Introduction to Aerodynamics

Lecture # 2: Aerodynamic Forces (I)

Pejman Akbari, Ph.D.

Spring 2015, Columbia University

Lecture # 2: Aerodynamic Forces (I)

Aerodynamic forces exerted by airflow
comes from only two sources:

Pressure, p, distribution on surface
 Acts normal to surface

Shear stress, w, (friction) on surface
 Acts tangentially to surface

Pressure and shear are in units of force
per unit area (N/m2).

No matter how complex the flow field,
and no matter how complex the shape of
the body, the pressure and shear stress
distributions are the two hands of nature
that reach out and grab the body,
exerting a force on the body the
aerodynamic force.

Net unbalance creates an aerodynamic
force.

Lecture # 2: Aerodynamic Forces (I)

forces as shown in Figure 1.17.

Figure 1.16
Relative Wind: Direction of V
We use subscript to indicate far upstream
conditions.
Angle of Attack (AOA):: Angle between relative wind
(V) and chord line.

Figure 1.17
Intuition will tell you
that lift, drag, and
moment on a wing will
change as the angle of
attack (AOA) changes.
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Lecture # 2: Aerodynamic Forces (I)

Drag: The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body in
the flow direction. Both friction and components of
the pressure in the direction parallel to the flow
contribute to the drag force. Drag is often an
undesirable effect, and we do our best to minimize
it.

Lift: The components of the pressure and wall
shear forces in the direction normal to the flow
tend to move the body in that direction, and their
sum is called lift. Airfoils are designed to develop
high lift.

Behavior of lift and drag depend on
several parameters including angle
of attack, velocity, altitude, airfoil
geometry as we discuss later in this
lecture.

To understand drag and lift behavior
we need an understanding of
viscous flows.

Lecture # 2: Aerodynamic Forces (I)

AIRFOIL NOMENCLATURE

Mean Chamber Line: Set of points halfway between upper and lower surfaces
Leading Edge: Most forward point of mean chamber line
Trailing Edge: Most reward point of mean chamber line
Chord Line: Straight line connecting the leading and trailing edges
Chamber: Maximum distance between mean chamber line and chord line
 Measured perpendicular to chord line
Chord, c: Distance along the chord line from leading to trailing edge

Lecture # 2: Aerodynamic Forces (I)

NACA FOUR-DIGIT SERIES

First digit specifies maximum camber

in percentage of chord.
Second digit indicates position of
maximum camber in tenths of chord.
Last two digits provide maximum
thickness of airfoil in percentage of
chord.

NACA 2415

Example: NACA 2415

Camber of 2% (0.02c) located 40%

back from airfoil leading edge (0.4c)

Airfoil has maximum thickness of 15%

of chord (0.15c)

Lecture # 2: Aerodynamic Forces (I)

For an airfoil at zero angle of attack,

the drag is equal to the axial force
and the lift is equal to the normal
force.

Figure 1.17

Lecture # 2: Aerodynamic Forces (I)

Example: Using the Momentum Equation to Calculate Drag of an
Airfoil at Zero Angle of Attack (see details at page 135)

Lecture # 2: Aerodynamic Forces (I)

Obtaining Normal and Axial Forces
x: direction measured along the chord c.
s: distance measured along the surface from the leading edge.
ds: infinitesimally small length along the surface.
ab: dashed line ab is perpendicular
to chord c.
ac: solid line ac is locally
perpendicular to the dashed area of
1 ds.

: angle between ab and ac.

u: upper surface of the airfoil.
l: lower surface of the airfoil.
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Lecture # 2: Aerodynamic Forces (I)

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Lecture # 2: Aerodynamic Forces (I)

Example

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Lecture # 2: Aerodynamic Forces (I)

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Lecture # 2: Aerodynamic Forces (I)

Dimensionless Force Coefficients

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Lecture # 2: Aerodynamic Forces (I)

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Lecture # 2: Aerodynamic Forces (I)

Wing with a Finite Span Size

Platform Area S = c b

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Lecture # 2: Aerodynamic Forces (I)

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Lecture # 2: Aerodynamic Forces (I)

Characteristics Area in Drag Coefficient
In using drag or other fluid force data, it is important to note what length and
area are being used to scale the measured coefficients.
Drag coefficients are defined by using a
characteristic area S, which may differ
depending on the body shape:

cD

D
1
V2 S
2

The area S is usually one of two types:

1. Frontal area, the body as seen from the stream;
suitable for thick, stubby bodies, such as
spheres, cylinders, cars, trucks, missiles,
projectiles, and torpedoes.
2. Planform area, the body area as seen from
above; suitable for wide, flat bodies such as
wings and hydrofoils.

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Lecture # 2: Aerodynamic Forces (I)

Pressure Coefficient
You remember we defined the dynamic pressure as:

1
V 2 = q
2

The pressure difference divided by the dynamic pressure is often called the
pressure coefficient which is a unitless number:

Cp

p p
p p
=
1
q
V2
2

The pressure coefficient CP is an important quantity in Aerodynamics.

The value of Cp can be measured
by testing the airfoil in a wind
tunnel.

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Lecture # 2: Aerodynamic Forces (I)

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Lecture # 2: Aerodynamic Forces (I)

Example: Inviscid, Incompressible Flow Over a Cylinder
Later we will show that for steady,
frictionless, and incompressible flow
from left to right over a stationary
circular cylinder:

The greatest pressure (stagnation)

is on the front (and rear). The
pressure decreases and the
minimum pressure at the top and
bottom of the cylinder, consistent
with Cp = 3.
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Lecture # 2: Aerodynamic Forces (I)

 Homework (1), Due Next Week

Study Chapter 1 (pages 19-32 & 34-40) & Chapter 2 (pages
135-141)

Read the posted materials about other importance of force
coefficients and similarity parameters.

Then solve the following three problems:

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Lecture # 2: Aerodynamic Forces (I)

Problem # 1

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Lecture # 2: Aerodynamic Forces (I)

Problem # 2

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Lecture # 2: Aerodynamic Forces (I)

Problem # 3

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