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The
Amygdala
And
its
role
in
emotions
Animals
with
damaged
amygdalas
cannot
develop
conditioned
fear
responses.
People
with
damaged
amygdalas
cant
recognize
fear
in
other
people,
though
they
may
be
able
to
experience
fear
themselves.
sympathetic
nervous
system,
which
prepares
the
body
for
action,
the
parasympathetic
nervous
system
keeps
the
body
still.
The
galvanic
skin
response
is
an
increase
in
the
skins
rate
of
electrical
conductivity,
which
occurs
when
subjects
sweat
during
emotional
states.
Researchers
also
use
indicators
such
as
blood
pressure,
muscle
tension,
heart
rate,
and
respiration
rate
to
measure
emotion.
The
psychologist
Paul
Ekman
and
his
colleagues
have
identified
six
basic
emotions:
happiness,
sadness,
anger,
fear,
surprise,
and
disgust.
Worldwide,
most
people
can
identify
the
facial
expressions
that
correspond
to
these
emotions.
Ekman's
famous
test
of
emotion
recognition
was
the
Pictures
of
Facial
Affect
(POFA)
stimulus
set
published
in
1976.
Consisting
of
110
black
and
white
images
of
Caucasian
actors
portraying
the
six
universal
emotions
plus
neutral
expressions,
the
POFA
has
been
used
to
study
emotion
recognition
rates
in
normal
and
psychiatric
populations
around
the
world.
The
Catharsis
Hypothesis
The
catharsis
hypothesis
suggests
that
anger
can
be
decreased
by
releasing
it
through
aggressive
actions
or
fantasies.
However,
although
catharsis
helps
in
some
cases,
researchers
have
generally
found
that
catharsis
does
not
decrease
anger
in
the
long
term.
In
fact,
aggressive
actions
or
fantasies
can
sometimes
increase
anger.
The
Facial-Feedback
Hypothesis
Some
researchers
have
proposed
that
the
brain
uses
feedback
from
facial
muscles
to
recognize
emotions
that
are
being
experienced.
This
idea
is
known
as
the
facial-feedback
hypothesis.
It
follows
from
this
hypothesis
that
making
the
facial
expression
corresponding
to
a
particular
emotion
can
make
a
person
feel
that
emotion.
Studies
have
shown
that
this
phenomenon
does
indeed
occur.
The
limbic
system
is
a
group
of
structures
in
the
brain
associated
with
emotions
and
drives.
It
is
made
up
of
four
main
structures:
the
amygdala,
the
hippocampus,
regions
of
the
limbic
cortex,
and
the
septal
area.
These
structures
form
connections
between
the
limbic
system
and
the
hypothalamus,
thalamus,
and
cerebral
cortex.
The
hippocampus
is
important
in
memory
and
learning,
while
the
limbic
system
itself
is
central
in
the
control
of
emotional
responses.
The
limbic
system
is
associated
with
a
number
of
functions
including
the
sense
of
smell,
behavior,
learning,
long-term
memory,
emotions,
and
drives.
The
word
limbic
comes
from
the
Latin
word
limbus,
which
roughly
means
"belt"
or
"border."
This
system
is
shaped
somewhat
like
a
doughnut
and
forms
an
inner
border
to
the
cortex.
The
limbic
system
influences
other
systems
including
the
autonomic
nervous
system
and
the
endocrine
system.
It
is
also
linked
to
the
prefrontal
cortext
and
the
brain's
pleasure
center.
he
hippocampus
is
a
small,
curved
formation
in
the
brain
that
plays
an
important
role
in
the
limbic
system.
The
hippocampus
is
involved
in
the
formation
of
new
memories
and
is
also
associated
with
learning
and
emotions.
Because
of
brain
symmetry,
the
hippocampus
is
found
in
both
hemispheres
of
the
brain.
When
both
sides
of
the
hippocampus
are
damaged,
the
ability
to
create
new
memories
can
be
impeded.
Emotion
involves
the
entire
nervous
system,
of
course.
But
there
are
two
parts
of
the
nervous
system
that
are
especially
significant:
The
limbic
system
and
the
autonomic
nervous
system.
The
Limbic
System
The
limbic
system
is
a
complex
set
of
structures
that
lies
on
both
sides
of
the
thalamus,
just
under
the
cerebrum.
It
includes
the
hypothalamus,
the
hippocampus,
the
amygdala,
and
several
other
nearby
areas.
It
appears
to
be
primarily
responsible
for
our
emotional
life,
and
has
a
lot
to
do
with
the
formation
of
memories.
In
this
drawing,
you
are
looking
at
the
brain
cut
in
half,
but
with
the
brain
stem
intact.
The
part
of
the
limbic
system
shown
is
that
which
is
along
the
left
side
of
the
thalamus
(hippocampus
and
amygdala)
and
just
under
the
front
of
the
thalamus
(hypothalamus):
Hypothalamus
The
hypothalamus
is
a
small
part
of
the
brain
located
just
below
the
thalamus
on
both
sides
of
the
third
ventricle.
(The
ventricles
are
areas
within
the
cerebrum
that
are
filled
with
cerebrospinal
fluid,
and
connect
to
the
fluid
in
the
spine.)
It
sits
just
inside
the
two
tracts
of
the
optic
nerve,
and
just
above
(and
intimately
connected
with)
the
pituitary
gland.
The
hypothalamus
is
one
of
the
busiest
parts
of
the
brain,
and
is
mainly
concerned
with
homeostasis.
Homeostasis
is
the
process
of
returning
something
to
some
set
point.
It
works
like
a
thermostat:
When
your
room
gets
too
cold,
the
thermostat
conveys
that
information
to
the
furnace
and
turns
it
on.
As
your
room
warms
up
and
the
temperature
gets
beyond
a
certain
point,
it
sends
a
signal
that
tells
the
furnace
to
turn
off.
The
hypothalamus
is
responsible
for
regulating
your
hunger,
thirst,
response
to
pain,
levels
of
pleasure,
sexual
satisfaction,
anger
and
aggressive
behavior,
and
more.
It
also
regulates
the
functioning
of
the
autonomic
nervous
system
(see
below),
which
in
turn
means
it
regulates
things
like
pulse,
blood
pressure,
breathing,
and
arousal
in
response
to
emotional
circumstances.
The
hypothalamus
receives
inputs
from
a
number
of
sources.
From
the
vagus
nerve,
it
gets
information
about
blood
pressure
and
the
distension
of
the
gut
(that
is,
how
full
your
stomach
is).
From
the
reticular
formation
in
the
brainstem,
it
gets
information
about
skin
temperature.
From
the
optic
nerve,
it
gets
information
about
light
and
darkness.
From
unusual
neurons
lining
the
ventricles,
it
gets
information
about
the
contents
of
the
cerebrospinal
fluid,
including
toxins
that
lead
to
vomiting.
And
from
the
other
parts
of
the
limbic
system
and
the
olfactory
(smell)
nerves,
it
gets
information
that
helps
regulate
eating
and
sexuality.
The
hypothalamus
also
has
some
receptors
of
its
own,
that
provide
information
about
ion
balance
and
temperature
of
the
blood.
In
one
of
the
more
recent
discoveries,
it
seems
that
there
is
a
protein
called
leptin
which
is
released
by
fat
cells
when
we
overeat.
The
hypothalamus
apparently
senses
the
levels
of
leptin
in
the
bloodstream
and
responds
by
decreasing
appetite.
It
would
seem
that
some
people
have
a
mutation
in
a
gene
which
produces
leptin,
and
their
bodies
cant
tell
the
hypothalamus
that
they
have
had
enough
to
eat.
However,
many
overweight
people
do
not
have
this
mutation,
so
there
is
still
a
lot
of
research
to
do!
The
hypothalamus
sends
instructions
to
the
rest
of
the
body
in
two
ways.
The
first
is
to
the
autonomic
nervous
system.
This
allows
the
hypothalamus
to
have
ultimate
control
of
things
like
blood
pressure,
heartrate,
breathing,
digestion,
sweating,
and
all
the
sympathetic
and
parasympathetic
functions.
The
other
way
the
hypothalamus
controls
things
is
via
the
pituitary
gland.
It
is
neurally
and
chemically
connected
to
the
pituitary,
which
in
turn
pumps
hormones
called
releasing
factors
into
the
bloodstream.
As
you
know,
the
pituitary
is
the
so-
called
master
gland,
and
these
hormones
are
vitally
important
in
regulating
growth
and
metabolism.
Hippocampus
The
hippocampus
consists
of
two
horns
that
curve
back
from
the
amygdala.
It
appears
to
be
very
important
in
converting
things
that
are
in
your
mind
at
the
moment
(in
short-term
memory)
into
things
that
you
will
remember
for
the
long
run
(long-term
memory).
If
the
hippocampus
is
damaged,
a
person
cannot
build
new
memories,
and
lives
instead
in
a
strange
world
where
everything
they
experience
just
fades
away,
even
while
older
memories
from
the
time
before
the
damage
are
untouched!
This
very
unfortunate
situation
is
fairly
accurately
portrayed
in
the
wonderful
movie
Memento,
as
well
as
in
a
more
light-hearted
movie,
50
First
Dates.
But
there
is
nothing
light-hearted
about
it:
Most
people
who
suffer
from
this
kind
of
brain
damage
end
up
institutionalized.
Amygdala
The
amygdalas
are
two
almond-shaped
masses
of
neurons
on
either
side
of
the
thalamus
at
the
lower
end
of
the
hippocampus.
When
it
is
stimulated
electrically,
animals
respond
with
aggression.
And
if
the
amygdala
is
removed,
animals
get
very
tame
and
no
longer
respond
to
things
that
would
have
caused
rage
before.
But
there
is
more
to
it
than
just
anger:
When
removed,
animals
also
become
indifferent
to
stimuli
that
would
have
otherwise
have
caused
fear
and
even
sexual
responses.
Related
areas
Besides
the
hypothalamus,
hippocampus,
and
amygdala,
there
are
other
areas
in
the
structures
near
to
the
limbic
system
that
are
intimately
connected
to
it:
The
cingulate
gyrus
is
the
part
of
the
cerebrum
that
lies
closest
to
the
limbic
system,
just
above
the
corpus
collosum.
It
provides
a
pathway
from
the
thalamus
to
the
hippocampus,
seems
to
be
responsible
for
focusing
attention
on
emotionally
significant
events,
and
for
associating
memories
to
smells
and
to
pain.
The
ventral
tegmental
area
of
the
brain
stem
(just
below
the
thalamus)
consists
of
dopamine
pathways
that
seem
to
be
responsible
for
pleasure.
People
with
damage
here
tend
to
have
difficulty
getting
pleasure
in
life,
and
often
turn
to
alcohol,
drugs,
sweets,
and
gambling.
The
basal
ganglia
(including
the
caudate
nucleus,
the
putamen,
the
globus
pallidus,
and
the
substantia
nigra)
lie
over
and
to
the
sides
of
the
limbic
system,
and
are
tightly
connected
with
the
cortex
above
them.
They
are
responsible
for
repetitive
behaviors,
reward
experiences,
and
focusing
attention.
If
you
are
interested
in
learning
more
about
the
basal
ganglia,
Dr.$C.$George$Boere$
The$basal%ganglia$are$a$collection$of$nuclei$found$on$both$sides$of$the$thalamus,$outside$and$
above$the$limbic$system,$but$below$the$cingulate$gyrus$and$within$the$temporal$lobes.$$Although$
glutamate$is$the$most$common$neurotransmitter$here$as$everywhere$in$the$brain,$the$inhibitory$
neurotransmitter$GABA$plays$the$most$important$role$in$the$basal$ganglia.$
$
The$largest$group$of$these$nuclei$are$called$the$corpus%striatum$("striped$body"),$made$up$of$the$
caudate$nucleus$("tail"),$the$putamen$("shell"),$the$globus%pallidus$("pale$globe"),$and$the$
nucleus%accumbens$("leaning").$$All$of$these$structures$a$double$ones,$one$set$on$each$side$of$
the$central$septum.$
$
The$caudate$begins$just$behind$the$frontal$lobe$and$curves$back$towards$the$occipital$lobe.$$It$
sends$its$messages$to$the$frontal$lobe$(especially$the$orbital$cortex,$just$above$the$eyes),$and$
appears$to$be$responsible$for$informing$us$that$something$is$not$right$and$we$should$do$
something$about$it:$$Wash$your$hands!$$Lock$your$door!$$As$these$examples$are$meant$to$
suggest,$obsessive%compulsive%disorder$(OCD)$is$likely$to$involve$an$overactive$caudate.$$On$the$
other$hand,$an$underactive$caudate$may$be$involved$in$various$disorders,$such$as$ADD,$
depression,$aspects$of$schizophrenia,$and$just$plain$lethargy.$$It$is$also$involved$in$PAP%
syndrome,$a$dramatic$loss$of$motivation$only$recently$discovered$(see$below).$
$
The$putamen$lies$just$under$and$behind$the$front$of$the$caudate.$$It$appears$to$be$involved$in$
coordinating$automatic$behaviors$such$as$riding$a$bike,$driving$a$car,$or$working$on$an$assembly$
The prefrontal cortex, which is the part of the frontal lobe which lies in front of the
motor area, is also closely linked to the limbic system. Besides apparently being
involved in thinking about the future, making plans, and taking action, it also appears to
be involved in the same dopamine pathways as the ventral tegmental area, and plays a
The circumplex model of emotion was developed by James Russell.[10] This model
suggests that emotions are distributed in a two-dimensional circular space, containing
arousal and valence dimensions. Arousal represents the vertical axis and valence
represents the horizontal axis, while the center of the circle represents a neutral valence
and a medium level of arousal.[9] In this model, emotional states can be represented at any
level of valence and arousal, or at a neutral level of one or both of these factors. Circumplex
models have been used most commonly to test stimuli of emotion words, emotional facial
expressions, and affective states.[11]
Russell and Lisa Feldman Barrett describe their modified circumplex model as
representative of core affect, or the most elementary feelings that are not necessarily
directed toward anything. Different prototypical emotional episodes, or clear emotions that
are evoked or directed by specific objects, can be plotted on the circumplex, according to
their levels of arousal and pleasure.[12]
Vector model[edit]
The vector model of emotion appeared in 1992.[13] This two-dimensional model consists of
vectors that point in two directions, representing a "boomerang" shape. The model
assumes that there is always an underlying arousal dimension, and that valence
determines the direction in which a particular emotion lies. For example, a positive valence
would shift the emotion up the top vector and a negative valence would shift the emotion
down the bottom vector.[9] In this model, high arousal states are differentiated by their
valence, whereas low arousal states are more neutral and are represented near the
meeting point of the vectors. Vector models have been most widely used in the testing of
word and picture stimuli.[11]
Plutchik's model[edit]
Robert Plutchik offers a three-dimensional model that is a hybrid of both basic-complex
categories and dimensional theories. It arranges emotions in concentric circles where inner
circles are more basic and outer circles more complex. Notably, outer circles are also
formed by blending the inner circle emotions. Plutchik's model, as Russell's, emanates from
a circumplex representation, where emotional words were plotted based on similarity.[15] In
computer science, Plutchik's model is often used, in different forms or versions,[16] for tasks
such as affective human-computer interaction or sentiment analysis.
In 2011, Lvheim proposed a direct relation between specific combinations of the levels of
the signal substances dopamine, noradrenaline and serotonin and eight basic emotions. A
three-dimensional model, the Lvheim cube of emotion, was presented where the signal
substances forms the axes of a coordinate system, and the eight basic emotions according
to Silvan Tomkins are placed in the eight corners. Anger is, according to the model, for
example produced by the combination of low serotonin, high dopamine and high
noradrenaline. Lvheim wrote that as neither the serotonin nor the dopamine axis is
identical to the "pleasantness" (i.e. valence) dimension in earlier theories, the cube seems
somewhat rotated when compared to these models.[19]
Solomon