1895-1974) who was d e s i g n a t e d

i n 1963.

H i s son and s u c c e s s o r ,

he a p p o i n t e d

Motonobu).

a National Living

Treasure

Notomi Haruhiko, h a v i n g

Ikeda Kodo h i s s u c c e s s o r .

tended t o the f i n a l

was Notomi

died,

The l i n e a g e then ex-

and c u r r e n t s u c c e s s o r ,

Tanaka Yudo (nee

This p a r t i c u l a r l i n e of succession

i s o n l y one o f

many.
The p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f the Kinko s c h o o l , and a l l t h e o t h e r s
as w e l l , has r e s u l t e d i n a t a n g l e d web o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s and
l i n e a g e s which i s almost i m p o s s i b l e
Rather than b e i n g d i s c o u r a g i n g ,

to s a t i s f a c t o r i l y o u t l i n e .

i t o n l y p o i n t s t o f u r t h e r de-

m o c r a t i z a t i o n o f t h e t r a d i t i o n and the f a s c i n a t i n g c r o s s fertilization

i t should

produce.

CHAPTER 3
KINKO-RYU MELODIC THEORY
The t r a d i t i o n a l music theory of Honkyoku consists o f r u diments and performance

p r a c t i c e s taught i n the l i g h t o f "the

Way o f the Bamboo Flute", Takedo.

Rudiments consist o f basic

information concerning the notation and fingerings, while performance p r a c t i c e s are a more advanced stage o f knowledge concerning the techniques and ethos ("Shin") o f performing Honkyoku.

The former i s r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e i n p r i n t but the p e r f o r -

mance p r a c t i c e s are only acquired from a "sensei" through o r a l /

aural transmission.

Therefore, rudiments w i l l be referred to

as exoteric, while performance

practices s h a l l be described as

esoteric.

3:1

Rudiments
Beginner students are e x c l u s i v e l y concerned with

impro-

ving, t h e i r understanding of rudiments by p r a c t i c i n g progress i v e l y more d i f f i c u l t compositions from the Sankyoku l i t e r a ture.

Concommitant with the i n s t r u c t i o n i s the gradual foun-

ding o f a student-teacher r e l a t i o n s h i p acceptable to the sensei.

83

84
A f t e r a t t a i n i n g a prescribed l e v e l of rapport and t e c h n i c a l
p r o f i c i e n c y (far above what i s required for Honkyoku), the
student graduates to Honkyoku.

3:1:1

Contemporary Sources
For the purposes of t h i s paper, three sources of r u d i -

ments have been u t i l i z e d .

The most accessible source i s the

Japanese-language p u b l i c a t i o n Kinko-ryu Shakuhachi Kaisetsu

by Judo Notomi (1968), a beginner's

i n s t r u c t i o n manual for

learning Gaikyoku.
Second, the Honkyoku music per se i s a v i a b l e source f o r
the ethnomusicologist who
them i n meaningful groups.

can extract rudiments and

organize

A f t e r s u c c e s s f u l l y completing

the

study of one Honkyoku, the student or "Hipkin's Ethnomusicologist"

(Hood, 1971:90-93) i s "awarded" a copy of the score from

which he has just learned.

The more conservative and

tradi-

t i o n a l the sensei, the more authentic the student's copy.

The

author has c o l l e c t e d a number of the Honkyoku, i n c l u d i n g the

SKH studied i n the following analyses, from Tanaka Yudo.
Another source of music i s a published c o l l e c t i o n c a l l e d
Kinko-ryu Shakuhachi Honkyoku (ed., Sato Harebi, 1966), which
contains the e n t i r e r e p e r t o i r e plus several precursors and an
extensive glossary.

Where the scores are at variance with the

e d i t o r ' s version, alternate sequences once played by e i t h e r

85

Kodo II, Ikeda Senzuke, or Yoshida Itcho have been d i a c r i t i c a l l y added.

Material

found i n t h i s thesis originates

both the Tanaka Scores (henceforth c a l l e d TS)

Scores (SS).

3:1:2

from

and the Sato

In most respects they are i d e n t i c a l .

Honkyoku Notation
The

notation of Honkyoku i s e s s e n t i a l l y a

tablature

using solmization s y l l a b l e s supplemented by d i a c r i t i c a l marks

(including rhythmic information).
be divided

The

notation vocabulary

into three groups:

1.

s y l l a b l e s which denote p i t c h ;

2.

s y l l a b l e s and
indicate pitch

3.

may

signs,

"kanji"

(Chinese characters) which

repetition;

s y l l a b l e s , numbers and k a n j i which are

diacritical.
The

s y l l a b l e s are derived from one

i n the Japanese language, "katakana".

of the

In the

syllabaries

following com-

plete l i s t of notation s y l l a b l e s , underlined s y l l a b l e s

p i t c h r e p e t i t i o n signals
^
/

RA
>^HA

are

(see 3:1:2:2).

<)

Rl

1W-

RU

HI

^?

4"

CHI

TSU

RE

RO

KO

86
The s y l l a b l e s are printed or handwritten i n a semicursive s t y l e .

For example, shakuhachi students not f a m i l i a r

with t h i s s t y l e of w r i t i n g are often confused by the s i m i l a r i ty of the s y l l a b l e s TSU,

TSv

Rl and U.

In the context of a l l the Japanese music notation systems, shakuhachi solmization must be l i s t e d i n the tablature
solmizations rather than "shoka" solmizations. The

former

category consists of i n d i v i d u a l fingerings represented by s y l l a b l e s while the l a t t e r represent various melodic c e l l s .

Sho-

ka were devised as a mnemonic a i d which had to be mastered

be-

fore the student was allowed to a c t u a l l y play the given melody

on h i s instrument.
The i n d i v i d u a l shoka systems f o r a l l the wind instruments
i n Gagaku are supplemented with d i a c r i t i c a l tablature solmizations but Nohkan shoka are not (Minagawa, 1957:194-95).
koto "shofu" and shamisen "kuchi-shamisen"

The

shoka have become

almost redundant since the inception of t h e i r tablature

systems.

Although the s y l l a b l e s i n shakuhachi music represent d e f i n i t e

fingerings rather than abstract melodic contours, they strongl y resemble Gagaku shoka because of t h e i r marked s i m i l a r i t y to
the Gagaku Shoka vocabulary (see Garfias, 1965:68-71).
According to Gekkei

(1971:18-19), the e a r l i e s t score of

87
shakuhachi notation i s dated Ansei 4 (1858) and o r i g i n a t e s
from Meian-ji.

I t i s written i n the older FU-HO-U solmiza-

t i o n which was

changed to the current RO-TSU-RE system a f t e r

the M e i j i Restoration

(1861).

Kodo II (1832-1908) i s c r e d i -

ted with the o r i g i n a t i o n of the l a t t e r solmization.

A com-

parative chart of both systems i s shown i n Malm (1959:271):

the "Meian-ji" l i n e i s p r e - M e i j i notation
be HO)

(note that RO

and the Kinko and Tozan l i n e s (the l a t t e r copied

former) i s the post-Meiji solmization.

should
the

Uehara Kyodo (1848-

1:913) i s c r e d i t e d with devising a complementary system of

rhythmic notation based on "ura" and "oraote" "byoshi"
mic

(rhyth-

apostrophes).
The e a r l i e s t extant notation for v e r t i c a l f l u t e i s the

Tanteki Hiden-fu (1608) by Omori Sokun, but there seems to be

no d i r e c t connection between h i s solmization for h i t o y o g i r i
and the l a t e r shakuhachi notation

(see Gekkei, 1971:19).

D i a c r i t i c a l marks i n shakuhachi music are mnemonic aids

for r e c a l l i n g e s o t e r i c performance p r a c t i c e s , s p e c i a l f i n g e r ings, rhythms, p i t c h t e s s i t u r a s , and general melodic arabiti.
Although they resemble Gagaku d i a c r i t i c a l marks such as the
signs found i n Hakuga's Chochiku-fu glossary

(Harich-Schneider,

1973:212,319), they are strongly reminiscent of shomyo vocal

techniques.

For example, p i t c h o s c i l l a t i o n

("yuri") i s par-

t i c u l a r l y common to shSmyo melodies (Malm, 1959:67).

88
The following l i s t has a l l the d i a c r i t i c a l marks f o r
Honkyoku categorized according to t h e i r s y l l a b i c and k a n j i
2

symbols.

The d i a c r i t i c a l numbers

("suji")

that represent

s p e c i a l fingerings are l i s t e d i n Appendix C. ,

Syllables;
/ me(ri)

flattened p i t c h (i.e.,]? )
(Note:

meri-kari ("temporary lowering")

meri-komu ("permanent lowering")?

77. k a ( r i )

normal p i t c h

portamento glissando from a lower to a

su(ri)

(i.e.,4p;

higher p i t c h ;
ko(mu)

portamento movement downwards to meri p i t c h

(Note:

Z*j y u r i

1)
2)

meri-komu
yuri-komu);

p i t c h o s c i l l a t i o n s i n logarithmic succession;

shakuri

<
3 komi

a single o s c i l l a t i o n downward ( i . e . , portamento mordent);

hushed, excited breath pulsations

(Because

komi i s performed at meri p i t c h , t h i s notat i o n i s sometimes seen as "merikomi");

/ tsuki

hushed, excited interruptions of a tone produced by shaking the shakuhachi against the
Daw;

89
^

muraiki

sforzando breath a r t i c u l a t i o n .

f l a t t e n e d p i t c h by one h a l f tone

Kanji;
tj?

chu(meri)

(i.e.,
^

dai(meri)

ro

ZJ

otsu

kan

7^ d a i - k a n
Bff a k a r u i

same as m e r i ) ;

f l a t t e n e d p i t c h by one whole tone

1

(i.e.,bl?);

lower o c t a v e

(c

lower o c t a v e

(c* - d ) ;

higher octave

( c - e^ ) ;

h i g h e s t notes

(d - e^ );

- d )j
2

(i.e.,[?)

r a i s e the p i t c h o f c

or c

one whole tone

(i.e.,X);

chu a k a r u i

minna

r a i s e the p i t c h o f c

-s

or c

one h a l f

tone

(i.e.,#).

|7 u ( t s u )

perform c
beat

o(su)

" H A " b e f o r e " R O " w i t h one f u l l

(byoshi)?

("tap") i n v e r t e d

mordent

( a l s o seen as

"utsu meru");

("press")Vmordent
z e n j i hayaku

sempre a c c e l e r a n d o

dandan hayaku

progressively

more

accelerando
hajime hayaku

"begin f a s t "
ritardando)

(then

90
3:1:2:1

Individual Pitch Notations

The following survey of p i t c h notations i s confined to

the "isshaku-hassun

( i . e . , "shakuhachi") because i t i s commonly

understood to be the "standard" instrument.

However, each no-

t a t i o n within the Kinko-ryu tablature system r e f e r s to a s p e c i f i c fingering rather than a s p e c i f i c p i t c h .

Therefore, music

composed or arranged for d i f f e r e n t - s i z e d shakuhachi must be

transposed (see 1:2,

Example 5).

Because of the many s i g n i f i c a n t differences, the notations i n both the SS and TS w i l l be outlined
and 2).

(see Examples 1

These differences mainly stem from Sato Harebi's ab-

s t r a c t d i a c r i t i c a l marks which have replaced the standard signs.

In the SS, a h o r i z o n t a l l i n e across a s y l l a b l e indicates "chu"meri", while an oblique l i n e across a s y l l a b l e represents
"meri".

For example, the notations f o r C, B^, and Bb i n the

TS and SS appear as follows:

c

91
Example 1.

Ro Octave Pitch Notations

r-

l"s
<
<

<D

J-

_#s>

if-

o 7 *7
o

-a-

o frr

^*

i^. _

-H- ^

<;

T S
s

Meri RO and meri TSU tend to be ambiguous pitches but

the s k i l f u l musicians play them as low i n p i t c h as possible,
r e s u l t i n g i n the pitches "c" and "eb" r e s p e c t i v e l y .
notation fluctuates i n p i t c h from a f l a t AI? to a G,

The U
depending

on whether i t i s i n an ascending or descending passage, r e spectively.

When the c

p i t c h i s i n an ascending melodic

movement i t i s notated HI.

In p r a c t i c a l l y a l l cases, i t c u l -

minates i n d
HI ( i . e . ,

( a l l fingers o f f ) ,

"opened" HI).

If c

(usually U), i t i s notated RI.

appropriately marked akarui

i s followed by a lower p i t c h
The c

p i t c h i s also found i n

a whole-step progression from RO octave "c " to KAN octave d

( a l l fingers down), referred to as "the break" i n Western

mu-

92
sic.

2
In t h i s case, c i s notated HA (see Example 2 ) .
The reader may have noticed a curious discrepancy i n the

scale outlined by the "basic"

( i . e . , n o n - d i a c r i t i c a l l y marked)

s y l l a b l e s i n the previous example.

In a s i m p l i f i e d form (and

discounting the U s y l l a b l e because i t i s a variant o f A^ common to both notation systems), the scale and s y l l a b l e s f o r both
systems appear as follows:
TS/SS
TS

E*

SS

A*

C
C

D
D

These two scale forms w i l l be discussed at length i n the

next chapter (see 4:2).

For now, i t can be stated that the TS

tablature i s based on the In "Scale" while the SS tablature i s

founded on the Yo "Scale"

( i . e . , the "natural" scale o f the

shakuhachi, see 1:2).

The notations

i n the KAN octave are, for the most part,

the same as those i n the RO octave, except for the s y l l a b i c notations outlined i n Example 2.
Example 2.

TS / \

KAN Octave P i t c h Notations with Alternates

'

/
x

E9

SB

93

\> a

TS
SS
The top l i n e i n Example 2 shows three forms o f the HA-RO
pattern which i s e s s e n t i a l l y a cadence pattern.
use of arrows i n the patterns shown.)

(Hence, the

The pattern on the l e f t

i s the standard notation?which: indicates standard fingerings

and pitches.

The pattern i n the middle c a l l s for the same p i t -

ches, but with alternate fingerings which change the timbre o f

2
the f i n a l d

pitch.

The pattern on the r i g h t has the same a l -

ternate fingerings as the pattern i n the middle (although the

f i r s t HA i s not blown "meri") but i t i s over-blown into the
next harmonic s e r i e s , r e s u l t i n g i n a descending "cadence" ending
on a d3 p i t c h which has a d i f f e r e n t timbre than the standard d 3
2
"3
produced by fingering akarui HI.

Both the alternate d

pitches are perceived by the Kinko musicians as " f a l s e "

and d
sounds

which have the same impact as the " f a l s e " cadence i n Western
music.
Another " f a l s e " p i t c h i s produced by U i n descending pas1

sages.

Although i t "sounds" g or g , i t s timbre i s markedly

1 2
d i f f e r e n t from the g or g p i t c h produced by f i n g e r i n g RE.

94
The alternate fingering f o r B!? shown on the r i g h t o f
2

the standard fingering (which i s the same i n the RO octave),

i s more "open-sounding" than the l a t t e r .

I t i s also considered

" f a l s e " even though i t i s considerably more "stable" than meri

HI.

3:1:2:2

Pitch Repetition Notations

Example 3 has representative examples o f the three Kanji,

RU, RA, and RO, and the three symbols, k i r i ,

o d o r i j i , and naya-

shi, which s i g n a l the r e p e t i t i o n o f the preceding p i t c h .

Example 3.

Pitch Repetition Notations

The s y l l a b l e RU, preceded by a lower grace note, may f o l low TSU, CHI, or U, and i s performed i n a hushed manner with a
s p e c i a l fingering (see Weisgarber, 1968:324).

Whereas "TSU-RU"

95
and "U-RU" seem to be natural combinations (see Garfias,
68), "CHI-U" i s awkward and i s considered "deviant".
may

1965:

Odoriji

follow any of the eight b a s i c pitches and i t i s u s u a l l y

preceded by grace notes unique to the performer.

For example,

Goro Yamaguchi precedes o d o r i j i by upper grace notes while Tanaka Yudo adds "changing tones" before o d o r i j i .
s p e c i a l form of RU that follows akarui HI.
t r i l l pattern that u s u a l l y i s found on d

Kiri is a

KO(RO) i s a rapid
pitch.

When i t i s

used on any other p i t c h , i t appears as a d i a c r i t i c a l mark with

one consonant change, 21 ZJ ( i . e . , GORO).
poeic term which i s sometimes pronounced

KORO i s an onomato"koro, koro, koro, ko-

ro", etc., i n rapid succession.

Nayashi i s a s p e c i a l cadential figure that may
or RO, acting as an iambic, " a r s i s - t h e s i s " portamento

follow RE
cadence.

I t i s almost always preceded by g or d.

Example 4.

Nayashi Cadences

also ?v<x.

There are three s p e c i a l notations which may be viewed

as variants of nayashi:
Example 5).

" y u r i " , "yuri-komu"

and "hiku" (see

Y u r i i s played as a sequence of slow, wide

96
nayashi

which

sound

that

ment)

and

is

accelerate
then

"komi"

the

o r i g i n a l

not

involve

shi

in

reverse;

(as

in

the

the

right

subjected

(breath

(kari)

tsuki,

can

hand

diminuendo

into

to

(shaking

" t s u k i "

spasms),

pitch,

f i n a l
i t

and

also

and

then

Yuri-koam

ends

in

komi
be

or

nayashi.

followed by.an

i l l u s t r a t i o n ) .

Example

5.

Nayashi

Variants

a" c o n t i n u o u s
of

calm

meri

the

inst.ru

nayashi

to

meri
Hiku

and
is

inverted

.does
a

naya-

Hiku

97
3:1:2:3

Rhythm Notation

Two elements are employed to delineate rhythm:

vertical

l i n e s and "byoshi" (rhythmic "commas").

Rhythm patterns are indicated by v e r t i c a l l i n e s j o i n i n g
s y l l a b l e s within melodic c e l l s

(senritsukei).

Although the TS

and SS use d i f f e r e n t l i n e groups, the meanings are e s s e n t i a l l y

the same, i n d i c a t i n g one-half, one-quarter and one-eighth the
value of a "beat" (in the following Example 6, one h a l f note).
Note that the f i n a l note always has the value of one

complete

"beat", g i v i n g each s e n r i t s u k e i a d i s t i n c t i v e a r s i s - t h e s i s ,
rhythmic cadence.

A "beat" i s understood to be a "byoshi"

which i s s i m i l a r to the medieval Western "tactus".

Its fluc-

tuating value depends on the spontaneous f e e l i n g s of the performer.

Therefore, the l i n e s merely i n d i c a t e the r a t i o s of

time values (see 3:2:3),

Example 6

Line Patterns
SS

TS

1. h a l f - v a l u e :

2. quarter-value:
141*

3. eighth-value:

Rhythm

98
The word "byoshi" i s also used to describe d i a c r i t i c a l
marks that e s t a b l i s h meter within the rhythmic groups d e l i n e ated by the l i n e s

(see Berger, 1969:48-72).

Strong beats (o-

mote) are on the r i g h t side o f s y l l a b l e s and weak beats (ura)

are shown on the l e f t .

A l l Honkyoku are i n duple rhythm.

The only byoshi found i n TS are the omote-byoshi that

elongate TSU i n a common v a r i a t i o n o f TSU-RE (see Example 7 ) .
A l l other metric values are synonymous with the rhythmic r a tios.

Values which are one-half or one-quarter following

values are weaker beats.

Example 7.

TS byoshi

(As i n the t r a d i t i o n o f the nayashi, a breath i s taken on the

reprise, despite the fact that i t i s not notated.)
In the SS, byoshi are used constantly, i n contrast t o
t h e i r sparse presence i n TS, although the time values are exactl y the same i n both scores.

White byoshi are equal t o one beat

while black byoshi equal one-half beat, arid:combinations o f the

two can appear as Ura or Omote.
SS as follows:

Example 7 would appear i n the

99

Example 8.

SS byoshi

7 ^

One technical c r i t i c i s m may be made o f the SS byoshi.

Rather than progressing through a s e r i e s o f weak and strong
beats, l i n e d patterns are successions o f weak beats followed
by one strong beat ( i . e . , a r s i s - t h e s i s cadences).

For example,

i f four s y l l a b l e s are joined by a s i n g l e , l i n e , the pulse would

be v*v*N// rather than v / u / .
A more important c r i t i c i s m can be made on an aesthetic
level.

The performers purposely i n t e r p r e t the rhythmic nota-

t i o n i n the most free manner possible and often s t r e t c h the

rhythms to the point o f almost a l t e r i n g t h e i r r a t i o s .

The TS

notation allows f o r t h i s necessary freedom by i t s sparcity,

but the SS seemingly does not because o f i t s pedantic.appearance.

When Uehara Kyodo (Rokushiro) devised the byoshi d i a -

c r i t i c a l marks before the turn o f the century, he designed

them f o r Gaikyoku.

Their l a t e r incursion i n t o Honkyoku has

been a mixed b l e s s i n g .

100
4:1:3

Articulation
In Western music, a r t i c u l a t i o n i n wind instruments i s

achieved by beginning the sound o f each note with a sharp

release o f a i r caused by a f r i c a t i v e action o f the tongue. In
e f f e c t , sounds are i n i t i a t e d by consonants such as t ( o 6 ) " .
w

A r t i c u l a t i o n i n shakuhachi music i s executed by preceding an assigned p i t c h with an inverted mordent played i n

fast succession and i n i t i a t e d by an aspirate, "h" (see Berger,
1969:43).

The upper note moving to the assigned p i t c h r e s u l t s

in a finger slap which adds an imperceptible percussion.

The

inverted mordent sometimes does not even sound because o f i t s

rapidity.
The following patterns i n Example 9 i l l u s t r a t e common
a r t i c u l a t i o n s f o r "natural" (kari) and "chromatic" (meri)
notes (see Appendix I I I ) .

The performer has the option o f

varying these patterns or omitting them altogether, depending

on h i s spontaneous aesthetic impulses during a performance.
Example 9.

A r t i c u l a t i o n s f o r Natural Notes

KAN Octave

S*

101
RO

O c t a v e

ft

K A N

t i o n

i s

O c t a v e ,

s o

n o t a t e d

l y

t h e

a n d

o c c u r s

o c c u r s

l a t e

t o

i n

a t

n o t a t i o n

E x a m p l e

R l .

10.

a r e

i n

b r a c k e t s

t h a t

( s e e

o f

B o t h

i s

o f

p h r a s e s ,

p a s s a g e s .

P a t t e r n

b e c a u s e

t h e

E x a m p l e

v a r i a n t s

e n d

5"

A r t i c u l a t i o n s
i n

a l s o

i s

H A - R O

t h e

i s o l a t e d

1,

H o n k y o k u

a r t i c u l a t i o n ,

p a t t e r n

c e n t r a l

P a t t e r n s

P a t t e r n

e x e c u -

i n s t a n c e

o f

2).

a n d

w h i l e

r e s p e c t i v e l y .

P a t t e r n

i s

a p p l i e d

f o r

i t s

o n l y

P a t t e r n

o n l y

i s

u s e d

C h r o m a t i c

t o

t o

u s u a l -

a r t i c u -

H I .

N o t e s

O c t a v e s

8 v a

4-

^
9
A l l

f l a t t e r

t h e s e

o f

t h e

i n

so

t h e

u p p e r

p i t c h

p a t t e r n s

u p p e r

c h a n g i n g

t h a n

a r e

n o t e s

t h e i r

p l a y e d

i s

\2

11

i n

n o t e s

i n

n o r m a l ,

m e r i

c o n s i d e r e d

t h e s e

p a t t e r n s

" f i n g e r e d "

p o s i t i o n .

i m m a t e r i a l .

s o u n d ,

T h e

a r e

b e c a u s e

a c t u a l

p i t c h

102
Example 11.

Dai-KAN Octave A r t i c u l a t i o n s

9-

The r i g h t hand index finger that covers hole 2 i s the

only a c t i v e element i n t h i s set, moving from an open to a
closed p o s i t i o n with a quick inverted mordent
HA,

in-between.

and any notation i n one-eighth value, i s not a r t i -

culated with an inverted mordent: these two exceptions cons t i t u t e notated a r t i c u l a t i o n .

A r t i c u l a t i o n s within s e n r i t s u k e i are performed by sounding the upper changing note of the inverted mordent of each
assigned p i t c h .

Note that the portamento e f f e c t i n the des-

cending step-wise motions i s sometimes interrupted with "pregnant" , split-second silences (kiai) j u s t a f t e r each changing
tone has sounded.

These s i l e n c e s are optional according to

the mood of the performer.

103
Example 12. Step-wise Melodic A r t i c u l a t i o n s
i n Both Octaves
also

8va

There are several v a r i a t i o n s o f the preceding maxims.

Some o f these v a r i a t i o n s are notated d i a c r i t i c a l l y while
others are found i n the o r a l / a u r a l t r a d i t i o n s .
Diacritically-marked v a r i a t i o n s f a l l into two general
groups.

The f i r s t group i s comprised o f s i n g l e grace notes.

"Osu" may denote upper or lower grace notes but "utsu" i s a l ways a lower grace note pattern.
RA and k i r i .

Both are reminiscent o f RU,

Example 13 shows "osu" and "utsu" i n t h e i r most

common context.
Example 13. Special Inner-phrase A r t i c u l a t i o n s

Variations o f the o(su) and u(tsu) technique are used

on RI, HI and U to create moments of heightened melodic tension.

The following examples (in Example 14) are the most

common.

Note the s t y l i z e d o d o r i j i following the notated

p i t c h and the two accelerando and one ritardando d i a c r i t i c a l

indications.

The "u(tsu)-meru"

i s the same as u ( t s u ) " .

n

(Note that the following example i s a s t y l i z e d representation;

the number o f repeated pitches i s purely a r b i t r a r y . )
Example 14.

T?

Special Inner-phrase A r t i c u l a t i o n s

Iff i
en ii

3C_

*S
- *

+ *L * ~ *
-a
- 0
m

* ^-
& pT

v b \> ID Iv

UA.VA<XUV C a e c a I.)

P ft. -ft " *

I

0
-*

I 1

ft'-fr -fr -ft -M ff> ,&

>l 1> b Ii> k k

1

f *

ft

j5f

&

^ A
One other s p e c i a l e f f e c t , muraiki, can be l i s t e d with
the preceding group because o f i t s s i m i l a r nature.

It i s a

technique involving explosive breath attacks (muraiki) and

105

v i o l e n t shakuhachi motions (tsuki-yuri) (see Weisgarber,

1968;

317,321,326).
Example 15.

"Muraiki"

1frttr T
^

muraiki / kan, ka

(kan octave, k a r i pitch)

The second group of inner-phrase d i a c r i t i c a l l y - m a r k e d

a r t i c u l a t i o n s has " s u r i " i n i t s format.

The technique of

s u r i i s a very sophisticated form of portamento phrasing with

the fingers r o l l i n g o f f the holes? no actual a r t i c u l a t i o n occurs.
Example 16.

"Suri"

1^4.
The number o f variants that are part o f the o r a l / a u r a l
t r a d i t i o n i s i n c a l c u l a b l e because o f t h e i r v a r i e t y and number.
The following examples are common to the San Koten Honkyoku.
Example 17.
~TfUortTrVc<.l

hu

SKH Oral/Aural Innerphrase A r t i c u l a t i o n s

Actual

1 0 7

3:2

Performance Practices
The multitudinous techniques of performing Honkyoku

l i e w i t h i n the realm of the o r a l / a u r a l pedagogy of each sensei.

They vary between teachers and even between

performances

o f one teacher, so i t i s impossible to s t a t e i n v i o l a t e rules

regarding performance

techniques.

The p r a c t i c e s o u t l i n e d i n

the following pages are part o f the r e p e r t o i r e of Tanaka Yudo,

compiled i n 1973.
Performance techniques may be l o o s e l y categorized under
the headings of i n f l e c t i o n , amplitude, timbre and tempo.
Each o f these tonal c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w i l l be defined and described i n the next pages.

3:2:1

Melodic I n f l e c t i o n
The Japanese term for tonal i n f l e c t i o n i s utaguchi,

"song-mouth", which i s also synonymous with the mouthpiece

of the shakuhachi.

The technique involves a r a i s i n g or

lowering of the jaw which raises (kari) or lowers (meri) the

p i t c h i n a portamento manner.

Hence, another term f o r t h i s

technique i s "meri-kari". E s s e n t i a l l y , the i n f l e c t i o n s put

the finger a r t i c u l a t i o n s i n t o high r e l i e f .
Melodic i n f l e c t i o n i s one of the most d i s t i n c t i v e char a c t e r i s t i c s of Japanese vocal music, e s p e c i a l l y the slowly

108
paced forms.

The source f o r t h i s technique may be Shomyo,

which has the most elaborate system of vocal

c a l l e d "embai".

ornamentations

Gagaku music also employs meri-kari tech-

niques (Harich-Schneider, 1973:224), as do a l l the Shomyoderived genres such as Noh and Biwa-gaku.

One may

even en-

counter s p e c i a l i z e d meri-kari techniques i n s t r i n g and percussion techniques where s e l e c t s t r i n g s are pushed or

squeezed i n order to increase the tension of the plucked
s t r i n g or drum-head and r a i s e the p i t c h .
The SS has eleven types of melodic i n f l e c t i o n by
ploying nine abstract, d i a c r i t i c a l l i n e s (see Sato,
9-10).

em-

1966:

Although Tanaka Yudo performs a l l these nuances, h i

score has only one d i a c r i t i c a l mark ( i . e . , " m e r i - s h i t a " ) .

One can only acquire the knowledge of h i s other nuances by
taking part i n h i s a u r a l / o r a l i n s t r u c t i o n .
A l l melodic i n f l e c t i o n s are o p t i o n a l .

That i s , the

performer i s free to use them or not, depending on h i s aest h e t i c i n c l i n a t i o n s at the very moment he i s performing.
Like the SS byoshi, the SS notated melodic i n f l e c t i o n s tend
to m i l i t a t e against t h i s spontaneous musical behavior.
In the following pages, the melodic i n f l e c t i o n s (in
i d e a l i z e d form) w i l l be presented i n three groups according
to t h e i r b a s i c d i r e c t i o n :

downward (meri); upward

and combinations of both d i r e c t i o n s .

(suri);

The diagrams that pre

109
cede the explanations i n each group are s p e c i a l staves with
each l i n e representing a h a l f step, except the bottom l i n e ,
which represents approximate time marked, i n

quarter-seconds.

Note that the s o l i d black l i n e s represent sound duration.

The grace notes representing finger a r t i c u l a t i o n s are not
placed on stave or leger l i n e s because they may
ding to t h e i r context.

vary accor-

Each diagram i s numbered f o r i d e n t i -

f i c a t i o n ; on t h e i r l e f t i s drawn t h e i r representative SS d i a c r i t i c a l marks.

Note that the s i z e of the d i a c r i t i c a l marks

i s quite small i n r e l a t i o n to the s y l l a b l e s .

For example,

meri-kari between TSU and RO would appear as follows:

3:2:1:1

Meri In f l e c t i o n s

Example 18.

|
0

1
/

-T

0. 3

Meri

Inflections

1
I

110

Graphs l a and l b i l l u s t r a t e two d i f f e r e n t examples of

"meri-kari".

This i n f l e c t i o n i s so b a s i c to shakuhachi

i t has acquired another name, "shakuri".

that

The contour of graph

l a i s slow and deliverate, a common technique o f Kinko-ryu

performers, whereas the meri-kari i n graph l b i s rapid and
almost inconsequential, a common performance
Meian-ha.

p r a c t i c e i n the

Graph 2 i s also an inner-phrase i n f l e c t i o n , but i t

i s a v a r i a t i o n of meri-kari i n that the k a r i i s non-existent.

Graph 3, meri-komu, shows the f i n a l resolution of many senritsukei.

Malm singled out t h i s technique as the most charac-

t e r i s t i c sound of shakuhachi Honkyoku (1959:159-60).

There are two v a r i a t i o n s of meri-komu that occur on d
and d

pitches.

One form i s a d i a c r i t i c a l mark c a l l e d "meri-

s h i t a " while the other i s the k a n j i c a l l e d "hiku" (see 3:1:

2:2).

Ill

Example 19.

Meri-komu Variations
r>

4s L u
V

._<?

3:2:1:2

Suri Inflections

Example 20.

s
*

1
H
i

rA\s

-7

..

o11

1
1

Suri I n f l e c t i o n s

1
5
3

1
i

r2-

1
3

1
v

As i n the description of Meri i n f l e c t i o n s , Graphs 1 and

2 are inner-phrase i n f l e c t i o n s between two notes, while Graph
3 i s the i n f l e c t i o n used at the end of p a r t i c u l a r phrases.
Graph 1 i s an i l l u s t r a t i o n o f " s u r i - k a r i " ; i n essence,
i t i s an i n t e n t i o n a l emphasis of the upper changing tone be-

112
tween two s y l l a b l e s .
Graph 2 i l l u s t r a t e s a v a r i a t i o n of " s u r i - k a r i " i n which
the k a r i i s replaced by a caesura of silence c a l l e d " k i a i " .
"The pause i s never a lessening
trary, the projection
space o f the pause"

of i n t e n s i t y , but on the con-

of highest i n t e n s i t y i n t o the empty

(Harich-Schneider,

1973:435).

Graph 3 i s a diagram of "suri-ageru", which i s performed

as a decrescendo to an inaudible

3:2:1:3

pitch.

Meri-Suri Combinations

Example 21.

i
O

,
3

Z.

i
2

Meri-Suri Combinations

1
3

'

r
5

i
o

:
*

*f

?J

113
Graphs 1 and 2 are inner-phrase i n f l e c t i o n s , while
Graph 3 i s a phrase ending.

Graph 1 shows a "meri-kari-

suri-kari*' i n f l e c t i o n which i s e s s e n t i a l l y a meri-kari

tech-

nique which has the following upper changing tone drawn out
and emphasized.

The s u r i - k a r i - m e r i - k a r i i s the exact oppo-

s i t e o f the movement i n Graph 1 and i t i s found f a r l e s s f r e quently.

Graph 3 i s a v a r i a t i o n o f suri-ageru c a l l e d "meri-

suri-ageru" which occurs on s e n r i t s u k e i endings.

3:2:1:4
The

Summary
following chart summarizes micro-tonal i n f l e c t i o n s

and the notes that they follow.

Certain i n f l e c t i o n s connect

notes within s e n r i t s u k e i , while others are found a t the end o f

senritsukei.

Of t h i s l a t t e r group, I have further divided the

i n f l e c t i o n s into movements that proceed upward and downwards.

Sevw-Vhsukei
Eh.oLtlriqs

Cohne-ctiVes

Doujiaujairci

Pttctas
u

c c
a

a'

<t

<TT>

-C

ohVi)

d
d

I 2
i' y
A-

b
4

u
< u

t
c

d
d d.
d
'"

1 1 4

3:2:2

Amplitude and Timbre

Melodic i n f l e c t i o n and metre i s supplemented by ampli-

tude and timbre which are i n e x t r i c a b l y r e l a t i v e to each other.

The most eloquent statement o f t h i s b a s i c r e l a t i o n was composed
by Malm:
From a whispery, reedy piano, the sound swells to a r i n g ing, m e t a l l i c forte, only to sink back into a cottonwrapped softness, ending with an almost inaudible grace
note, seemingly as an after-thought.
(1959:160)
In other words, timbre becomes r i c h e r i n harmonics as the amplitude increases, and v i c e versa.

The Kinko-ryu performer does

t h i s with a highly sophisticated technique o f adjusting the f o cus o f h i s a i r stream with h i s embouchure.
Despite the extreme v a r i e t y o f amplitude and timbre, a
few generalizations can be made.

As the Honkyoku melody moves

from low to high t e s s i t u r a the dynamic l e v e l g e n e r a l l y increases.

Meri notes are performed with a soft, focused dynamic l e v e l
which creates a muted timbre.

Alternate fingerings (see Ex-

ample 2) produce a d i f f e r e n t timbre although they are blown at

the same dynamic l e v e l as pitches indicated by the standard f i n gerings.

Meri and Suri i n f l e c t i o n s are u s u a l l y blown decrescen-

do, e s p e c i a l l y i n moments o f " k i a i " .

Melodic movements u s u a l l y

are played crescendo i f they progress to G o r D,. Accelerando

motifs l i k e " y u r i " are decrescendo

figures, played l i k e fading

115

echoes.

F i n a l "theses" on G and D are played exactly as de-

scribed by Malm above.

3:2:3

Tactus
The tempo of a l l Honkyoku i s determined by "byoshi" (as

i t i s understood i n Shomyo practice) and "breath cadences".

Shomyo and Shakuhachi

"byoshi" have almost exactly the

same meaning as the Gregorian Chant "tactus" (Apel, 1969:832).

The tempo i s sub-consciously determined by the heart-beat of
the performer, and because the performer purposefully assumes
a meditation posture (Zazen) when he performs, h i s pulse rate
i s slower than usual.

The dynamic tension that e x i s t s between

the exertion of performing and the calmness of mind and body

r e f l e c t s the aggressive d i s c i p l i n e encouraged by the Rinzai
Zen sect.
"Breath cadences" were f i r s t described by Malm (1972:
98) i n order to account f o r the caesuras that occur at the
end of phrases i n Gagaku and Noh.

The pauses are j u s t long

enough to take one deep breath but t h e i r exact time l i m i t i s

almost impossible to notate because each breath i s unique.
Small breaths may

also occur w i t h i n phrases but they are a l -

ways taken "in-tempo".

116
In the SS, caesura and minor "in-tempo" breaths are i n d i cated by short, h o r i z o n t a l dashes on the l e f t and r i g h t side,
respectively, of a column of s y l l a b l e s .

Only major caesura

pauses are indicated i n TS, using small c i r c l e s .

3:3

Conclusion
The s k i l f u l performer of Honkyoku b a s i c a l l y s t r i v e s f o r

"organic melody".

That i s , melody which i s c o n t i n u a l l y e v o l -

ving and s h i f t i n g from one dynamic state to another.

This ba-

s i c p r i n c i p l e of dynamism, aptly referred to as "becoming

sound" by Smith

(1969:248) i s the sublime a s p i r a t i o n of every

Kinko-ryu musician (as well as every other ryu performer).

The e s s e n t i a l q u a l i t y of organic Honkyoku i s expressed
i n a meticulous devotion to melodic d e t a i l .

Within the l i m i -

tations imposed by the rudiments and performance

practices,

the performer i s at l i b e r t y to modify any moment of the Honkyoku he i s performing to s u i t the immediate requirements of h i s
aesthetic judgment about i t s "becoming-ness".

To t h i s end, the

notation (as best exemplified by the Tanaka Yudo score) and

o r a l / a u r a l t r a d i t i o n i s eminently s u i t e d .

The w r i t t e n music

i s purposely " s k e l e t a l " while the performance

practices

the "flesh") are consciously designed to be f l e x i b l e .

(i.e.,
The words

which describe the f u l l musical experience are "quasi-improvisation",

CHAPTER 4
SAN KOTEN HONKYOKU MELODIC ANALYSIS
4;1

Introduction
The hypothesis o f the following analysis i s that the

c e n t r a l element that governs Honkyoku melodies i s p i t c h h i e r archy and p r o c l i v i t y . *

The hierarchy o f a given p i t c h i s de-

termined by i t s "tendency" ( i . e . , p r o c l i v i t y ) to resolve t o

another s p e c i f i c p i t c h (see Meyer, 1956:34,54).

Further, i f

the r e s o l u t i o n i s r e a l i z e d , the melodic movement i s considered

"normative"; i f the tendency i s i n h i b i t e d by a rhythmic

caesura

or a resolution to another, unexpected p i t c h , the movement i s

perceived as "deviant".
of deviancy "heighten

On an aesthetic l e v e l , these moments

l i s t e n e r expectations"

f e c t i v e tension (see Meyer, 1956:1-42).

and stimulate.af-

The preceding

princi-

ples are only understood at an i n t u i t i v e l e v e l by members and

followers of the Kinko-ryu, but t h e i r features are r e a d i l y apparent when the written music i s analysed i n the l i g h t o f the
t r a d i t i o n a l o r a l and written elements o f "Honkyoku music theory"
(see Chapter 3 ) .
The melodic constituents o f the Honkyoku melodies are
117

11.8
"senritsukei"

("melodic patterns"),

phrases, and

sentences.

A l l the s e n r i t s u k e i used i n t h i s analysis are found i n Appendix

B where they have been arranged i n "sets" according

to

t h e i r f i r s t note and shared, inherent melodic movement.

In the following pages, the pitches which are

utilized

i n the San Koten Honkyoku (and Honkyoku i n general) w i l l

first

be described i n the framework common to recent Japanese music

studies, a scale ("onkai") outlined i n terms of i t s t r a d i t i o n a l
modality ("senpo") and tonal transpositions

("choshi").

t h e i r hierarchy and p r o c l i v i t y w i l l be defined by

how

Then

describing

they i n t e r a c t within t h e i r contexts ( i . e . , the melodic con-

stituents) .

F i n a l l y , the arrangement of the melodic c o n s t i t u -

ents of the San Koten Honkyoku w i l l be discussed with a view to

describing possible melodic forms.
The

"sample" that has been examined for the purposes of

t h i s chapter i s the three Honkyoku, Mukaiji, Shin Kyorei,

and

Koku Reibo, which are c o l l e c t i v e l y c a l l e d the "San Koten Honkyoku",

hereafter referred to as SKH.

Generations of performers

have acknowledged the SKH as the "three most venerable Honkyoku"

i n the e n t i r e repertoire (see Malm, 1959:161).

lowing pages, numbers following references

In the

to any of the

fol-

SKH

r e f e r to locations notated i n the t r a n s c r i p t i o n s i n Appendix A.

119
4:2

San Koten Honkyoku Scale

The SKH " p r a c t i c a l scale", o f a l l the SKH tones (see

Hood, 1971:324), i s simply derived by cataloguing a l l the p i t ches that are c a l l e d for i n the written music of the SKH.
TS and SS are equal i n t h i s regard.)

(The

The following l i s t i n -

cludes the frequency of t h e i r occurence, i r r e s p e c t i v e of octave

placement:

(%)

E ^ F

80

186

9.5

22.2

A^

(14)

192

142

24

27

1.7

22.9

16.9

2.9

3.2

.2

127
+ (44)
171
20.5

The bracketed numbers indicate pitches that are only

heard as the f i r s t note i n the portamento
(see

3:1:2:2).

The A^ sum

includes

"nayashi" cadence

a l l pitches indicated by

U and meri CHI.

A perusal of the t r a n s c r i p t i o n s i n Appendix A and Examples 2 to 21 i n Chapter 3 shows that the notes E, F^, and

C^

indicated i n the notation equivalents drawn i n Example 1 of

Chapter 3 ( i . e . , "the t h e o r e t i c a l scale", see Hood, 1971:324)
do not e x i s t i n Honkyoku.
the

These notes are most l i k e l y used i n

Kinko-ryu Gaikyoku and Shinkyoku which share the same nota-

tion.

The note C* (as D^) also appears i n the "Kumoi Choshi"

120
which w i l l be discussed i n the next few pages.
A l l authors are agreed that the "scale" of Honkyoku i s
4

"In",

u s u a l l y i l l u s t r a t e d as:
D

E^

(F)

(C)

'

The bracketed notes indicate the two hennon.

Comparing t h i s
u

scale with the previous SKH p r a c t i c a l scale, the notes A

and

B\ may be considered "foreign tones".

Looking at the previous chart of the SKH p i t c h d i s t r i bution, B^f can e a s i l y be seen as a "foreign tone" merely by
its rarity.

However, the ample existence of A ^ and A7* pitches,

and the substantial majority of the former over the l a t t e r , i s

problematical.

One of these two tones must be a candidate f o r

the nomenclature of "foreign tone" i f we are to formulate a

heptatonic scale appropriate f o r the

SKH.

The notation used i n the TS suggests the A ^ i s more appropriate than A H .

A S shown i n Example 1, the former does not

require d i a c r i t i c a l information.

(Note that the symmetrical

equivalent of A** i n the r i g h t hand, E ^ , also does not have

d i a c r i t i c a l information added to i t s notation).
Example 1. TS Notation, Honkyoku Scale

121
When A^f (and F) i s c a l l e d for i n the TS notation, as i n
the following example o f the "natural" s c a l e ^ of the shakuhachi

( i . e . , A and F are not blown "meri"), a s p e c i a l d i a c r i -

t i c a l notation, KA (kari), i s required.

Example 2.

-<S3

...

o*"?

TS Notation,

"Natural"

Scale

~~

')\^2 h_

r t

The A^ i s so i n t r i n s i c to descending passages (see Example 1) i n both the TS and SS notation systems that i t rates
i t s own unique notation, U, (which i s never subject t o " k a r i "
alteration).

Therefore,

attention to A

there are two notations which draw

, men CHI and U.

The preceding

evidence suggests that the heptatonic

scale

of the SKH (and Honkyoku i n general) i s :

D

E^

(F)

(C;

The d i s p a r i t y between the In scales with I& and A*? can

be e a s i l y explained by re-defining "scale" as "mode" (senpo).
Assuming that the heptatonic

In "scale" outlined by a l l authors

( i . e . , the scale with A*!) has a configuration o f tones and

semi-tones which i s basic t o Japanese music written i n that
scale, i t may be l a b e l l e d Kyu-senpo.

Considering

are never used for modal "tonics" (Adriaansz,

that hennon

1973:31), the

122
following d e s c r i p t i o n can be e s t a b l i s h e d :

Brpn

Kyu-senpo

Sho-senpo

Kaku-senpo

Chi-senpo

U-senpo

represents "tone", while "S" represents

"semi-tone".

Assuming that the scale outlined f o r the SKH ( i . e . , the

u

scale containing A ) i s correct, the next step i s t o decide

which p i t c h i n i t s arrangement i s the fundamental tone.

The

choice c l e a r l y centres on D and G because o f the emphasis they

receive,as outlined i n the previous chapter.

For example,

these two notes are the only pitches which receive constant
cadential emphasis with the use o f "nayashi", "hiku" (see 3:
1:2:2), and "meri-shita" (see 3:2:1:1).
I f G i s the fundamental tone, the SKH mode w i l l be Kyusenpo and appear as follows:
G
A
B '
S
T
T
b

D
T

E*
S

I f D i s the fundamental tone, the scale w i l l be Chi-senpo:

D

E
S

F
T

G
T

A
S

B
T

D
T

In the SKH, two factors i n favor of G are i t s frequency,

( i t occurs more than twice as often as D) and the three sets o f
finger a r t i c u l a t i o n s

(see 4:1:3) which constantly emphasize i t s

123
presence.

However, D receives more c a d e n t i a l treatment than

Gy the nayashi cadence which signals a major c a d e n t i a l resol u t i o n occurs more often on D than G (44/13) and the major
meri-komu i n f l e c t i o n s , hiku and raeri-sh-ifca, only occur a f t e r
D.

A l l three SKH end on D, a f t e r an anacrusis on G.

C o r r e l a t i v e evidence i n favor of the D fundamental

may be c u l l e d from several other examinations.

tone

A cursory study

of the e n t i r e Kinko-ryu repertoire finds 20 Honkyoku (68%) that

end on D i n the same manner as the SKH.
on G a f t e r cadencing on D.

Another 7 Honkyoku end

(Hi, Fu, Mi, Hachi Kaeshi no Shirabe

best exemplifies t h i s pattern with i t s "HA-RO, HA-RE" echoes i n

i t s f i n a l motifs.)

Of the l a s t three Honkyoku to be accounted

for, Banshiki no Shirabe (ending on c * ) , and Sanya Sugagaki

(ending on g*) have the following inherent scale s t r u c t u r e :
Example 3.

Sanya Sugagaki Scale

s_
-k. 9 & 0

F i n a l l y , Sokaku Reibo ( f i n a l cadence on d ) has yet another,

1

and unique, inherent scale system:

Example 4.

Sokaku Reibo Scale

124

The SKH scale with D fundamental tone f i t s the d e s c r i p t i o n o f the most popular In mode, Chi-senpo, according to K U DO* s study.

Also the natural scale o f the shakuhachi with D

fundamental tone i s the most popular Yo mode, Chi-senpo

hara,

(Kita-

1966:282).

F i n a l l y , D i s used as the fundamental tone equivalent

when the shakuhachi plays with the Koto and Sharaisen (Adriaansz,
1973:472).

The equivalent modes are c a l l e d "Honjoshi" i n sha-

kuhachi and koto music, and " H i r a j o s h i " i n shamisen music; i n

each case the f i r s t word means "basic, premier".
A l l the preceding evidence strongly suggests that the
fundamental tone o f the SKH (and Honkyoku i n general) i s D .
Therefore, the inherent scale system i s Chi-senpo^ and B -"J and
A*T are foreign tones.

The other scale, o u t l i n e d on page 1 2 0

i s e i t h e r an expedient but obtuse i l l u s t r a t i o n o f the Honkyoku

In "scale" per se,or an example o f a common but mistaken assumption that the mode o f Honkyoku i s Kyu-senpo.
The scale found i n Sanya Sugagaki i s Chi-senpo, G cho,
( i . e . , sojo), and i n Sokaku Riebo, Kyu-senpo, D cho ( i . e . ,
ichikotsu-cho).

The modality o f Banshiki no Shirabe (see 1 : 3 ,

No. 4 ) may be explained as a Chi-senpo, D cho ( i . e . ,

ichikotsu-

cho) Honkyoku which also explores the tensions created by s i multaneously r e i t e r a t i n g the two "leading tones", c

and f .

The 7 Honkyoku that end with D and then G are examples o f

125
Honkyoku t h a t end on a P5 i n v e r s i o n o f t h e t y p i c a l G-D (RERO) P4 cadence.

I n o t h e r words,

t h e i r f i n a l cadence, HA-RO,

HA-RE i s a c t u a l l y RO-RE, D t o G.
Chi-senpo has e x a c t l y t h e same c o n f i g u r a t i o n as t h e
"gamme p l a g a l e " o u t l i n e d by P ^ r i (1934:61).

Several

authors

have found t h i s mode t o be l a b e l l e d "Iwato", b u t Malm, G a r f i a s ,

A d r i a a n s z and H a r i c h - S c h n e i d e r make no mention o f i t . Malm
(1963:84) o u t l i n e d Iwato drum p a t t e r n s
Harich-Schneider

i n Kabuki Nagauta and

(1973:594) i m p l i e d an Iwato s c a l e

i n h e r diagrams o f t h e In-senpS*.

structure

Weisgarber (1968:331)

t i f i e d t h e Iwato mode i n c o n n e c t i o n

w i t h one s p e c i f i c Honkyo-

ku, Sanya Sugagaki, b u t he d i d n o t g e n e r a l i z e i t s use.

standard

Japanese r e f e r e n c e ,

Ongaku J i t e n . d e f i n e s

a genre o f f o l k music, b u t no s p e c i f i c i n f o r m a t i o n
Obviously,

iden-

The

Iwato as
i s given.

a thorough s t u d y o f t h e Iwato senpo would

reveal

a v i t a l Japanese music system t h a t has, u n t i l now, o n l y

been

hinted a t .
The Honkyoku Chi-senpo i s m a n i f e s t i n t h r e e d i f f e r e n t
choshi

(tunings):
Akebono

B^

E^

Hon

E^

B^

Kumoi

A*

E^

'

126
The Chi-senpo A cho and G cho are found i n the Honkyoku t r i o
l i t e r a t u r e , and Sanya Sugagaki i s obviously composed i n Kumoi
choshi,although i t i s not s p e c i f i e d i n the t i t l e .

A l l other

Honkyoku are i n "Hon choshi" (more properly, Honjoshi) except

Sokaku Reibo, which i s the only Honkyoku composed i n Kyu-senpo,
D cho.
Rather than dismissing G as inconsequential,now that D
has been established as the fundamental tone, the evidence
that

i s ; i n favor of G substantiates i t s importance i n the

b i t u s o f the SKH senpo.

am-

I t s s p e c i a l treatment i s i l l u s t r a t e d

i n Honkyoku melodic theory and i t s p o s i t i o n , a Perfect Fourth

above D and a Perfect F i f t h below D
"mid-way" point i n the ambitus.

can be interpreted as a

The r e s u l t i n g " a r t i c u l a t e d "

senpo creates a juxtaposed tetrachord and pentachord (see Example 5) which w i l l prove to be pertinent to the following
discussion of p i t c h hierarchy.
Example 5.

Tetra-Pentachord A r t i c u l a t i o n

127
A l l other pitches

(including "foreign tones") w i l l be

shown to be a u x i l l i a r y to t h i s b a s i c configuration.
The elaborate emphasis given to c

and c

(i.e.,

three

d i f f e r e n t notation s y l l a b l e s ) suggests a tetra/tetrachord art i c u l a t i o n juxtaposed on the tetra/pentachord

configuration

just o u t l i n e d (see Goro, 1975:60-87). .

Example 6.

Tetrachord A r t i c u l a t i o n
i i

4:3

SKH Melodic

"

Constituents

A f t e r e s t a b l i s h i n g the SKH senpo and i t s t o n i c and t e t r a /

pentachord configuration, the hierarchy and p r o c l i v i t y o f the
pitches can be determined by examining t h e i r

manifestation,

Honkyoku melodic constituents.

4:3:1

SKH Senritsukei
Because the "various melodic germs ( i . e . ,

senritsukei)

do not have d e f i n i t e names as they do i n biwa music and some

of the forms already studied,"

(Malm, 1959:162) several Western

authors have taken i t upon themselves t o catalogue and l a b e l

128
them.

Weisgarber (1968:318) has

i n h i s possession a catalogue

of some 300 or so s e n r i t s u k e i .
On f i r s t hearing, Honkyoku s e n r i t s u k e i appear to be

simi-

l a r to the stereotyped and modular s e n r i t s u k e i which are represented by shoka (see 3:1:2).

This impression i s reinforced

by the slow tempo and the r e l a t i v e l y few number of s y l l a b l e s

i n the notation,

r e s u l t i n g i n a l i m i t e d number of s y l l a b l e s i n

each Honkyoku s e n r i t s u k e i .

However, the v a r i e t y of Honkyoku

s e n r i t s u k e i that o u t l i n e any given general melodic movement

(see Appendix B:) and the presence of anomalies i n those "sets''
b e l i e s any stereotypography.

The

stereotyped melodic behavior

i s not among the s e n r i t s u k e i , but among the p r o c l i v i t i e s ,

hierarchy

of the

and

pitches.

The main d i s t i n g u i s h i n g feature of s e n r i t s u k e i i s t h e i r

cadential structure suggested by t h e i r iambic rhythm (see

3:

1:2:3), supplemented by performance p r a c t i c e s such as the melodic

i n f l e c t i o n s (see 3:2:1).

In other words, each note i n a

s e n r i t s u k e i seems to cadence ( i . e . , resolve) to the l a s t note

in i t s s e r i e s .
The

f i r s t fact to emerge from an examination of the sen-

r i t s u k e i i n the SKH
solve to D or G:

i s the large number which c a d e n t i a l l y r e -

80 s e n r i t s u k e i end on G; 105

85 end on other notes.

only 6 begin with G.

No SKH

end on D;

and

s e n r i t s u k e i begin with D,

and

A l l 6 of the l a t t e r cadences end on

D.

129
A c l o s e r study o f D and G shows that they are complemented by "leading tones" from below (C t o D, and F t o G) and
even from above (E ^ t o D, and A^ t o G).

The leading tones

from below are e a s i l y recognizable i n the form o f nayashi,

but the "upper leading tones" (see Kicahara, 1966:282) are
not r e a d i l y apparent i n the SKH s e n r i t s u k e i .

However, t h e i r

presence i s c l e a r l y evident i n the context o f "melodic i n f l e c tions"

(see 3:2:1).

An examination o f the examples (Chapter 3,

Nos. 18-21) and the summary (3:2:1:4) shows that the meri and
s u r i i n f l e c t i o n s are " a n t i c i p a t i o n s " o f the lower tone r e s o l u t i o n which normally follows.

This process occurs on E^ and A^

(U and meri CHI), as well as A,

and C ( s p e c i f i c a l l y on RI,

which anticipates a r e s o l u t i o n on a lower note, i . e . , A^ (see

3:1:2:1)).
Example 7 shows the matrix o f the p r o c l i v i t i e s o f a l l
the notes j u s t o u t l i n e d i n the previous paragraph.

Note that

C p o i n t i n g to A** i s notated RI and the same C p o i n t i n g to D

can be notated HI or HA (see 3:1:2:1).
only found i n the low (RO) octave.

The RI notation i s

The HA notation represents

C i n the low octave and E^ i n the high (KAN) octave (see 3:1:
2:1, Example 2 ) .

1 3 0

Example 7.

Tonal P r o c l i v i t i e s

1i

G
I

'

'

AT"
1i

&

When melodic movement within or between s e n r i t s u k e i r e solves the tension o f a note by moving according t o i t s proc l i v i t y , such movement may be c a l l e d "normative".

When the

opposite occurs, i t may be r e f e r r e d to as "deviant".

The f o l -

lowing "sets" o f downward and upward deviant movements are

c u l l e d from the SKH s e n r i t s u k e i which e x h i b i t more deviant
movements than normative movements. This curious s i t u a t i o n
w i l l be explained i n the next few pages.

131

SKH Deviant Upward Progressions:

Deviant Movement

Normative Movement

i/7

This deviant melodic movement (also found i n the RO octave) i s the most common i n Honkyoku.

Note the e s o t e r i c

i n t e r j e c t i o n of F which i s a leading tone of RE.

9kr

The TSU-U deviant melodic movement e x i s t s i n a multitude

of variant forms (see Appendix

Bl).

f
/

VP-?

The deviant HA i s marked "minna * ( " f u l l value") so that

1

i t s extended sound heightens the l i s t e n e r ' s expectations.

4.

9m

9-

3:

132
In t h i s case, the deviance i s not i n the melodic progression as such, but i n the f i n a l sound o f D.

Instead o f a

standard f i n g e r i n g o f RO, an alternate f i n g e r i n g i s subs t i t u t e d which "sounds'* d

but with a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t

timbre which i s considered "deceptive" (as i n "deceptive

cadence", [[see Ghapter 3, Example 2} ).

fee
9-

/\-C7

The KORO figure i s almost as common as the meri TSU-RE

figure.

I t i s always followed by a downward deviant r e -

s o l u t i o n o f HA.

f
_

^f

The deviant movement on the l e f t delays the r e s o l u t i o n

to RE (G) by v a c i l l a t i n g from the low A ^ to regular A K

The introduction o f the foreign tone A...*} from the A^ serves

to expand the melodic framework of the Honkyoku.
common context i s i n the following "phrase"

I t s most

(Example 8 ) .

133

Note how the

i s "cancelled" almost immediately by

the introduction o f a normative melodic movement contaming A .

Example 8. KORO Resolution

<

In e f f e c t , a new tetrachord i s introduced i n t o the pantheon o f Honkyoku tetrachords. 10

Example 9 .

Honkyoku Tetrachords

IT
~1

AH

Examples o f A ^ - A'] melodic movements can be seen i n Koku

Reibo,

27-29,

45-47,

8.

53-55

and

103-105.

rfc

7*

<2_

K-7 >9
This deviant movement i s quite rare (see Koku Reibo, 6 5 66).

1 3 4

9.

9-

The f i n g e r i n g for the

i n the deviant r e s o l u t i o n i s

a more "open'' sound than the f i n g e r i n g f o r the

i n the

r i g h t hand example (hence, the d i f f e r e n c e i n notation),

but the normative r e s o l u t i o n f o r the former i s s t i l l A *T
although i t never seems to occur.(see Koku Reibo, 65-66).
SKH Deviant Downward Progressions:
Deviant Movement
also ^va.

(5
3-5

also

5-

Normative Movement

vo

9-

ft

by*

f"j?

9-

/\-0
This deviant melodic progression u s u a l l y follows another
deviant progression, HA-(RO), i n quick succession.

In

both cases, the HA i s "altered'' t o heighten l i s t e n e r expectation.

I t i s also subject to v a r i a t i o n i n the

lowing KORO r e s o l u t i o n :

fol-

135

f-

/
(<

nr

7-

The meri CHI-U cadence shares the same c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

as the HA-(RO) cadence i n that the f i n a l note i s a "false**
sound because i t i s a d i f f e r e n t timbre than the expected
resolution.

The U i s always "blown" as "meri" as possible

so i t w i l l sound G, but i t s timbre i s markedly muted,

whereas the G sounded by RE i s very open.

(/ r)
v.J

"V

7i

.-I

0-

This p a r t i c u l a r deviance i s very rare i n the Honkyoku

l i t e r a t u r e (see Koku Reibo 30-31, 56-57).

I t i s not

brought i n t o high r e l i e f l i k e the foreign tone A \ (see

SKH Deviant Upward Progressions, 7) so i t i s not considered a moment of melodic expansion but a v a r i a t i o n
of the "meri-skita-" i n f l e c t i o n .
The preceding l i s t s of upward and downward deviances have
not taken i n t o account the v a r i a t i o n s that e x i s t f o r each example,

136
Most o f these v a r i a t i o n s take the form of rhythmic delays o f
resolution brought about by p i t c h r e p e t i t i o n and rhythmic
pauses

(see 3:1:2:2 and 3:1:2:3).

A perusal o f Appendix B

w i l l r e a d i l y show the many forms that e x i s t .

The number of deviancies i n the SKH f a r outweigh the
normative movements, thereby creating a sense o f constant expectancy and i n t e r e s t on the part o f the l i s t e n e r .

4:3:2

SKH Phrases
Even though a l l s e n r i t s u k e i are cadential, the s e n r i t s u -

k e i that end on D or G seem to have a greater sense o f "completeness" or resolution than other s e n r i t s u k e i .

This i s par-

t i c u l a r l y obvious i n the l i g h t of the s p e c i a l finger a r t i c u l a tions

(see 3:1:3), tonal dynamics (3:2:2) and cadential

(3:1:2:2) which occur on D and G.

figures

Therefore, a group of sen-

r i t s u k e i which consist of cadential figures comprised o f subs i d i a r y tones and progressing through a sequence o f normative
and deviant p i t c h p r o c l i v i t i e s u n t i l they come t o rest on D or
G, may be c a l l e d a "phrase" (a word used f o r the:purposes of,
t h i s thesis, but unknown to the Kinko-ryu).

Each phrase, con-

s i s t i n g o f two o r more senritsukei, follows on the heels o f

another phrase, r e s u l t i n g i n the fact that D and G act as " p i vot tones".

137
P r a c t i c a l l y a l l phrases begin with one of four
or t h e i r v a r i a n t s .

"incipits

By f a r the most common i n c i p i t i s meri

TSU-RE, followed by KO-RO. Although both contain p i v o t tones

i n t h e i r cadential movement, t h e i r melodic "deviancy" creates
a sense of melodic tension that "demands" a r e s o l u t i o n by one
or more normative cadential movements to p i v o t tones i n the
following s e n r i t s u k e i .

RO octave RI-U and i t s equivalent i n

the KAN octave, Hl-meri CHI, i s an i n c i p i t which i s a normat i v e melodic movement but which does not contain a p i v o t tone.
These senritsukei, and t h e i r many variants (e.g., Shin Kyorei,
40,43,50,63,73), s i g n a l the beginning of a downward melodic
progression to a G p i v o t tone.
fourth i n c i p i t , akarui HI.

This also holds true f o r the

Although i t i s a normative s e n r i -

tsukei, i t s usual context i s between a phrase which has completed i t s e l f and melodic progressions which move down t o g*
or g

(e.g., Koku Reibo, 60,82,87).

Phrases end with normative melodic movements t o p i v o t

tones which are sometimes r e - i t e r a t e d to insure t h e i r sense

of r e s o l u t i o n (see 3:1:2:2).

A second possible ending f o r

phrases i s the " f a l s e cadence" which i s a deviant s e n r i t s u k e i

where a normative s e n r i t s u k e i i s expected.

The most common

v a r i e t y i s the meri TSU-RE s e n r i t s u k e i (see Example 10) and

deviant resolutions based on HA-RO (see Example 11).

138
Example 10.

Mukaiji,

29-32

Example 11. S h i n K y o r e i ,

/
f L be*
L L$ *<* VA
L * to
l>
(=MVif
7 I i
-TTI\ii
l

i
*

25-26

bJ i
p

F a l s e cadences u s u a l l y a c t as " b r i d g e s " between p h r a s e s

Mukaiji,

s e e Example 23, l i n e 2 ) .

Occasionally,

HA and TSU

o c c u r i n i s o l a t i o n w i t h no r e s o l u t i o n a t a l l (e.g.,
16-17,50-51).

The t o n a l a f f e c t

(e.g.,

Mukaiji,

i s akin t o the incompleted

cadence which l e a v e s t h e l i s t e n e r w i t h a f e e l i n g o f "suspens i o n " and e x p e c t a t i o n .

4:3:3

SKH Sentences

I t i s a t t h e l e v e l o f t h e sentence t h a t "g" p i v o t tones

are d i r e c t l y r e l a t i v e t o t h e more dominant "d" p i v o t tones,
which r e p r e s e n t

t h e t o n i c o f Honkyoku m o d a l i t y .

This

relation-

s h i p i s b o r n o u t by t h e e a r l i e r d i s c u s s i o n o f Honkyoku m o d a l i t y

139
(4:2)

and the relevant t r a d i t i o n a l melodic theory that

rounds the "d

sur-

tonic.

A d e s c r i p t i o n of the construction of a t y p i c a l Honkyoku

sentence may

be i l l u s t r a t e d by o u t l i n i n g the "themes" of the

three Honkyoku i n the SKH.

Despite the capacity for p r o l i f i c

v a r i a t i o n , the actual sound materials of Honkyoku are quite

l i m i t e d , r e s u l t i n g i n a sameness that permeates the e n t i r e
repertoire (see Weisgarber, 1968:332).

To counter-balance

t h i s homogeneity, each Honkyoku has a "theme" which i s u n i q u e . ^

Although each theme has some generative melodic material which
establishes "inter-opus norms" (see Meyer, 1956:140), they do
not act as a point of departure f o r melodic development, but
rather as unique sentences which individuate t h e i r respective
Honkyoku.
In the following Examples (14-16), the s e n r i t s u k e i are
i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e i r basic form, b e r e f t of p i t c h r e p e t i t i o n s
and t r a d i t i o n a l performance p r a c t i c e s .

The context of the

themes within t h e i r Honkyoku w i l l be shown i n the next section

concerning Honkyoku "forms".
The Koku Reibo theme i s p a r t i c u l a r l y d i s t i n c t i v e f o r i t s
conspicuous lack of " v i r t u o s i c " s e n r i t s u k e i and i t s uncommon
symmetry.

I t i s also one of the longest themes i n the Honkyoku

repertoire, c o n s i s t i n g of 22 s e n r i t s u k e i .

140

Example 12.

Koku Reibo theme (see Koku Reibo, Appendix

/

1+, JSL

3.-

-r

I, 1-21)

ID

B.

16

17

I?

ID

3
Sentence A i s almost exactly the same as Sentence B, with
one minor exception.

Both sentences are comprised o f two phra-

ses, a and b; the a*s are the same but B,b has one extra senr i t s u k e i which adds a z e n i t h a l climax to the second sentence.
The two phrases i n C are codas, the second being more elaborate
than the f i r s t , which f i n a l i z e Sentence B and the e n t i r e nametheme i n general.
The complete theme r e f l e c t s a

normative and uncomplica-

ted approach to melodic progression, thereby e s t a b l i s h i n g

inter-opus norms f o r the rest of the composition and perhaps
a l l Honkyoku i n general, considering the s p e c i a l status of
Koku Reibo.

141
The theme f o r Mukaiji i s one long sentence followed by
three cadential phrases.

The sentence i s a complex v a r i a t i o n

of "HA-RO" i n a t y p i c a l four note, two s e n r i t s u k e i phrase,

e^-d, c-d (TSU-RO, HA-RO), which i s then "completed" by three
short "codas" ( i . e . , phrases which are "cadences" f o r the
previous sentence) that act as inter-opus norms confirming
the normative r e s o l u t i o n o f TSU-RE and RI-U i n c i p i t and the
r e s o l u t i o n o f HA-RO and TSU-RO f i n a l i s .

(Note that KORO f i g -

ures do not appear i n t h i s Honkyoku).

Example 13.

Mukaiji theme (see Mukaiji, Appendix I, 1-16)

S

+
I>
~ /*?

10

(2-

.0 *s9

13

IS
T 0~

a1

-A-

|6

-f-

+J
T /}

S C
I I
JL

7
f-

jn
<Q

Of *

142
Shin: Kyorei's theme resembles Mukaiji i n that i t i s a l s o
a complex v a r i a t i o n o f a simple normative s e n r i t s u k e i , HARO.
However, i t i s placed within the context o f a normative resol u t i o n o f KORO.

The f i r s t sentence contains the theme bracketed

by d i s t i n c t i v e TSU-RE-RO, normative s e n r i t s u k e i .

The KORO f i g -

ure i n the theme i s r e i t e r a t e d f i r s t without the HA-RO v a r i a t i o n

but also without r e s o l u t i o n , and then f i n a l l y with the normative
r e s o l u t i o n pattern.
Example 14.

Shin Kyorei theme (see Shin Kyorei, Appendix I, 1-16)

3H
'

lo

1
0

h-_

'

12

14

IS

143
Like the theme i n Mukaiji, the Shin Kyorei theme appears
a second time but i n the context of the normative r e s o l u t i o n
of a RI-U phrase.

4:4

San Koten Honkyoku Melodic Forms

A study o f Honkyoku "form" (see Meyer, 1956:45-47) may

be drawn from t r a d i t i o n a l cues and melodic analyses.

There

are several elements o f d i a c r i t i c a l information within each

Honkyoku "score" which i n d i r e c t l y suggest large d i v i s i o n s .
Further, the melodies can be analysed by d e f i n i n g t h e i r melod i c constituents and comparing t h e i r configurations.

4:4:1

SKH T r a d i t i o n a l Formal Indications

Formal a r t i c u l a t i o n i n many Honkyoku may be seen i n the

use o f double bar l i n e s (found i n the new, p r i n t e d r e p e r t o i r e

of the Kinko-ryu and Meian-ha) and paired numbers that
sections o f Honkyoku melody (found i n SS and TS).

bracket

Out of a

t o t a l of 30 Honkyoku, 18 have double bar l i n e s and 16 have

paired number sections.
No t r a d i t i o n a l explanation

seems t o e x i s t f o r the func-

t i o n o f double b a t l i n e s , b u t the paired numbered sections are

u t i l i z e d as e s o t e r i c v a r i a t i o n s .

In the exoteric manuscript

version of a Honkyoku the paired numbers are not i n sequence,

144
so the performer has the option of playing the Honkyoku seq u e n t i a l l y i f he wishes t o perform the e s o t e r i c v e r s i o n .

This

p r a c t i c e i s extremely rare.
Koku Reibo i s a r t i c u l a t e d with four double bar l i n e s and
eight numbers forming f i v e sections.

The f i n a l section i s only

one s e n r i t s u k e i long, so t h i s Honkyoku i s e s s e n t i a l l y divided

i n t o four major u n i t s .

Note that the four double bar l i n e

tions and four large numbered sections do not coincide

Example 15.

sec-

exactly.

Koku Reibo Sections

JL

-HL-

Re-arranged sequentially, the Honkyoku becomes:

1
In other words, sections I I and IV are interchangeable but the
d i v i s i o n s o u t l i n e d by double bar l i n e s are not disturbed.

In

both the TS and SS, part I I i s c a l l e d Zendan and part IV, Kodan,

which mean "former section" and " l a t t e r section" respec-

145
tively.

Also, both sections have the added d i a c r i t i c a l i n -

formation, Kawa-teru, which means the performer has an option

of being accompanied at the unison by another shakuhachi.

In

the analyses to follow, parts II and IV w i l l be shown to be

s i m i l a r i n melodic information.
In Shin Kyorei there i s no over-lap between the double
bar sections and numbered sections but the numerical

sequence

i s h i g h l y complex, r e s u l t i n g i n repeated numbered sections i n

the e s o t e r i c arrangement.

The o r i g i n a l version appears i n the

following manner:
Example 16.

Shin Kyorei

Sections

1
6

XL

ill

XL

The e s o t e r i c re-arrangement has a curious symmetry:

\TL

ill

Mukaiji has no double l i n e s but i t does have numbered

sections.

The numbers are supplemented by s y l l a b l e s which are

derived from the f i r s t s i x s y l l a b l e s of a d i d a c t i c poem that i s

u n i v e r s a l l y known i n Japan (see Nelson, 1966:1014).

146
Example 17.

Mukaiji Sections

ro

2.

3
TS.

The e s o t e r i c version i s :

Sections II and I I I are interchangeable codas and they have

s i m i l a r melodic m a t e r i a l .

Further, section I I I i s a newly

composed addendum"ireko no t e " .

4:4:2

SKH

The composer i s anonymous

Formal Analyses

The SKH sample has been analysed from comparative,

a r c h i t e c t o n i c and contour perspectives i n order t o present
three complementary p i c t u r e s of SKH s t r u c t u r e s .

4:4:2:1

SKH Comparative Analysis

Because Koku Reibo and Mukaiji e x i s t i n duet (seiso) and

t r i o (juso) versions as w e l l as solo (dokuso),

several conclu-

sions may be drawn by comparing the former with the l a t t e r .

The Koku Reibo seiso (duet) i s constructed i n four cont r a s t i n g parts (see Example 18), two of which are unison

(A

and D) and two of which are "Fuku-awase" (B/E and C/F).

The

147
G s e c t i o n o n l y c o n s i s t s o f one

senritsukei.

i s a composite o f most o f the dokuso.

i n Example 18

The

entire seiso

(Note t h a t the

numbers

are the same numbers used t o i d e n t i f y moments

i n the dokuso t r a n s c r i p t i o n s i n Appendix I.)

the o r i g i n a l s o l o are m i s s i n g :
t e n c e i n the theme and
b e r e d s e c t i o n and

first

section

Koku Reibo Duet

3%

a*

6 0

-j6

(i.e.,

gem

53

ii.

i t i s possible to further c l a r i f y

s t r u c t u r e o f Koku Reibo as o u t l i n e d

Example 19.

54-59).

Sections

/o6

Using t h i s information

sen-

the s e n t e n c e between the second num-

Example 18.
'

segments o f

the r e p e a t o f t h e

the t h i r d double b a r

OA

Two

IJ2

the

earlier.

Koku Reibo, S e c t i o n s

Clarified

in
ft

.1

The

Zendan (II) and Kodan (IV) are not o n l y

but

apparently

are even symmetrical and

t o have t h e i r i n t e r n a l p a r t s
The

trio

interchangeable

complementary enough

i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e as w e l l .

(juso) v e r s i o n s

o f Koku Reibo and

Mukaiji

do

148
not f a l l i n t o neat d i v i s i o n s .

The following diagrams include

wavy l i n e s which i l l u s t r a t e those sections of the solos which

are used i n the t r i o s .
Example 20.

T r i o Sections

Koku Reibo

AAA*

"T

71

^itX

(ol

(It

H I

Mukaiji

1?

" T i

?a

f
US

Ho

No consistent use of material i s obvious.

For example, the

Mukaiji theme appears both times but the Koku Reibo t r i o does
not even contain the dokuso theme.

B a s i c a l l y the t r i o s are

constructed of perfunctory fragments which are mostly highl i g h t s , of t h e i r respective solo Honkyoku.

4:4:2:2

SKH A r c h i t e c t o n i c Analysis

Using a l l of the previous information regarding s e n r i t s u k e i , phrases, sentences, and t r a d i t i o n a l formal i n d i c a t i o n s , i t

i s possible to draw composite p i c t u r e s of each o f the SKH,

illus-

149
t r a t i n g t h e i r " a r c h i t e c t o n i c structure"

( i . e . , form).

In the

diagrams to follow, a number of symbols w i l l be used which are

defined,

using the schematic t h e o r e t i c a l diagram i n Example 21,

i n the following manner:

Example 21.

Theoretical Melodic Line

r

T
ex.

a, e

melodic section indicated by a p a i r of c i r c l e d numbers

double bar l i n e
phrase ending i n an incomplete manner (e.g., f a l s e cadence)

a-b
b-c ^phrases (defined by " i n c i p i t " and f i n a l note)
c-d
d-e
I n c i p i t s : T meri TSU-RE s e n r i t s u k e i
t meri TSU (unresolved by RO)
K KO-RO s e n r i t s u k e i
R RI-U s e n r i t s u k e i
(R) v a r i a t i o n of RI-U s e n r i t s u k e i
H akarui HI
h HA (unresolved by RO)
a-d

sentence

phrase (d-e) which acts as a coda to the previous sentence

a-b

phrase, repeated exactly i n another part of the Honkyoku

b-c

phrase, appearing i n s i m i l a r form i n another part of the

Honkyoku, i d e n t i f i e d by a c a p i t a l l e t t e r

150
c-d

phrase, repeated exactly i n the r e l a t e d T r i o

a-e

complete melodic l i n e c o n s i s t i n g of r e l a t e d sentences

and codas

the number denotes the sentence

Shin Kyorei
1.

This l i n e begins with a s e n r i t s u k e i ( i d e n t i f i e d by a short,

heavy, black l i n e ) which occurs seven times throughout the
Honkyoku.

Although i t creates a sense of unity, i t s occur-

rences are h i g h l y v a r i e d contextually and are never i d e n t i f i e d as symmetrical "brackets".

theme sentence

The e n t i r e l i n e i s the

(see 5:4:2:2) with the core o f the sentence

being a repeated, elaborate yuri-komu statement.

2.

A f t e r a TSU-RE i n c i p i t

(D), a dramatic v a r i a t i o n of HA-RO

(bracket 1) i s presented and then resolved with m a t e r i a l

s i m i l a r to A, and then new cadential material (E).
3.

Beginning with a TSU-RE i n c i p i t variant of D, melodic

ma-

t e r i a l vaguely s i m i l a r to Line 1 i s presented, but i n the

context of a RI-U motif.
4.

An incomplete TSU-RE i n c i p i t acts as a bridge between Lines

3 and 4, and introduces the RI-U motif from Line 3.

What

follows, however, i s new introductory material leading to

a re-statement of the core of the theme.
5.

Bridge.

A s i n g l e phrase introduces the three numbered para-

meters which a l l have s i m i l a r material reminiscent of B i n

Example 22.

Shin

Kyorei

4
1

5L
i

a
9

||h

17

If'l

7-si

l5

iC

i|

,*

.3.3.

A *o

R
(JI

X7

LLK.
-3-

33.

31

44

ft)

13

f? [

df
H 1

BRIDGE

so

J
E

ft)

Td !
7!fj
7f
1

77

k !K
6

CO
I

>
6?

152
L i n e 1.
5 and 6.

These two i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e

l i n e s c o n t a i n s i m i l a r ma-

t e r i a l which i s p r o g r e s s i v e l y made more complex.

Between

59 and 62 t h e r e i s an e l a b o r a t e TSU-RE m o t i f which i s

unique i n t h e e n t i r e r e p e r t o i r e .

In t h e f i n a l

. the m e l o d i c development reaches a p e n u l t i m a t e

sentence,
climax a t

55-56 where t h e p e r f o r m e r i s admonished i n t h e SS t o

" s e i z e t h e moment'* ("ki-o t o r u " ) which i s d e s c r i b e d as
" t r a d i t i o n a l nothingness"

("oko mu").

Bracket

2 i s an

extended coda i n t r o d u c e d b y KO-RO.

7.

The e n t i r e l i n e i s an e l a b o r a t e coda t h a t completes t h e

Honkyoku w i t h c a d e n t i a l m a t e r i a l s i m i l a r t o m o t i f s

from

L i n e 1.

Mukaiji
1.

A f t e r a s h o r t i n t r o d u c t i o n , t h e theme and f o u r codas a r e

presented,

f o l l o w e d by an u n r e s o l v e d

a c t s as a b r i d g e t o t h e next l i n e .
a l r e a d y been d i s c u s s e d a t l e n g t h
2.

"HA* s e n r i t s u k e i which
T h i s e n t i r e l i n e has

(see 4:4:2:2).

An e x t r e m e l y l o n g and complex sentence t h a t i s b i - p a r t i t e

i n form f o l l o w s sentence 1.
a melody i n arched
das.

Their c e n t r a l motif

(C) i s

form f o l l o w e d by two complementary c o -

The whole sentence i s completed by two cadences (A)

which echo a major c a d e n t i a l formula

suspended TSU-RE cadence,

(t...),

found i n L i n e 1.

l i n k s L i n e 2 t o t h e next

Example 23.

MukaiJi

r ;
v.
21

Ik
D

"I

'nsjy
*3

T
"(6

3i|

w;

CO

154
sentence.

Note the i r r e g u l a r o c c u r r e n c e

of a s p e c i f i c

TSU-RE s e n r i t s u k e i which appears e i g h t t i m e s throughout

the e n t i r e H o n k y o k u f o u r times i n L i n e 2,
t w i c e i n 6.

dramatic

in 5

and

T h i s f i g u r e a c t s as a m o t i f t h a t c o n s t a n t l y

re-appears i n new
The

twice

contexts,

"muraiki"

c r e a t i n g a sense o f u n i t y .

s e n r i t s u k e i t h a t r e c e i v e d such

prominance i n S h i n K y o r e i i s a l s o used i n the second C

m o t i f i n t h i s sentence, c r e a t i n g a h i g h l y d r a m a t i c
3.

The

theme i s r e - i n t r o d u c e d and

t e x t o f RI-U.
one
4.

but

i n the

l i n e c o n t a i n i n g two

v a r i a t i o n s on t h e m a t i c

1.
sentences which a r e b o t h

m a t e r i a l presented

i n L i n e 2.

second v a r i a t i o n , b e i n g more e l a b o r a t e than the

completed by an echo from L i n e 1
5 Bridge.

con-

I t i s completed by a coda s i m i l a r t o the

found a t the end o f L i n e

A simple

repeated,

moment.

This i s simply

a RI-U

The

first,

is

(A).

senritsukei that creates a

sense o f o v e r - l a p p i n g sentence s t r u c t u r e s between the

numbered parameters i n 5 and
5.

T h i s l i n e i s comprised o f new
v a r i a t i o n s on RI-U

6.
material

(E) which

contains

s e n r i t s u k e i t h a t seem t o complete

the

which can exchange p o s i t i o n s w i t h

Line

e n t i r e Honkyoku.
6.

The
5,

" I r e k o no Te",

i s a l s o comprised o f coda v a r i a t i o n s based on

falling

s e n r i t s u k e i which a r e themselves v a r i a t i o n s on the b a s i c

155
RI-U s e n r i t s u k e i .
7.

The f i n a l c l o s i n g cadences s i g n a l the end o f the composition.

Koku Reibo
Because Koku Reibo f a l l s so neatly i n t o t r a d i t i o n a l and
comparative parameters, the following resume w i l l be presented
according t o the sections o u t l i n e d i n 4:4:2:1.

Letters i n d i -

cate exactly repeated material within the t r i p a r t i t e sections.

A.

Theme (discussed i n 4:4:2:2)

B.

A f t e r a TSU-RE i n c i p i t , contrasting melodic material i s

introduced by a new i n c i p i t , RI-U. The two KORO codas a t
the end o f Lines 4 and 5 are deviant resolutions i n comparison t o the KORO resolutions presented

i n the theme.

The curious suspension i n Line 5, 30-32 re-appears i n r e solved form i n Line 13.

The f i n a l s e n r i t s u k e i at the end

of the t h i r d l i n e are p a r t i c u l a r l y c a d e n t i a l because o f

the s k i l f u l use o f hiku.
C.

The f i r s t sentence and the immediately following phrase

a c t as a bridge between B and C.
appear i n new, deviant forms.

The two KORO codag r e -

Note the repeat signs i n

the second and t h i r d l i n e s , and a s i m i l a r sequence, w r i t ten out instead o f repeated,

i n Lines 18, 19 and 20.

i n the equivalent section (F)

The f i n a l two l i n e s (Koku Reibo,

54-59), already discussed i n 4:4:2:1, d i s r u p t the apparent

E x a m p l e 24.

Koku

Reibo

157

symmetry o f the two t r i p a r t i t e d i v i s i o n s (A, B,C and D,E,F).

Note that i t i s a d i r e c t repeat o f the t h i r d and fourth
phrases i n B, but with one important d i f f e r e n c e t h e suspended E a t 32 i s f i n a l l y resolved.

To add t o the ambi-

guity, t h i s l i n e acts as a coda t o the f i r s t

tripartite

d i v i s i o n and a bridge between the two d i v i s i o n s .

D.

The f i r s t and second phrases constitute the penultimate

climax preceding the c l i m a c t i c apogee i n E. The next
three phrases echo the c l o s i n g phrases i n A.

E.

The f i r s t h a l f o f the sentence i s an intense introduction

to the c l i m a c t i c melodic material which occurs i n the s e cond h a l f .

The e n t i r e sentence i s unusually long and i s

f i n a l i z e d by the dramatic TSU RO cadence/coda l a b e l l e d "x".

F.

Mirroring section C i n o u t l i n e , section F i s a complex denouement with unique KORO figures which c l o s e l y
the

g.

resemble

t r i l l i n European a r t music.

The RE-RO cadence culminates the e n t i r e Honkyoku.

One general comment can be made about the preceding i n -

formation.

At f i r s t glance, the analysis o f the e n t i r e Hon-

kyoku might lead one t o assume that i t i s symmetrical.

How-

ever, a c l o s e r examination reveals that the apparent symmetry

i s e n t i r e l y disrupted by the melodic material that i s not r e peated.
(as

A rough graph o f the contour o f the melodic i n t e n s i t y

a function o f t e s s i t u r a ) i l l u s t r a t e s t h i s f a c t .

1 5 8

Example 25.

Koku Reibo Form

0 '

SECTION $
Although there are many repeated phrases, they are constantly
presented i n new contexts, discouraging the l i s t e n e r from apprehending large u n i t s i n symmetrical r e p e t i t i o n s .

4:4:2:3

SKH Contour Analysis

One f i n a l study o f the SKH may be drawn which presents

an over-view.

Using the p i v o t tones of each SKH and t h e i r f r e -

quency of occurrence, each SKH may be seen i n p r o f i l e .

The

p i v o t tones used i n the diagrams (and numbered along the "y"

axis) represent the b a s i c p i v o t tones i n each s e n r i t s u k e i , not
the actual number o f p i v o t tones which would include p i v o t tone
r e - i t e r a t i o n s i n the form of r e p e t i t i o n s .

(One exception t o

t h i s general r u l e i s the "nayashi" which have been included

i n a l l cases.)

The following presentation i n v i t e s comparison

between SKH as w e l l .

The obvious conclusion one may draw from

t h i s form o f analysis i s that there i s no p a r t i c u l a r form o f

r e p e t i t i o n or symmetry i n any o f the Honkyoku, and no points

Example 26.

SKH C o n t o u r A n a l y s i s

160
o f s i m i l a r i t y between t h e t h r e e Honkyoku.

In p a r t i c u l a r ,

note

the d i s p a r i t y t h a t e x i s t s between t h e f o u r major s e c t i o n s o f

Koku Reibo.

4:4:2:4

Summary

Malm (1959:161) suggested t h a t shakuhachi music was

" r o n d o - l i k e " and Weisgarber

(1968:324) t a c i t l y s u p p o r t e d h i s

c o n c l u s i o n by developing the idea i n t o a " p r i n c i p l e o f motivic alternation".

However, a c l o s e examination o f t h e SKH has

shown t h a t any f o r m a l elements such as m e l o d i c o r t h e m a t i c r e p e t i t i o n , o r t r a d i t i o n a l cues a r e i n c i d e n t a l t o t h e many comp l e x melodic events

( i . e . , normative and d e v i a n t cadences)

which o c c u r between p i t c h e s .

What l a r g e a r c h i t e c t o n i c

struc-

t u r e s t h e r e a r e ( i . e . , phrases and sentences) a r e " l o s t " i n

a maze o f m e l o d i c d e t a i l , w i t h no i n h e r e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s t o
each o t h e r .

Touma (1971:41) a l l u d e s t o t h e same c o n c l u s i o n

when he s t a t e s t h a t " t h e s i n g u l a r f e a t u r e o f ( t h e form o f Midd l e E a s t e r n "Maqam") i s t h a t i t i s n o t b u i l t upon m o t i f s ,

e l a b o r a t i o n , v a r i a t i o n and development

their

b u t through a number o f

m e l o d i c passages o f d i f f e r e n t l e n g t h which r e a l i z e one o r more

t o n e - l e v e l s i n space and thus e s t a b l i s h t h e v a r i o u s phases i n
the

development".
The " t o n e - l e v e l s " i n Honkyoku a r e s e n t e n c e s governed by

t o n i c tones

1 2
3
(d , d , d ) and p h r a s e s governed b y p i v o t t o n e s .

161
The fundamental tones just i l l u s t r a t e d i n the above analyses
are not a l l equally fundamental; d
d

and d

has an a t t r a c t i o n to d .

has a melodic p r o c l i v i t y to
1

In e f f e c t , d
2

tone" and generative tone.

i s a "home

Akarui HI (d and d

seem to func-

t i o n more as "peak tones" than as points of repose because they

are always immediately followed by downward progressions. This
corroborates with the general tendency of normative movements
to point downwards and deviant movements which move upwards.
As the Honkyoku melody r i s e s i n p i t c h , the degree o f a f f e c t i v e
tension r i s e s i n the l i s t e n e r (see Meyer, 1956:139); hence the
fact that d^ i s a generative tone.

As the Honkyoku melody

" f a l l s " through i t s s e r i e s o f normative resolutions, the degree

o f a f f e c t i v e tension decreases

u n t i l the melody reaches the

point o f absolute repose, d^". Hence, 6?" a l s o can be considered

a "home tone".

This p r i n c i p l e of a f f e c t i v e tension r e l a t i v e

to t e s s i t u r a also applies to p i v o t tones ( i . e . , phrases) but

not to s e n r i t s u k e i where the p r o c l i v i t i e s o f i n d i v i d u a l pitches
(e.g., upward moving leading tones) are the c e n t r a l musical experience.
4:5

Conclusion
The melodies of the San Koten Honkyoku are "composed" i n

the "Iwato" mode ("Chi-senpo") o f the In " s c a l e " .

Although

162
"d" i s the fundamental tone ( cho") of the mode, d* i s the
M

generative tone and point of absolute repose ( i . e . , "home

2
3
tonic") while d and d act as secondary "tonics" and "peak
tones".

The melodies are further delimited by tetrachords

1

and pentachords a r t i c u l a t e d by "pivot tones" (d , g , d , g ,

d ) which get s p e c i a l cadential emphasis.
3

A l l the other tones

i n the mode ( i . e . , c, e , f, a , b ) and "foreign" to the mode

r

(a^, b*j) which comprise the r e s t of the Honkyoku tonal mater i a l , "gravitate" according to t h e i r respective p r o c l i v i t i e s .
Tonal p r o c l i v i t y functions on three d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s .
At the most immediate l e v e l , senritsukei, each tone has a proc l i v i t y to another s p e c i f i c tone^

This l e v e l represents the

most obvious aesthetic experience f o r the l i s t e n e r ,

the slow tempo and deliberate melodic movements,

because

supplemented

by performance practices, bring the tonal p r o c l i v i t i e s and

t h e i r resolutions into the highest r e l i e f .

On the next two

l e v e l s , pivot tones d e l i m i t i n g phrases and fundamental tones

d e l i m i t i n g sentences also act with p r o c l i v i t i e s .

Because o f

the r e l a t i o n s h i p o f a f f e c t i v e tension to t e s s i t u r a , higher

pivot tones g r a v i t a t e to lower pivot tones, and higher fundamental tones gravitate t o lower fundamental tones.
The "form" o f the SKH melodies may be roughly described
as "Fortspinnung" (see Apel, 1969:329) with occasional melodic

163
r e p e t i t i o n s t h a t appear almost i n an a l e a t o r i c manner, r a t h e r
than as p o i n t s o f m a c r o - s t r u c t u r a l

reference.

CONCLUSION
The Kinko-ryu i s a f r a t e r n i t y of musicians who

share a

common legacy and a deep commitment to i t s inherent philosophy

and a e s t h e t i c s .

I t s unique medium, the shakuhachi, and i t s

oldest t r a d i t i o n a l music, Honkyoku, were designed to act as a

v e h i c l e f o r Zen Buddhist enlightenment i n much the same manner
as the "ox" i n the famous "Ten Ox-herding Pictures" of Zen
Buddhism (see Suzuki, 1961:363-376).

Both the instrument and

i t s music were adapted from previous t r a d i t i o n s which had the

roots of t h e i r meditative s t y l e within t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l development.
The v e r t i c a l f l u t e i n ancient China and Japan has had a
long and c o l o r f u l h i s t o r y which has been most prominent when
i t s function was meditative. Whether i n the context of ancient
Chinese Shamanism, Taoism, or Japanese Buddhism, i t has served
as an expression of s p i r i t u a l harmony (whether achieved or
longed for) between the inner and outer r e a l i t i e s of i n d i v i d u als.

Whenever i t has been relegated to a purely entertainment

medium, i t has never f l o u r i s h e d as well as i t has i n i t s more

meditative r o l e .
164

165
T r a d i t i o n a l Honkyoku melodic theory i s divided i n t o two
b a s i c areas.

The rudiments ( i . e . , the basic meaning of the

symbols of notation) are exoteric information i n that they can

be acquired from many sources i n c l u d i n g p r i n t e d
However, the multitudinous

information.

performance p r a c t i c e s which are

ap-

p l i e d to the s k e l e t a l notation are e s o t e r i c i n that they can

only be acquired from a sensei.

In t h i s way,

the h i s t o r i c a l

c o n t i n u i t y of the e s s e n t i a l s p i r i t of t h e i r performance i s i n sured.

This s p i r i t i s r e f l e c t e d i n the spontaneous freedom of

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n that each performer i s allowed to b r i n g to the

music, r e s u l t i n g i n a sense of improvisation despite the r e s t r i c t i o n s of a notation.
An analysis of the San Koten Honkyoku, a

representative

sample of the Honkyoku l i t e r a t u r e , has shown that they are

through-composed ( i . e . , a-formal) because "the concept of a
form involves abstraction and generalization" (Meyer, 1956:57)
a

noetic frame of mind which i s unequivocally

to Zen Buddhism.

antithetical

Honkyoku melodic events only function at an

immediate a r c h i t e c t o n i c l e v e l , "co-existing i n an all-encompassing, but f l u c t u a t i n g , present"

(Meyer, 1967:167).

However,

they are not a l e a t o r i c or fragmentary because each event i s

intimately r e l a t e d to i t s immediate neighbour according
s p e c i f i c laws of modality.

to

This system of immediacy i s r e -

ferred to by Zen Buddhists as "Inga-Inchinyo"cause-and-

166
e f f e c t oneness, a c e n t r a l concern o f the phenomenologists
(e.g., Pike, 1970) and e x i s t e n t i a l i s t s i n the West, and the
meditative philosophies i n the East.
The quasi-improvisatory s t y l e o f Honkyoku performance
p r a c t i c e s coalesce with another key Zen Buddhist c o n c e p t
"mu-shin no shin" (the mind o f no-mind).

Ornamentation, am-

p l i t u d e , timbre, and rhythmic i d i o s y n c r a c i e s which are o b l i gatory i n lessons become o p t i o n a l and v a r i a b l e i n performances a f t e r the student has acquired t h i s Zen Buddhist perspect i v e with the guidance of a Sensei.

Those students who f a i l

to do so become mimics, some o f whom, however, develop the

highest l e v e l o f t e c h n i c a l mastery and p u b l i c adulation. However, "mu-shin no shin" e x i s t s i n inverse proportion t o the
l e v e l o f s e l f aggrandizement,

r e s u l t i n g i n few performers who

exemplify and p r a c t i c e "the way o f the bamboo f l u t e " T a k e d o .

True Honkyoku performances are a s o l i t a r y a c t o f meditat i o n , even i n the occasional presence o f an audience.

It i s

during these moments that the performer may catch a glimpse

of Kensho, i r r e s p e c t i v e o f a t e c h n i c a l l y flawed or p e r f e c t
performance.

And, l i k e Chikan Zenji's perception o f "the

c l a t t e r o f a broken t i l e "

(Ross, 1960:61-64), the l i s t e n e r

may also experience Kensho i f h i s powers o f meditation and

understanding equal the moment.

NOTES
CHAPTER 1
1.

Note that Japanese nouns do not have a p l u r a l form.

2.

Through experimentation, Yoshio Kanamori

(1969:459-

^73)has discovered an extended range that includes 93 d i f f e r e n t

kinds of sounds and more than a 3-octave ambitus.
3.

Williams (1960:100) has found that the crane i s "the

b i r d who c a r r i e s away the souls o f the dead i n China", suggest i n g a shamanist i n f l u e n c e .

I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to compare the

same ancient reverence f o r cranes i n Europe.

This f a s c i n a t i o n

i n the powers o f the crane even extends to the use o f the word
" t i b i a e " i n Renaissance music (see Arbeau, 1967:39).

This word

r e f e r s to the shin bone and legs o f the crane, and small, v e r t i c a l f l u t e s (as i n "pipe and tabors"). " T i b i a " i s the L a t i n
II

II

equivalent f o r Aulos.
4.

The more common appearance o f t h i s term i s "Ryugin"

(dragon sound), a mythological and shamanistic reference to

the sound o f thunder i n r a i n clouds (an auspicious s i g n ) .
Ryugin i s a l s o a t e c h n i c a l term f o r the Gagaku note' F ' "(i.e.,
,

shimomu).

I wonder i f "Ginryu" i s an example o f an e a r l y

167

168
s c r i b e ' s e r r o r becoming s a c r o s a n c t t r a d i t i o n ?
5.

The Chinese c h a r a c t e r f o r Suga ("*)

the Chinese r a d i c a l s f o r " r e e d " (kusa

pipe"

(kuan

).

r t

i s comprised o f

and " v e r t i c a l

The Chinese c h a r a c t e r " g a k i " i s synonymous

w i t h "byo" which means " f e n c e " b u t which i s a c t u a l l y a

c a l term f o r the l i n e a r arrangement
and mouth organ
6.

flute-

techni-

o f p i p e s i n pan-pipes (sho)

(sho).

P r e l i m i n a r y s t u d y on my p a r t has shown t h a t the

" H a c h i k a e s h i " melody has the same r e c u r r i n g n o t e s as " H i , Pu,

Mi" b u t an o c t a v e h i g h e r ( i . e . , d ,
2

7.

Garfias

g ,
2

d ).
3

(1975:143) w r i t e s t h a t " B a n s h i k i - c h o i s p e r -

haps the most e v o c a t i v e and e x p r e s s i v e o f the Togaku c h o s h i .

I t i s t r a d i t i o n a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e season o f Autumn, which
because o f the-.decay of

l i f e brought f o r t h i n the S p r i n g i s

v a l u e d as the season o f m e d i t a t i o n and deeper a e s t h e t i c

ments.

senti-

Compositions i n t h i s c h o s h i a r e s e l e c t e d f o r performance

a t I m p e r i a l and Noble f u n e r a l s . "

L a t e r he says t h a t "much o f

t h e c h a r a c t e r o f B a n s h i k i - c h o f o r b o t h the fue and

hichiriki

l i e s i n the f a c t t h a t almost e v e r y degree e x c e p t the fundament a l and f i f t h i s t r e a t e d w i t h some type o f

( i b i d . , 144 ) .

embellishment."

Both o f these quotes a r e s t r o n g l y r e m i n i s c e n t

o f the a e s t h e t i c s s u r r o u n d i n g Honkyoku and t h e i r m e l o d i c c o n figurations .

8.

"One

o f the o l d e s t d a t a b l e m o t i f s i n A s i a n

mythology

169
i s that o f the l i s t e n i n g deer.

I t appears i n the form o f two

deer f l a n k i n g a p r i e s t on s e a l s from Mohenjo-daro, e a r l i e r

2000 B.C."

"A T i b e t a n monk s a i d he b e l i e v e d T i b e t a n h u n t e r s

had a c t u a l l y used music t o a t t r a c t d e e r .

i s a widespread p r a c t i c e i n A s i a .
this article),
pose:

than

M u s i c a l deer hunting

In e v e r y case

(reported i n

a m u s i c a l instrument i s used f o r t h e same p u r -

t o i m i t a t e t h e deer's mating c a l l . "

(Ellingson-Waugh,

1974:23-24).
9.

The use o f t h e word " t r u e " may stem from t h e f a c t

t h a t the K i n k o - r y u and Meian-ha S h i n K y o r e i a r e q u i t e

ent.

differ-

A s u p e r f i c i a l examination o f t h e Meian-ha v e r s i o n

readi-

l y uncovers t h e f a c t t h a t i t i s m e l o d i c a l l y s i m i l a r t o t h e
K i n k o - r y u Banshiki-ch5 Honkyoku, b u t i n a s i m p l i f i e d
10.

The e a r l i e s t names o f t h e San Koten Honkyoku, and

the names s t i l l
and

form.

u t i l i z e d by the Meian-ha, a r e K y o r e i , K o k u - j i

Mukai-ji.
11.

Japan i s n o t t h e o n l y A s i a n c o u n t r y t o have f u n c -

t i o n a l and independent Prelude t y p e s .

The most n o t a b l e exam-

p l e s o f f u n c t i o n a l Preludes are the Indian "alap",

"buka", and M i d d l e E a s t e r n "Taqsim".
Preludes a r e t h e P e r s i a n "Avaz"
A r a b i a n independent "Taqsim"
"Tao-I"

(Liang, 1975).

Significant

Indonesian
independent

( N e t t l , 1972; Z o n i s , 1973), t h e

(Touma, 1971),

and t h e Chinese

The most important d i f f e r e n c e between

170
the Japanese and Chinese Preludes and the other Asian Preludes
i s that the former have a s k e l e t a l notation.
12.

"Chikudo"

i s the more grammatically correct term,

because i t employs the on-yomi (Chinese) readings f o r both

kanji,

instead of mixing a kun-yomi (Japanese) reading ( i . e . ,

"Take") with an on-yomi reading ( i . e . , "Do").

However, "Take"

seems more appropriate because i t i s a t r a d i t i o n a l synonym f o r

"shakuhachi" among the Kinko-ryu musicians, and because the
t r a d i t i o n of Honkyoku i s as indigenous to Japan as the word
"Take".
13.

A most i n t e r e s t i n g

and curious: fact i s that the

t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n of "Shikan" i s "themeless"

( i . e . , non-struc-

t u r a l ) , while i t s l i t e r a l meaning i s "wandering f l u t e " .

14.

Adriaansz (1973:227) brings t h i s same point forward

i n h i s o u t l i n e of koto performance

practices.

I t should be

noted that some o f the techniques required f o r performing J3onkyoku, p a r t i c u l a r l y the movement of the head during "merik a r i " tonal i n f l e c t i o n s , m i l i t a t e against a p e r f e c t l y
q u i l " composure.

"tran-

However, i t has been my experience that a

number of shakuhachi performers e x p l o i t

purely dramatic e f f e c t .

these techniques f o r

Whether the drama of performance

de-

t r a c t s from or enhances t h e i r musical expression w i l l be d i s cussed i n the Conclusion.

CHAPTER 2
1.

I t may seem redundant to use the word "end-blown" i n

a d e s c r i p t i o n of v e r t i c a l or h o r i z o n t a l f l u t e s , but there are

f l u t e s which are blown i n the middle (see "The c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
of the Flute," by Adolf Veenstra i n Galpin Society Journal,
V o l . XVII (1964), pp. 54-63).
1966:127) has had two forms:

The Chinese "Ch'ih" (see Gimm,

an end-blown transverse f l u t e

(S-H 421.121.12) and a middle-blown transverse f l u t e with one

end closed (S-H 421.121.32).

The l a t t e r f l u t e has a short,

v e r t i c a l tube i n the middle of a h o r i z o n t a l body which i s

blown i n the same manner as a v e r t i c a l f l u t e .

On e i t h e r side

of the duct are three finger-holes.

The end-blown, transverse Ch'ih (e.g., Needham and Robinson, 1962:146) may have been more common i n l a t e r Chinese music
as a " f o i l "
o

f o r the end-blown transverse T i , (hence the t i t l e

Mukai-ji rather than Mukai-ti)*

2.

The meaning of "Huang" i n "Huang-chung" may be de-

r i v e d from the name of the mythical "Yellow Emperor", Huang-ti

(c. 2697 B.C.) who

i n i t i a t e d the founding of the fundamental

tone by commissioning Ling Lun to f i n d the note i n "the West"

(see Needham and Robinson, 1962.178-79), or i t may stem from
171

172
the color of the "chung" when i t was newly cast (Kuttner, 1965:
24).
3.

In the Shih Chi by Ssu-ma Chien (145-90 B.C.), the

length of the Yo i s usually recorded as 8.1 inches (ts'un),

i . e . , .81 feet (ch'ih).

(See Chavannes, 1897:111,314 and Need-

ham and Robinson, 1962:187.)

4.

A study of the Chinese character f o r Yo reveals an

i n t e r e s t i n g theory concerning i t s organology.

The e a r l i e s t Yo

mentioned i n the L i Chi (Legge, 1885:11,35-36); Couvreur,

1950:

1:2,736-37) i s described as a reed v e r t c i a l f l u t e , Wei Yo".

H

Later forms of the word Yo show i t associated with the bamboo

radical

(a grass rather than a reed, i n the popular rather than

b o t a n i c a l sense) implying that i t was assimilated i n t o Chinese

culture by making i t with a more indigenous m a t e r i a l . This etymological change has been used by Josango (1971:7) to support
Tanabe's d i f f u s i o n i s t theories (see Tanabe, 1959:25) that the
o r i g i n of the Chinese v e r t i c a l f l u t e i s i n the ancient Middle
East.

In the fourth millennium B.C.,

the v e r t i c a l reed f l u t e

was recorded i n Sumeria (Galpin, 1937:13-14) and Egypt

(Farmer,

1957:268-69; Hickmann, 1961:180) where i t was c a l l e d the "Sebi".

The reed f l u t e can s t i l l be found i n the Arab countries as the
"Nay"

and i n the outermost reaches of Moslem influence, Indo-

nesia, where i t i s referred to as the "Suling" (Malm, 1967:22).

Tanabe suggested two possible periodsoof- d i f f u s i o n ,

both of

173
which are dependent on Alexander the Great's eastern conquests
i n the 4th century B.C.

The v e r t i c a l f l u t e may have proceeded

d i r e c t l y across c e n t r a l Asia v i a the S i l k Road i n the 4th century B.C.,

o r i t may have f i r s t found i t s way i n t o India, and

then accompanied

Indian Buddhist evangelists when they t r a v e l -

led t o China i n the 1st century A.D.

Although both theories

are now suspect, the basic idea o f West-East d i f f u s i o n i s s t i l l

considered v a l i d .

Using Legge's date (Legge, 1885:11,35), the

f l u t e may have been imported not l a t e r than the 3rd millennium

B.C.,

but, more probably, during the Hsia Dynasty

(2nd m i l l e n -

nium B.C.) .
Another perspective o f the Chinese character f o r Yo suggests a d i f f e r e n t d e f i n i t i o n .

The lower h a l f o f the character

can be interpreted as "three mouths" ( ooo) i n one ( coo), blowing over three pipes (

), i . e . , panpipe, while the upper h a l f

suggests a r i t u a l sanction i n the form o f a "roof" ( v

temple, sign.

However, Morohashi

/Vs

*), i.e.,

(1955r-60:XII, 1159), one o f the

foremost a u t h o r i t i e s on Chinese character etymology, does not

support t h i s view.
F i n a l l y , the Yo v e r t i c a l f l u t e i s often described as
having three finger-holes (as opposed t o three pipes i n the above interpretation) which suggests a performance p r a c t i c e s i m i l a r t o the medieval European Pipe (as i n Pipe and Tabor). Whereas the European Pipe and Tabor performers c a r r i e d a drum s t i c k

174
i n t h e i r other hand, the Wen Wu dancers c a r r i e d a pheasant
feather, T i (see Schafer,
5.

1963:111).

Neither the Wen Wu dance or i t s associated Yo i s

found i n Japanese court dance music (Bugaku) because they were

incorporated i n Chinese r i t u a l music (Ya Yueh) which was not
imported i n t o Japan.

The l a t t e r only received Chinese secular

and "foreign" music (see Malm, 1959:78 and Garfias,

1965:9-11).

In the present-day Korean court orchestra (A-ak), the Yo

appears as a three-hole v e r t i c a l f l u t e c a l l e d "Yak".

However,

the Wen Wu dance and symbolic Yo disappeared from the A-ak r e p e r t o i r e some time a f t e r the 8th century (Chang, 1969:291,318).
6.

I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to compare the same confusion o f

information that surrounds the Greek "Aulos", supposedly imported i n t o Greece i n the 1st millennium B.C.,

the same time period

that saw the movement o f the Yo from the Middle East i n t o China.
Although the f i n a l consensus was that the Aulos was a doublereed wind instrument, I wonder i f the o r i g i n a l , "mistaken" d e f i n i t i o n of Aulos as "fJLutes" might be re-investigated i n the
l i g h t of the Kuan r e - d e f i n i t i o n .
7.

Needham and Robinson (1962:145(e)) describe a v e r t i c a l

f l u t e which they c a l l T i , dating from the Warring States Period

(480-221 B.C.), with a dragon head on i t s mouthpiece.
8.

Another d i s t i n c t i o n between the Tung hsiao and Ch'ih-

pa that i s u s u a l l y c i t e d i s the oblique cut on the blowing edge

175
of the mouthpiece.
pa i s cut outward.

The former i s cut inward while the Ch'ihI t has been my experience that the d i r e c -

t i o n o f the cut i s moot.

9.

Although the length o f the Yo (.9 feet) seems t o have

remained consistent, the p i t c h o f the Huang-chung and,

there-

fore, the length of the Huang-chung Kuan, was h i g h l y v a r i a b l e .

Yang Y i n n i l i o u found " t h i r t y - f i v e p i t c h reforms, extending

from

the l a t e Chou Period t o the Ch'ing Dynasty, during which the

p i t c h v a r i e d from d * t o a " (Pian, 1969:154).
1

Some o f the

lengths o f Huang-chung equivalents suggested by authors mentioned i n t h i s paper are "1.8" (Liu Hsu),
"2.4"

"3.8" (Tu Yu) and

(Ying Shao).
10.

Sato Harebi

(1966:1) describes the musical bodhi-

sattvas as "Gigaku Bosatsu".

Gigaku, a music genre which ac-

companied dance-pantomimes, was imported by Mimashi (c. 7th century) from the ancient Chinese province o f "Wu"
"Go"

i n Japanese).

(also "Kure" and

Although the province's p o l i t i c a l fortunes

waxed and waned, the d i a l e c t o f the area, a l s o named Wu, r e - .'.

mained extant allowing us t o l o c a t e Wu i n the v i c i n i t y o f the
lower Yangtze River around Nanking and Shanghai (Reischauer and
Fairbank, 1958:60).

The province o f Wu i s c o - i n c i d e n t a l l y the

t r a d i t i o n a l source o f the most treasured species o f bamboo, the

"purple bamboo" (Kuretake) and "mottled bamboo" (Madaradake),
(see Harich-Schneider 1973:61 and Schafer, 1963:133-34). Hence,

176
the

frequent references t o "southern bamboo" such as the t i t l e

of Hakuga's major source, Nanchiku-fu.

11.

I t i s apparent that Harich-Schneider (1973:102,195)

mis-translated t h i s piece of information.

12.

The r e l a t i o n may be interpreted as three lengths o f

v e r t i c a l f l u t e s under the generic name o f "Yaku" (Ch. Yo).

13.

The passage i n question was i n c o r r e c t l y t r a n s l a t e d

by Waley (1960:110) as a "large f l u t e " .

Kencho Suematsu (1974:

133) translates the passage as "A large h i c h i r i k i and a sakuhachi (sic) (two kinds of f l u t e ) . . . " .
14.

"Flowers i n f u l l bloom / should loathe / the unex-

pected wind / o f someone blowing and blowing; / a Komoso with

his

shakuhachi." (my t r a n s l a t i o n ) .

m. <)

hanazakari

<

fuku-tomo dare ka

4h-

itofu-beki
kaze n i wa aranu
komo no shakuhachi
15.

* < t
S

is

iff-

St

Is

This theory o f f e r s fresh support b'

f o r Tanabe*s d i f -

f u s i o n i s t theories outlined i n Note 4.

16.

"With the collapse o f the Ashikaga Shogunate as a

c e n t r a l governing body i n the Onin War (1467-77),

initiative

i n Ming trade was more and more assumed by c e r t a i n daimyo

houses i n Kyushu." (Varley, 1973:96).

No doubt the Shimadzu

177
was one of the daimyo concerned, n e c e s s i t a t i n g the question,
"Did the Tenpuku o r i g i n a t e i n China?".

Again, the answer

should probably be "no" i n the l i g h t of my discussion regarding Mo-so and Komo-so.

17.

Major sources of music and information concerning

the h i t o y o g i r i are:
1. Doshokyoku (1657), anon.;
2. Shichiku Taizen: Ikanobori (1687), anon, (see K i s h i be, 1960:160);
3. Shichiku Shoshinshu
18.

(1664) by Nakamura Sosan.

In the Japanese-English Buddhist Dictionary

(1965:

159), the entry under "Kakushin" indicates that the shakuhachi

teacher was Chang Hsiung (Cho Yu), the 15th p a t r i a r c h .
19.

Conterminous with the Kakushin legend i s a l e s s e r -

known myth concerning Kakua ( f l . 1180), a Buddhist p r i e s t and

scholar of the Shingon Sect who studied Zen i n China before
E i s a i (1141-1215),

the t r a d i t i o n a l founder of Zen i n Japan.

Muju Ichien (1226-1312) recorded i n h i s Shaseki-shu (Book of

Sand and Stone, 1279) that Kakua was such a recluse that h i s
pilgrimmage to China and h i s subsequent learning went unrecorded.

However, one piece of information has survived;

peror Takakura

Em-

( r . 1168-1180) requested Kakua's presence as

a tutor of Zen Buddhism, whereupon Kakua a r r i v e d at the court,

blew a single note on a " f l u t e " , and then l e f t , never to be

178
heard from again.
20.

Weisgarber

(1968:314) c i t e s 1642 as a founding date.

21.

For t h i s reason, the i l l u s t r a t i o n o f a woman holding

a shakuhachi i n The Music and Musical Instruments o f Japan (Piggot, 1893:43) i s very curious.
22.

Despite the p o p u l a r i t y o f the shakuhachi i n the San-

kyoku ensemble, i t has been my personal experience that the

"transplant'' i s a c t u a l l y unsuccessful. The kokyu i s eminently
compatible because i t shares many of the same c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f
the shamisen (see Malm, 1975:163) and i t o f f e r s an e x c e l l e n t
balance of sound i n the ensemble.

On the other hand, the sha-

kuhachi i s b a r e l y audible i n the l i v e performances

techniques o f performing Gaikyoku

and the pyro-

( e s p e c i a l l y the meri-kari

notes which require almost constant bobbing o f the head) are

unnerving.

Further, the t r a d i t i o n a l nuances are e n t i r e l y l o s t

i n the scramble f o r notes.

Other than the s a t i s f a c t i o n o f suc-

c e s s f u l l y completing a Gaikyoku performance,

I have y e t to be

convinced o f i t s aesthetic pleasure.

23.

A f t e r having been introduced to Tanaka Sensei by

Mr. Weisgarber,

I was fortunate t o study with him during the

F a l l and Winter o f 1972-73 i n Kwansei Gakuin U n i v e r s i t y

nomiya, Japan).

(Nishi-

CHAPTER 3
1.

The process o f developing a rapport between sensei

and student i s one o f the most i n t e r e s t i n g aspects o f Japanese

sociology.

The spectrum o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s ranges from the un-

pretentious homilies depicted by Malm (1959:170-77) t o the sublime and yet pragmatic "mondo" related by Suzuki (1959:13-15).
They a l l stem from the p r o t o t y p i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p o f the Zen
Master to h i s d i s c i p l e s i n which h i s "medium i s the message".
2.

The s y l l a b l e s t h e o r e t i c a l l y have k a n j i equivalents

but they are not recognized by the r y u .

me(ri)

shaku(ri) ; ]f|

tsu(ki)

Jjj.

yu(ri)

$J

mura-iki

ka(ri)

IJjjT

su(ri)

fg

ko(mu) ]7l

')

ko(mi) Z2L 3I
Also, k a n j i equivalents e x i s t f o r the two abstract symbols :
Na(i)yashi
3.

Odoriji

One may f i n d the technique o f moving the head and

jaw throughout the h i s t o r y o f the Western f l u t e , but only i n

the context o f tuningnever as melodic ornamentation.
179

CHAPTER 4
1.

A f t e r formulating t h i s hypothesis from my own

studies,

I found a s i m i l a r hypothesis ( a l b e i t with no supporting evidence)

stated by Hornbostel (1975:50-51, 65-66) i n h i s "Studien uber
das Tonsystem und die Musik der Japaner",

(1903), and found i n

Hornbostel Opera Omnia I (Martinus N i j h o f f : The Hague, 1975).

2.

Various authors have described the phenomenon of sen-

r i t s u k e i as:
"melodic germs" (Malm, 1959:162);
"melodic patterns" (Malm, 1963:64);
"melodic c e l l s "

(Weisgarber,

"stereotyped i n t e r v a l u n i t s "
"stereotyped motives"

1968:319);
(Kishibe, 1969:53);

(Harich-Schneider, 1973:333);

"stereotyped mosaic" (Harich-Schneider, 1973:333).

In the music theory vocabulary o f Shomyo, v o c a l s e n r i t s u k e i are r e f e r r e d to as "kyokusetsu"

("vocales forraules", see

"Bombai", 1930:106).
3.

There i s some controversy surrounding the d e f i n i t i o n s

of the words "onkai", "senpo", and "choshi".

In the following

pages, each word w i l l be introduced with d e t a i l e d explanations.

"Onkai i s a r e l a t i v e l y new word coined by Japanese music
180

181
s c h o l a r s t o t r a n s l a t e t h e Western music term, " s c a l e "
Jiten,

(Ongaku

1965-66:1,369).
The f o u r b a s i c s c a l e s o f Japanese music, R i t s u ,

and Yo, have t r a d i t i o n a l l y been l a b e l l e d as "senpo"

Ryo, In

("circular

law"), o r s i m p l y "sen", which i s t r a n s l a t e d as "mode" (Ongaku

Jiten,

1965-66:111,1626).

The reason f o r t h i s nomenclature

i n t h e f a c t t h a t each o f t h e f o u r s c a l e s can be modally

(e.g.,

Kitahara,

lies

permuted

1966) and modally r e l a t e d t o each o t h e r

(e.g.,

"Bombai", 1930:103-104).
The modal " s o l f e g g i o " t h a t i s used t o i d e n t i f y note p o s i t i o n s i n any g i v e n mode i s adopted from Chinese nomenclature.
I t c o n s i s t s o f two v a r i a n t systems which a r e adapted t o i n d i v i d u a l s c a l e systems.

The Ryo senpo c o n s i s t s o f t h e f o l l o w i n g

syllables:
Degree No.:

Degree Name:

Kyu

2
Sho

Kaku

hen-Chi

Chi U

7
hen-Kyu

The R i t s u / Y o and In senpo mode degrees a r e l a b e l l e d :

Degree No.,:

Degree Name:

Kyu

Sho

ei-Sho

Kaku

Chi U ei-U

The s y l l a b l e s t h a t a r e preceded by " e i " o r "hen" a r e

c a l l e d "hennon".

T h e i r nomenclature i s adopted from Chinese

("pien"); b u t t h e i r f u n c t i o n seems t o d i f f e r
and o t h e r A s i a n

from Chinese music

c u l t u r e s t h a t adopted Chinese music.

d e f i n i t i o n s o f r e l a t e d hennon range from Rulan P i a n

Current
(1969:677),

182
who defined pien notes as secondary notes (see Yasser, 1932),
to Tran Van Khe (1967:225), who

found that Vietnamese hennon

were exchange tones ("metaboles") which signaled a modal modul a t i o n he c a l l e d metabolation (also see Reese,

1940:160-61).

The d e f i n i t i o n of hennon i n Japanese music i s c u r r e n t l y

understood to be as follows:

They are used i n conjunction with

Japanese pentatonic scales, making Japanese scales e s s e n t i a l l y

heptatonic, and they are never used as fundamental tones for
modes (see Adriaansz, 1973:31-33) or as metaboles. (An except i o n to the l a t t e r may e x i s t i n Shomyo which are e s s e n t i a l l y
pentatonic.

See Docho, 1969:73-120.)

A second i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e i r role as "exchange tones"

can be posited without reference to Tran Van Khe's theory o f
metaboles.

Assuming that the hennon are related to t h e i r lower

neighbours (sho/ei-sho = E^/F, .and u/ei-u = B^/C), one can see

t h e i r "exchange" roles i n the "Miyako-bushi" system (see Kishibe,
1960:129).

. .

.__

The r e l a t i o n s h i p s shown by the arrows w i l l be described i n t h i s

thesis as upper and lower leading tone cadences.
Returning to the subject of d e f i n i t i o n s , the word which
has provoked the most confusion i s "choshi".

Even the anonymous

183
author o f the e n t r y
not

for "choshi"

i n Ongaku J i t e n

s u p p l y the customary E n g l i s h

(111,1876) d i d

t r a n s l a t i o n because o f

obtuse u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h i s term.

Malm (1959, 1963:index)

Minagawa (1963:237) o m i t t e d t h i s c e n t r a l word i n t h e i r

ries.
and

I b e l i e v e t h a t Harada (1963:962), Weisgarber

Harich-Schneider

as "mode".
t o the

f a c t s are

Adriaansz

(some by

inference)

and

glossa-

(1968:325),

(1973:631) i n c o r r e c t l y t r a n s l a t e d

Translations

the

which a r e

"choshi"
closer

s u p p l i e d by Malm ("modulatory s c a l e " ; 1963:61),

("tuning s c a l e " ; 1973:484), and

Masumoto

("tonality";

1969:325).

The

words which are p r o b a b l y c l o s e s t t o the meaning

of "choshi"

are

"tonal transpositions"

(as opposed t o modal

c l e a r l y evident

following chart

transpositions)
senpo and

i n the

Ritsu-senpo " t r a n s p o s i t i o n s "

(brackets

non).
Ritsu

Choshi

oshiki-cho

hyo j o

banshiki-cho

taishiki-cho

te*

() f
T-t1 1

of

Ryo-

indicate

hen-

184

Ryo Choshi
sojo
i

ichikotsu-cho

fnt

/-

'

fJt.

- () , rr r
f

suicho

-f1

taishiki-cho

,.

(Concerning the bracket around the

Schneider,

TJ

i n sojo choshi, see Harich-

1973:128-129).

Each o f these scales i s i d e n t i f i e d by the name o f i t s fundamental tone ("cho" or "jo") which, i n Western music, i s c a l l e d
the t o n i c .

The names of a l l Japanese tones are immutable and in-

dependent of modal or tonal transpositions, or octave placement.

The reader should not confuse these scales with Western music
modes.

For example, the i l l u s t r a t e d scale of oshiki-cho i s not

the "re" mode of G Major Mode (see Apel, 1969:753 under "Scale,
III") but rather the Kyu mode ( i . e . , "do" mode) o f A Ritsu Mode
( i . e . , oshiki-cho,

Ritsu-senpo).

The d i f f e r e n c e between "cho" and "choshi" i s that the f o r mer

can be translated as "key"

(e.g., the "key" o f ichikotsu,

185
i . e . , tonic = D), whereas the l a t t e r ( l i t e r a l l y t r a n s l a t e d as
"key off-spring") r e f e r s to the e n t i r e musical e n t i t y , whether
i t be a scale or a composition.
It i s i n t e r e s t i n g to note the t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n o f the k a n j i
for the Zokugaku (Edo Period popular music) choshi nomenclature
h i n t s at extra-musical

associations.

Hira

common, standard

Akebono

dawn

Nakazora

mid-day

Kumoi

sky, high noon

The common

Masumoto (1969:291-326) has suggested that

choshi.are:

extra-musical

associations constitute part of the meanings of Gagaku

choshi.

Another relevant d e f i n i t i o n i s that of " s e n r i t s u " , an

elegant and ancient denotation
synonym i s "kyoku".)
and "senritsu-po"
4.

f o r "melody".

(A: more humble

From t h i s word are derived " s e n r i t s u - k e i "

("music theory").

Both the In scale and the Fuke shakuhachi were i n d i -

genous to urban Japan at about the same time ( i . e . , 16th century, see Adriaansz, 1965:9,33).

I have wondered i f the H i t o -

y o g i r i and i t s music went the way o f the e x t i n c t Tsukushi-goto

because both genres d i d not adopt the "new"

In scale, u n l i k e

the Fuke shakuhachi and Zoku-so.

5.

The "natural" scale o f the shakuhachi i s the " r u r a l "

scale, Yo-senpo, which has the same basic configuration as the

186
Gagaku scale, Ritsu-senpo.

Several authors (e.g., Harada, 1963:

962) have suggested that only two scales a c t u a l l y e x i s t i n

Japan, a "Sino-Japanese" scale (Yo/Ritsu-senpo and i t s variant,
Ryo-senpo) and a "National" scale (In-senpo).

The former proba-

bly preceded the l a t t e r because the In-senpo i s not heard o f

u n t i l the Edo Period.

The Yo/Ritsu-senpo was the most popular

scale during the golden age of Gagaku (Adriaansz, 1973:33) and

may very well have been indigenous.
The "Miyako-bushi" equivalent for Yo-senpo i s c a l l e d
Inaka-bushi, and appears i n the following manner:
j

/
[t

\ 1J
6.

f=^r

C7

S> <s

Malm (1959:160-161) suggested the same conclusion i n

an obtuse footnote. His reference to the Home Tones D and A

originates from the example l a b e l l e d " f i g u r e 16" which i s a
transposed t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f the f i r s t seven s e n r i t s u k e i o f Hi,
Fu, Mi, Hachi Kaeshi no Shirabe.

The f i r s t bar (which should

be notated an octave lower) i s written i n three f l a t s

Chi-senpo, D cho).

(i.e.,

The same bar i s then transposed down a

perfect fourth to Chi-senpo IV, A cho, and the rest o f the

example continues i n t h i s same tuning, supposedly so that the
In scale diagrammed below with two f l a t s concurs with the mus i c example.

I f the e n t i r e music example were transcribed

187
correctly,

t h e t e x t on page 161 would read, " F i g u r e 16 i s t h e

f i r s t phrase o f a c o m p o s i t i o n whose f i n a l p i t c h i s G.,.j D

seems t o p r e v a i l throughout.

I t might prove e n l i g h t e n i n g t o

f o r g e t t h e Japanese c l a s s i c a l t h e o r y o f Yo and In s c a l e s and

r e - a n a l y z e Edo music on t h e b a s i s o f s c a l e s on what i s now
c o n s i d e r e d t o be t h e dominant p i t c h ( D ) " .
7.

P i g g o t t , 1893:92,98; H o r n b o s t e l , 1903:39; Yasser,

1932:50; P e r i ,

1934:61; Sachs, 1943:125; Picken, 1954:590;

Picken, 1957:146; Malm, 1963:84; Tran Van Khe, 1967:43; Weisgarber, 1968:331.
8.

Examples o f ambitus a r t i c u l a t e d by p i v o t tones a r e

found i n Nohgaku and Biwagaku which, i n t u r n , were d i r e c t l y

i n f l u e n c e d by Shomyo music t h e o r y .
p i v o t tones a r e l a b e l l e d "Jo"

I n Nohgaku, t h e t h r e e

(low), "Chu" (middle) and "Ge"

( h i g h ) , and they a r e a P e r f e c t 4th a p a r t

( A k i r a Tamba, 1968:

217).
By comparing t h e m e l o d i c t h e o r i e s o f t h e above
w i t h Honkyoku, a more d i r e c t l i n k may be uncovered

genres

between

them.
9.

There a r e two o t h e r types o f rhythmic d e l a y s which

can be used t o d e l a y t h e r e s o l u t i o n o f HA t o RO.

the i n t e r j e c t i o n o f RA.

Both i n c l u d e

188

'

11

(l

v(..J
10.

Jin

* y

The purposeful i n t e r j e c t i o n of a foreign tone

(i.e.,

K\)

into a Honkyoku may be interpreted as a "modulation", but

the

evidence does not support the use of t h i s word (despite

the

fact that Honkyoku s y l l a b l e s may be chromatically a l t e r e d

to accomodate a movable "do").

The d i r e c t evidence i s very simple.

The AS never r e -

places A , i t acts i n conjunction with i t , c r e a t i n g a b r i e f

sense of melodic expansion.
Two t r a d i t i o n a l facts also i n d i c a t e that modulation does
not

e x i s t i n Honkyoku.

F i r s t , the shakuhachi comes i n a wide

v a r i e t y of s i z e s s i m i l a r to the consorts of instruments i n

Renaissance Europe, but d i f f e r i n g i n that t h e i r s i z e s are oneh a l f tone apart, amounting to approximately twenty s i z e s .
the

shinobue (Malm, 1963:99), t h i s arrangement

Like

grew out o f the

need to accommodate any v a r i a t i o n i n "tunings" (Ryutaro H a t t o r i ,

1966:223), i . e . , modulations from one key to another.
the

Second,

Honkyoku duets are composed i n a s t y l e c a l l e d Fuku-awase,

which i s almost exactly the same compositional procedure as

Dangaeshi, a s p e c i a l i z e d form of Koto Uchi-awase (Adriaansz,
1973:16).

Any two melodic l i n e s of common tuning may be juxta-

189
posed because they have an "unchanging melodic structure"
(Malm, 1959:182), i . e . , they do not modulate.

In the Honkyoku

duets, d i f f e r e n t melodic sections (not c a l l e d "Dan", however)

of the related solo are juxtaposed to form the duet v e r s i o n .
11.

See "thematic germs" (Malm, 1959:162) and "theme mo-

t i f s " i n Persian avaz (Nettl, 1972:25-28).

Neither of these

concepts i s relevant to the idea of Honkyoku "themes" because

the l a t t e r i s comprised of many "germs" or "motifs".

APPENDIX A
SAN KOTEN HONKYOKU TRANSCRIPTIONS
The decision to transcribe these compositions i n the
following manner was a r r i v e d at through consideration of the
nature of the music.

Individual performances

are subject to

countless variables tempered by the Zen Buddhist sense of immediacy which dpes not judge one performance
ther.

better than ano-

In fact, the aesthetics of "shibui" allow f o r sponta-

neous melodic events which a new l i s t e n e r might i n t e r p r e t as

mistakes.
performance

Therefore, a d e t a i l e d t r a n s c r i p t i o n of any one

runs counter to the "gestalt" of the music.

The following t r a n s c r i p t i o n s represent an i d e a l a p p l i cation of performance

p r a c t i c e d e t a i l s taught by Tanaka Yudo.

Melodic ornamentation

and a r t i c u l a t i o n have, been i l l u s t r a t e d

by juxtaposing them against the given notation;, the former

were drawn with upward-turned flags, while the l a t t e r were
drawn with downward-turned f l a g s .

Melodic i n f l e c t i o n s have

been shown using heavy, black l i n e s that follow a given note.

The f i v e - l i n e s t a f f has been u t i l i z e d i n the following manner
in order to i l l u s t r a t e the various i n f l e c t i o n s .
"

'

'

190

(Note that

191
the unusual

key

s i g n a t u r e i s comprised i n a c o n f i g u r a t i o n t h a t

a v o i d s the s u g g e s t i o n o f E

The

short, v e r t i c a l

L
v

Major.)

lines

placed at regular i n t e r v a l s

along the bottom l i n e o f the s t a v e s suggest

time r e p r e s e n t i n g a p p r o x i m a t e l y

a progression of

30 b e a t s p e r minute.

Tonal

dynamics are so s u b t l e t h a t o n l y a sonograph can do them j u s tice;

t h e r e f o r e , they have been o m i t t e d .

i n the top l i n e

The

numbers

found

( i . e . , Japanese n o t a t i o n ) are added f o r r e -

f e r e n c e purposes; the v e r t i c a l
major b r e a t h marks.

Trills

dashes on which they r e s t

are marked w i t h a

"+**.

are

Mukaiji Reibo

192

194

195

197

SIC

&A

n-

u
; JJ__
it

15:
SIC"

JJ

iJ

fin

to.
\

so

ID

41^

198

199

0-

TP

IB .

0
0*

4L
V-5

0
ar>'.

t
II1

201

202

Koku Reibo

203

204

205

207

208

209

210

211

Shin Kyorei

217

218

219

220

221

222

APPENDIX

THE SAN KOTEN HONKYOKU SENRITSUKEI

The f o l l o w i n g s e n r i t s u k e i
grouped a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r

first

( T o t a l = 270) have been

and l a s t n o t e s .

a t t h e t o p o f each s e n r i t s u k e i i n d i c a t e s
rence.

The number

frequency o f o c c u r -

Those few anomalies which o c c u r because o f s t a g g e r e d

b r e a t h marks have been c o r r e c t e d

their original

forms.

i n order t o i l l u s t r a t e

F o r example, a TSU-RE

senritsukei

t h a t has been d i v i d e d by a b r e a t h mark i s r e c o r d e d i n t h e

f o l l o w i n g pages under TSU-RE, r a t h e r than a s i n g u l a r TSU i n
one p l a c e and a l o n e RE i n another.

F o r t h e sake o f conve-

nience, SS n o t a t i o n s have been employed.

223

224

225
CHI

+
<
<

tr.

m e r i CHI

f
i
i
f
f
f
f
f
f
1
*1 4 p ^ ^ > ?

f
#
t Y +f
7/ j 2

>> V

? 7

226
RE

5> '*?

i- ?
f

RI

t> 1> t>

?

')

?
9

?*

<)
V

^ "
T

?i

?
id.

227
HI

d d d d d
f1 f t t0 ^f
V
15

?<*!

&*

-3.

'i

t
*>

f
f

d ,tl d d
?

?Bfi

8i)

d tp* t>"
#7

< * i\

> d

i f '

It

c?i t5fl d

m e r i HI

t_ d
V

*r

i ^4 i ^
*
"
>

228
HA

/ \ /_\ /=\ /5\ /*\ /*\ /fA y^v /*\ / \ s / \ s

"7 S
3l-

Ai

/.ft

/a\

8/ \

8/ \

/ V

Dai-KAN HA

22.
3x ?

3L.

'

KORO

APPENDIX

FINGERING CHART
The holes i n the shakuhachi are numbered one to f i v e
from bottom to top.

D i a c r i t i c a l numbers (suji) u s u a l l y i n -

dicate open holes, while the other holes are assumed to be

closed.

klofc to 5ctk

Note that Finger 2 i n both l e f t and r i g h t hands remain

constantly on the instrument, acting as braces.
K a r i fingerings are executed with the head and jaw i n
the normal playing p o s i t i o n .

Meri (or chu-meri) and dai-meri

fingerings require the head and jaw to be lowered i n order to

lower the p i t c h to the required degree.
For the sake of convenience, SS notation has been used.
229

230

bo
kari

fro

ft

ft

ft
ft ft ft

ft
_

ft
0

0
0_

ft
ft

meri
(chu-meri)

ft
_

" e
ft

(9)

'jo

)
ft
0
0
0
ft
ft

ft
ft

b^L

ft

dai-meri

0
ft
ft

ft

0
0
0
ft

ft
0
ft
ft

0
0
0
0
ft

ft

e
0
0
9

9
e
0
0
9

0
e
0
0
9

9
0
9

231
Kari F i n g e r
also

Articulations

8va

&

3:

t_o-t

Meri Finger
also

1/

0-

0
9
-o-
o

ti

0-f

&

fc

0-0-i

C-O-t

9-0-t

0
o

--0
o

0
o

t-0-
9-0-0

c-o-o
o-o-o

0--0
0
0
0

o-f-0

Articulations

8va

, 4

(fcT
"trr

<

1
<

pJ

-r-f3

t-0-9

t>

bo

ft
ft-0-ft
0
0
0

fl

p* y
u

_0-i

4,

J.L
fl

\iinir

-0-i

0
0
0

0
0
0

/ \5

232
Special Fingering Sequences
A?

9-

5*=

JSZ

0 -

0
9

0
0

0
0

0
_9_
0

e
o

0-9-0
0-0-9

(repeated
J

Notated Finger A r t i c u l a t i o n s

>.

fcl *
-

kavt

0
_9_
0
9

-p

1_

fl

4 - 4 1

9
9'

9
9

+0-9-0
0
0
0
0
9

0
>-0-<
0
9

* e-9-e
0
9
9

Vvxtrt

US 9-9-9

N.B.; + and ^ signs

above r e f e r to the
explanatory diagrams
opposite.

-^

*3

APPENDIX D

CHARACTER INDEX

1.

Names
Throughout t h i s l i s t ,

a l l p r o f e s s i o n a l names

("Natori")

have been u n d e r l i n e d and p l a c e d i n f r o n t o f t h e f u l l

(i.e., natori,

surname, p e r s o n a l name).

name,

F o r example,

Hisa-

matsu Fuyo appears as Fuyo, Hisamatsu Masagoro.

Ennin

Chang Hsiung

(Jikaku Daishi)

I C

gfP

F u j i w a r a no T o k i h a r a

Chang Po

. <e

3 X

,8|

Chang Ts'an
Fuyo, Hisamatsu Masagoro

5f

Chikan Z e n j i
Godaigo

m n- m
Ch'iu

chung

ff

JX

Gokomatsu
^
'h *&
Gor5 Yamaguchi

Dogen
ii

id

TE

'<kft%

Goshirakawa

Eisai

En no Gyoja

Lb

^ a /J

Gosukoin

(Shokaku)

it

'h ft

233

234
Kakua

Goyozei

&

B /&

Hakuin
Kakushin
Hideyoshi,

Toyotomi
Kawase

Hitofu,

Kojima

Toyoaki

.JE & s

m m w m m

m
m

W *
w *

*Kodo I I , A r a k i

Hui-neng

*
I k k a n , M i y a g i , uemon
fe ^ ; ;&

Ikeda

ftf PI

Sensuke
BB <0J grj

Itcho, Yoshida

m
$0

fi

Judo,

ft

j *

Kodo I I I , A r a k i
*

Kodo,

IfL *

ft:

&

yfi

Kozo

BB m

Yamada B e n z o
Lij S
Notomi

Jf =

Koma n o

TS: B

T 1%

Kujo

Michitaka

& m. #

Shinnosue

M 2. Bb

Chikazane

Soetsu

)k m

Asakuzu

Kondo

Otojiro

Hanzaburo

fe i M

>x m

m s. m

Ikeda

Masajiro

Katsugoro

fe m M

Jodo,

Koma n o

Ingyo
it,

yR

m B3

m.

Ikki,

yR

Kodo I , Toyoda

Huang-ti

m -m n

K i n k o IV, Kurosawa

(Kyotaku)

yR

I I I , Kurosawa

Kinko

m m n m
Hsilto

K u r o s a w a Koemon

w *

Zenji

Kohachi

^ A

yR

Kinko II,

H o t t o Ernmyo K o k u s h i

Hotto

r o s amw a
Im
, K u im

K)\\
inko
W

BB

Junsuke

235
Kyoan,
m.

Fukumoto K a n s a i

*i *

Kyochiku

N o b u n a g a , Oda

Notomi

Zenji

Kyodo, Uehara

i g

m.

no

Rokushiro
A

Haruhiko

&

5ga no
x

Koresue

it m

Oga

no

Lin-chi

&

Motomasa
m

Omori Sokun
Ling

Lun

Oto no

Liu

Hsu

fi|

Pan

Lvi t s ' a i

Kiyogami

>#

Ku
m

Ma-tsu
-I

Tao-i

it

Pao

Mimashi

P'u-hua

3t

-ft

Minamoto no

Daiken

Hakuga

Muju

SS

Murasaki
' W

Shinno

Sei jo

>#

Shikibu
Shimadzu T a d a h i s a

Nakamura
^

Seiwa

Ichien

(a

^ i* a i
>#

Roan

Sadayasu

Minamoto no S h i t a g a u
;

Roan /

Minamoto no

Fu

Sosan
^

E.

Shimadzu
) ^

u&

Tadayoshi
^S:

236
Ying

Shinji

Shuji

Yoritake

(Chii H s i )

If

ffi M

S u g a w a r a no M i c h i z a n e

JI 1

Sui

-ti"

Ryoen
HI

Yudo, Tanaka Motonobu

Ssu-rna C h i e h
H]

Shao

6/7

s s

Wen-ti

Pf

*Kodo I I was a l s o
as "Chikuo".

T'ai-tsung

Takakura

Tengai

Myoan

?h

Tokugawa l e y a s u

12 Jl| ^

Tosa

Mitsunobu

ft

Tozan,
m

it

LJJ

ft

Nakao
^

Jm

Rinzo
51*

Tu Y u
tt

Tuan

An-chieh

i 3?

Wu-men H u i - k ' a i

M: H

is

Yamamoto M o r i h i d e
i_U

ft

known

237
2.

M u s i c T i t l e s , Terms a n d P l a c e Names
A number o f J a p a n e s e w o r d s i n t h i s

their

list

do n o t match

c o u n t e r p a r t s i n t h e t e x t because t h e l a t t e r have dashes

seperating syllables

( e . g . , Komuso, K o m u - s o ) .

The d a s h e s

have been added i n o r d e r t o c l a r i f y t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p

t a i n words t o o t h e r , s i m i l a r words
Mo-so), o r t o c l a r i f y t h e i r

of cer-

( e . g . , Komu-so, Komo-so,

meaning.

bakufu

Aichi

aikido

Banshiki

Akebono

B a n s h i k i no S h i r a b e

Akebono

Shirabe

be

Akebono

Sugagaki

biwa

^i s

BB

Akita
*X

e.

Biwagaku

Akita
fX

-fc

Sugagaki
BB

bombai

A s h i no S h i r a b e

Bon-odori

ashibue

boroboro

S: 510

Azuma A s o b i

Sc

bu

(Cho)

238
"hue ( f u e )
m

Chikuo-ryu
1T

Chikuzen-biwa

bugaku

C h i u T'ang Shu

Bushido

ft it

cho

Bushu

a 'Ji'l
Chochiku-fu

byo

ft

chokan
byoshi

(hyoshi)

ft

1=

chonin
Cha no Yu

BT

choshi
Chado

^y-

^ i i
ch i

Cho-teki

ft

SI

chu

Chi

ch'ih

(flute)

Chu

ch'ih

(foot)

Chuden

ch'ih-pa
R

ch' i n

bushi

chukuan

C h ' i e n Han S h u

chung

it

239
Daibutsu Kaigon-e
x

\k

25

daigijo
*

XL

(jf

inB

ti

Da j o k a n p u
&

ei-sho

ft

daimyo

ei-u

D a i Togaku
^

(Tokyo)

ex-on

m.

Edo

Chugaku
*

embai

Dan

feng

Danawase

Feng-su-t'ung

it

dangaeshi
S

"Fu-Ho-U

Darikyu
.

Fue-ondo

'A

danmono
' l

Fuke

*&>

Dazaifu

*
Do

3?

Fuke-an
m

( c h . Tao)

it

dosho

Doshokyoku

M H ffl

It

Fuke-shu
^

Dokuso
n

SOL

it

Fuku-awase

Fukuoka
Funi

M)

240
G i n r y u Koku

Gagaku
m

Dt

Gagaku-ryo

giri

Gaikyoku

Go

Gaiten

Gyoso no

Honkyoku

Ha

gaki

& (1)

(f

I)

Te

(association)

)Jf<

Ha

( a s i n J o Ha

Gakkaroku
^

* ffl

(Reibo)

Kyu)

hachi

Gakunin

H a c h i k a e s h i no S h i r a b e

Gakusei

Hakata

Gakuso

Ge

Haniwa
T

Genji
:

M o n o g a t ^ r i "Suetsuma Hana"
&

wi

TE

Hannya H a r a m i t t a

t s s i

hasamiguchi

Gi

hayashi

Gigaku
haya-uta
Gigaku

Bosatsu

Ginryu
Q$

Ri

^ IK

Heike-biwa
\T7

-r

5=>

53=

Et

S=E

241
Heike*\-monogatari
W.

Wo

hen-chi

m M

Hon

II

^
Honji-Suijaku

4t

hen-kyu

fe g

&

Honjoshi
*

"a"

PI

hennon

Honkyoku

Heng-ti

Honshu

It

Hi

'

F u M i , H a c h i k a e s h i no S h i r a b e

Hi

'

i }S O

Fu M i Kyoku

E. a

'j'H

Honte

Horyu-ji

s i

hichiriki

hsiao

hijiri

Hu-kuo-ssu

Hikyoku

Huang

Hira-joshi

huang-chung

*F . m

Hitoyogiri

Huang-ti

m w

m &

Ho S h o S u

hyojo

mw

Hogaku

hyoshi

Hoko

Ichigetsu-ji

242
Izu

ichikotsu

3.

13

ichi-shaku, hachi-sun
( i s s h a k u -h a s s un)

Izu

Reibo
S

#t

3S '

^
Jaku

Igusa

Igusa

Reibo

1' f

ji

(flute)

ji

(temple)

Ikkwan

- m
J i n r i n Kimmo Z u i

Ikkan-ryu

su

Ji-uta

In

WK

ife

Jo

(prelude)

Jo

(Noh

Inaka-bushi
B3

Inga-Ichinyo
s

i r e k o no
A-

ta

Jo-buki
ff

te
^

terra)

qfc

Jo-choshi

Ise

ff

Jo-hiku
Isshaku-sansun

E.

ff

3$

judo

ishibue

it
Juso

Ittchoshi
s

Kabuki

Iwato
m

1*

Kayokyoku
az

fi]

Keicho Okitegaki

:* *

Kemraotsucho
it*

*&>

ken
Kendo
m.

m.

Kensho
Ji,

14

Kiai
Kinko-ryu
^

55SE

Kinpu-ryu
*s

Kinsan Kyorei

is

IS

Kinsen
Kinuta Sugomori
k i - o toru
ko
koan

244
Koro

Kodan

Sugagaki
i

Kogaku
koten
"koi
ft

teki

chokkan"
a

&

Kotobuki

Kojidan
.

koto

5*

WL

gl=l

K o t o j i no

Kojiki

<>

tt

Shirabe
P

ko-tsuzumi

Kokoku-ji

. PI

Shirabe

Koku-ji

ku

(anguish)

ku

(no-thingness)

^ ./ft
Koku

Reibo

kuan

Kokuzo-do

M
kuchi-shamisen

kokyu
.

'

Koma-bue
r=j

B5

kuden

&

komoso

Kumoi

<1

m'

kun-yomi

komuso
3

'=

aJi| ETD

Ii

kondo

Kure
,Q

"ko-ro,
D

ko-ro"
n

Kuretake
^

ft

245
Lu

Kuroda

M ffl

Lu Kuan

ft :
Kyokunsho
m.

Liing-ti

&

kyokusetsu

madaradake

mm

Kyoreizan
SS.

Meian-ji
8

LL1

S.

is n

Mae-biki

3f

Bf

"Kyotaku Denki"
^

?l t

Kokujikai

Mappo

=?= a?

Kyoto

Meguro S h i s h i

Kyo(to) Reibo
^

* 3BP

Meian-ha
'

Bf

kyu (scale degree)

Meian-ji
Bf

IT

Meian Kyokai
Kyu

(as i n Jo Ha Kyu)

a,
3

t&

Mikanko
Kyuko-an

>i

Miyako-bushi

Kyushu
Kyushu Reibo
A.

mondo

'J'H St IS

L i Chi, "Ming T'ang Wei"

*L

ST5

K,

m.

m.

L i Chi, "Yueh Chi"

Monju (Sk. Manjusri)

*
Moso

5*

(also

X I*)

246
Natori

Mu-i.

IX

Mujin

Engi

3ft

Nedake

i s -,IT

Netori

Mu j o
3ft

Nezasa-ha

Mukai-j i

.E >Jf<
Mukaiji

Reibo

Nihombashi

B
mu-shin
3ft

-fr

no
co

shin

Nishaku-sansun

>t>

ffi H

jg

'A

Nagai Shirabe

Noh

Nagasaki

Nohgaku

Nagauta

Nohkwan

Nakazora

O-daiko
*

Namima R e i b o
>J
i t
Nan-Kuan
.

TT"

Nishimi-ryu

Musashi
ft

is

odake

m rr
Oden

Nanchiku-fu

o-hichiriki
A-A-

Nara

oko
a

mu
*

3m

247
Rei

Ome

it
Reibo

Omote

it

Reibo

Onin

it

IS 3

it

Ft

.yi

On-yomi

Reitatsu

Osaka

Rembo

US

Oshiki

St

R e n r i t s u no

fit

Jg$

Oshiki-giri

ft

Hi

tD

# s^
7^

ritsu

Oshokun

as

(7)

Rinyu-gaku

,oteki

525

Rinzai-shu

O-shirabe

ritsukan

P'ai Hsiao

ritsusho

n m
pien

"Ro-Tsu-Re"

f\ y
Pi-li

ronin

>. A
P' u-hua-tsung
^

Reiho-ji

onkai
W

Nagashi

it

roshi

Mai
^

248
Sandai J i t s u r o k u

Ryo
. S

ft H
^
san-fen sun-i f a

ryu

/VIL

t>

Sankyoku

ryuteki

EL 1L
Sanya Sugagaki

Saemon

ffi n

Sarugaku

Sagariha no Kyoku

Saidai-ji

<75

&

Shizaicho

ffi 77

satori
'IS.
I a

Satsuma

Saiho-ji
#

Sakae S h i s h i

* P ^
Sakkyoku
ft

"sakuhachi no t e k i "

ft

Sanmi I t t a i

Sabi

* ffl

Sanjuniban Shokunin Uta-awase

Ryumeisho

ti

1 ^ i t

= * A

si

&

San Koten Honkyoku

Ryukyu
m

?i

Sanqo Yoroku

ryugin
I

Sayama Sugagaki
.. ft llj
Se

H
Seiso

< ,. Ii *> oo

samurai

S ekkyo-bu sh i

249
Shika no Tone

Sendai

<n i i %

m.

Shikan-taza

SenpS

R mn &

Shimabara

Senritsukei

&m

m wm

Shimadzu

Senritsupo

S3

shimomu
T 3&

sensei

ft ' '

Shimotsuke Kyorei

shakuhachi
R

Shakuhachi-shi
R

If

shin
Shin K y o r e i

sharnisen

M m.

E. tin t&

Shin no Te

Shaseki-shu

>'> ^ M
Sheng

CO

Shinkyoku

Iff ft

shinobue

Shibui
Shichiku Shoshinshu

& ft w >t> m
Shichiku Taizan: Ikanobori

* ft
Shih Chi

15.

Shih Ching

& mM

Shingon-shu

-s- -=Shinhoshi

>4

Shinto

it
Shinzei Kogaku Zu

m m * mm

250
Shirabe
fl)

Shokunin Zukushi Uta-awase

shomyo

Shirabe-mono
m

*<

%t>

shonin

Shishi
m

L t

ii

Shosoin
IE

Shizen no Ne

Shusa-ryu
Shizu no Kyoku
m

ft

/JiL

Shushigaku

Shizuoka

So

sho (mouth organ)

so jo

sho (pan-pipe)

Sokaku Reibo
I

sh5 (scale degree)

Sornakusha
m

it

shofu
Shogun

shoka
shokunin

>x

Soto-shu

shodo

So-shidai

Shoden

I fi

It

IF

5^

Suga
Sugagaki
Suichikumei
f!r

^ *

251
Tanteki

suicho

7K

1S tat

tatebue

suji'

1:

Suijaku

tegoto

T a i H e i Raku
x

Hidenfu

. n

teki
m

Tendai-shu

Taigensho

taiko

Tengai

taishiki

Tennin

7T\

take
Tenpuku
Takedo
1t

Thung

it

T a k i o c h i no Kyoku
>^

j&

ffle

Ti

(feather)

taku

Ti

takuhatsu

Todai-ji

ft

ft u

C A #
Tofuku-ji

Tanden
ft

(flute)

B3

He *I

Togaku
tankan
Togakushi
Tan-teki

5$;

gp

252
Uchidome

Tohoku

JSC

nm

it

it

Tokaido
Uchihajime
Tozan-ryu
UJ

Uchikae K y o r e i

fr ^

Ts'ao-tung

Ueda

T s u k i no Kyoku

J35

Uji

<r> ffi

Tsukushi

Ukiyo

Tsukushi-goto

Ura

xa

ts'un

Uta-awase

Tsurezuregusa

utaguchi

T s u r u no Sugomori

ti

Tung
m

<7>

IX

Hsiao

Wa Myo R u i j u S h o
IP

Wagon

T unq Tien

waka

Wakayama

Ubasoku-zenj i

Wei Yo

Uchi-awase

Wen

Wu

253
Wu

(province)

Yokobue

Wu

(shaman)

Yoshino-Shui

it

^- ' i f
Wu-men K u a n

(Mumonkan)

n m

3ft

Yoshiya
f

Ya Yiieh

Yu

Yachiyo Sugomori

Yueh

ft

Reibo
^

Yueh-fu

Yaku

H~t t "j

Tsa-lii

Yamabushi
ill

Yiieh

Yamashina Kyogen
LU'

Shu

kyorikki
a

is,

Yugen

Yamato
Y u g u r e no K y o k u

X %Q
Yamato K o s a k u E i s h o
*o

x.

Yamoto-bue
A

JZ ffl

Yuimagyo
Zazen

*Q si-

Yang

Zen

Ft

Yig

Zendan

fiti is
Yo

(flute)
'agio'

Yo

(scale)

Zendo
I i t
Zenkoku D a i k a i

3X

Zokugaku
Zokugaku Senritsu Ko
m

w'

Zoku-Kyokunsho
^

Zokuso

i SH t>

255
3.

Japanese H i s t o r i c a l

Periods

Jomon (from c a . 8000 B.C.)

Yamato

(300-710)

Asuka

(552-646)

Hakuho

Nara

(646-710)

(710-794)

E a r l y Heian / Konin

&

ft!

(794-897)

5L. iZ

L a t e r Heian / F u j i w a r a

Kamakura

(897-1185)
m)

(1185-1333)

m a
Muromachi

Bummei

(1333-1573)

(1469-1486)

Momoyama (1573-1600)
UJ

Edo / Tokugawa

>r F

Genroku

ft
Meiji
m

(1600-1867)

(1688-1703)

ife

(1868-1912)
te

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