BOILER FEED-WATER TREATMENT

The importance of correct feed-water treatment for economic operation and for extending
life of boiler and equipment cannot be over emphasized. Feed-water treatment is essential in
boilers, feed-systems, etc., more particularly in modern boilers of a high evaporative rate.
(The faster a steam boiler or generator will convert water to steam, the more rapidly will the
solids in the water concentrate up.) So, large and small water-tube boilers, the typical firetube packaged boiler, and steam generators are all examples of this in varying degrees. As
all untreated waters carry natural salts, they have to be treated to prevent scale forming.
The three main reasons for water treatment are :

Prevention of Corrosion in feed boiler, steam and condensate

systems.

Elimination of Scale.

Economic boiler operation without carryover.

Corrosion will reduce metal thickness of tubes or shell. Result : pressure must be reduced
and finally boiler condemned.
Scale reduces the heat flow from fire side to water. Result : high fire temperatures are
needed to maintain down is insufficient.
Basic Chemistry of the Effect of Impurities in the Boiler. If we could use water
completely free from all impurities, there would be no need for water treatment.

IMPURITY
1. Dissolved gases
2. Calcium salts and magnesium
salts
3. Silica
4. Suspended solids and dissolved
solids

EFFECT ON A BOILER
Corrosion
These salts are the 'hardness in the
boiler.
Some salts can also cause corrosion
Can form a very hard scale.
Contribute to, or cause, carryover (*)

(*) Carryover is a collective term to describe the entrainment of a relatively small quantity of
boiler water solids with the steam. Carryover occurs as a result of either foaming or priming,
or by a combination of both. Foaming is the formation of bubbles on the surface of the boiler
resulting in the throwing over of slugs of boiler water with the steam. This is similar to the
'bumping' experienced when water is boiled in an open vessel.
Even on ships and in powerhouses, however, where evaporated water is used, the small
quantities of impurities are sufficient to cause corrosion, scale and carry-over, and must
therefore be treated. A table of the impurities is as follows :

1. Dissolved Gases :
the two gases which cause corrosion are oxygen and carbon dioxide. The carbon
dioxide does so simply by dissolving in the water and forming a weak carbonic acid
which attacks the metal in feed systems, boiler or condensate system. Oxygen is
present in all waters, so that red iron oxide forms on a mild steel surface immersed in
water. This rusting or, as we call it, corrosion triunes until the metal is corroded away.
If the amount of oxygen in the water is restricted, the oxide film does not form so
readily; but instead, the surface of the steel tarnishes. This tarnish is usually the
development of a thin film of iron oxide on the metal surface which is not so fully
oxidized as the red iron oxide, and is more dense, thus tending to resist further
corrosive attack. In water of increasing alkalinity, the oxide film becomes more stable
and gives more protection to the steel, but until a definite alkalinity is reached, it still
tends to break down in selective areas, where pits will develop.
2. Calcium and magnesium salts :
There are two forms of hardness; temporary and permanent. Temporary hardness
is due bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium which break down to carbonates
when the water is boiled. In the boiler the following chemical reaction takes place :
Calcium Bicarbonate + heat. Calcium Carbonate+carbon dioxide+water. Calcium and
magnesium bicarbonate are soluble in water but the carbonates are insoluble and
therefore precipitate as a fine white powder. This precipitate will bake unto the
heating surface of a boiler and form a scale. Permanent hardness is due to calcium
and magnesium sulphates, chlorides and nitrates, and these salts cannot be removed
by boiling. However, under boiler conditions (resulting in successive concentrations of
these hardness salts) the solubility of these salts is soon exceeded and they deposit
on the hottest part of the heating surface. The salts of magnesium that form
permanent hardness sometimes tend to cause corrosion instead of hard scale
formation, e.g. magnesium chloride in an untreated boiler hydrolyses to form
corrosive hydrochloric acid.
3. Silica :
Silica forms scale in a similar way to the permanent hardness salts. When the scale
formed is a mixture of silica, calcium and magnesium salts, it is very hard and
therefore presents a difficult problem at inspection time.
4. The suspended and dissolved solids :
The suspended and dissolved solids cause foaming by becoming absorbed unto the
walls of individual bubbles so that small bubbles, instead of coalescing to form large
ones and bursting early, repel one another and build up a large volume of small
bubbles. If these bubbles burst near the steam outlet, the spray is taken over with
the steam. If the bubbles do not burst high in the steam space, the foam can be
drawn over with the steam.
Water, the raw material for making steam : Water is the only common substance that
exists in three forms (ice, water, steam) at normal earth temperatures. It absorbs more heat
for a given temperature rise than any other common inorganic substance. Water expands
1600 times as it evaporates to form steam at atmospheric pressure. The steam is capable of
carrying large quantities of heat. These unique properties of water make it an ideal raw
material for heating and power generating processes.
All natural waters contain varying amounts of dissolved and suspended matter and dissolved
gases the amount of minerals dissolved in water varies from 30kg. per 10001 in sea water to
anything from 5 g to 1 kg per 10001 in fresh water supplies. The source (lake, river, well,
etc.) and also with the area of the country. The impurities in water are important
considerations when it is to used for steam generation.
The composition of boiler feed water must be such that the impurities in it can be
concentrated a reasonable number of times inside the boiler, without exceeding the
tolerance limits of the particular boiler design. If the feed water does not meet these
requirements it must be pretreated to remove impurities. The impurities need not be

completely removed in all cases, however, since chemical treatment inside the boiler can
effectively and economically counteract them.
Let us thoroughly examine water the raw material for making steam through a series of
questions and answers.
"94" QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
Hereunder we would like to list up many questions that may be asked by the users of boilers
and answers are given in details with as much information available.
Questions :

1. What are the Physical Properties of Water?

2. What is the Chemical Composition of Water?
3. At Temperatures Does Water Boil?
4. Why is Steam Ideal for "Carrying" Heat Energy?
5. Why is Water Not Always Satisfactory for Boiler Use?
6. What General Type of Impurities Does Water Contain?
7. What Dissolved Minerals Do Natural Waters Contain?
8. What is Water Hardness?
9. What Gases are Dissolved in Natural Waters?
10. What Types of Other Impurities May Water Contain?
11. What is the Difference between Sea Water and Fresh Water?
12. What are the Sources of Fresh Water and How do they Vary in Composition?
13. How Does Water Composition Vary from Geographical Standpoint?
14. What is Boiler Feed Water?
15. Is there any Relationship between Good water for drinking use and for Boiler Feed?
16. How Pure Must Feed Water be?
17. How does Operating Pressure Influence Boiler Water Composition requirements?

18. What is Meant by 'External' and 'Internal' Feed water Treatment?

19. What Causes Boiler Deposits?
20. Which are some Common Types of Boiler Deposits?
21. What are the Characteristics of a carbonate deposit?
22. What are the Characteristics of a Sulphate Deposit?
23. What are the Characteristics of a Silica Deposit?
24. What are the Characteristics of an Iron Deposit?
25. What Problems do Deposits Cause?
26. What is Corrosion?
27. Where is Corrosion Usually Experienced?
28. What is Corrosion Fatigue?
29. What is Caustic Cracking?
30. What Problems does Corrosion Cause?
31. What Measures are taken to Prevent Boiler System Corrosion?
32. What is Boiler Water Carry-over?
33. What Causes Foaming?
34. What Causes Priming?
35. How Does Oil Affect Carry-over?
36. How Do Suspended Solids Affect Carry-over?
37. What is Selective Silica Carry-over?
38. What Problems are Caused by Carry-over?
39. What Measures are Usually Taken to Prevent Carry-over?
40. What is Clarification?

41. What is Coagulation?

42. What Various Types of Coagulants are Used?
43. What is Chemical Precipitation?
44. How Does Lime React in the softening Process ?
45. How Does soda Ash React in the Softening Process?
46. What are the Various Methods of Lime Soda Softening?
47. Why are Coagulants Used in the Lime Soda Process?
48. Under What Conditions Are Phosphate Softeners Use?
49. What are the Disadvantages of Lime Soda Softening?
50. What are the Advantages of Lime Soda Softening?
51. What is Ion Exchange?
52. What are the Various Types of Ion Exchange Materials?
53. What is Boiler Water Carry-over?
54. What are the Disadvantages of Ion Exchange?
55. What are the Advantages of Ion Exchange?
56. How Does Oil Affect Carry-over?
57. How Do Suspended Solids Affect Carry-over?
58. What is Selective Silica Carry-over?
59. What Problems are Caused by Carry-over?
60. What Measures are Usually Taken to Prevent Carry-over?
61. What is Clarification?
62. What is Coagulation?
63. What Various Types of Coagulants are Used?

64. What is Chemical Precipitation?

65. What is the Purpose of Deaeration?
66. How are Evaporators Employed?
67. What Combinations of External Treatment Methods are Generally Used?
68. When is Internal Treatment of Boiler Feed water Necessary?
69. What Should a Good Internal Water Treatment Programme Accomplish?
70. What chemicals are Used in Internal Treatment?
71. How are Carbonates Reacted on by Internal Treatment?
72. How are Sulphates Reacted on by Internal Treatment?
73. How is Silica Reacted upon by Internal Treatment?
74. How is Sludge Conditioned in Internal Treatment?
75. What Difficulties are Encountered in Internal Treatment?
76. What are the Advantages of Internal Treatment?
77. How are Internal Treatment Chemicals Fed?
78. How are Chemical Dosages Controlled?
79. What Boiler Water Tests are Used for Treatment Control?
80. What Tests are Usually Made as a Check for Contaminants?
81. What Units are Used in Expressing Water Analysis Results?
82. Why are some Analysis Results Express As CaCO2E
83. What is Blow-down?
84. How much Blow-down is Needed?
85. What Tests are Made in Regulating Blow-down?
86. What is the Difference between Continuous and Puff Blow-down?

87. What Causes Corrosion in Steam Condensate Systems?

88. How is Steam Condensate Corrosion Prevented?
89. How do Chemical Oxygen Scavengers Help Control Condensate System Corrosion?
90. What is the Basis for Choice between Neutralizing and Filming Inhibitors?
91. What Characteristics Should a Good Condensate Corrosion Inhibitor Have?
92. How are Deposits and Corrosion Prevented in Feed water Systems?
93. What is the Wet Method of Boiler Lay-Up?
94. What is the Dry Method of Boiler Lay-Up?

Answer to : back
What are the Physical Properties of Water?
Water is a tasteless, odorless, colourless liquid in its pure state. It is the only inorganic
material which occurs in three forms (ice, water, steam) within the natural temperature
range on earth. Because water can be converted to steam at a convenient temperature.

Answer to : back
What is the Chemical Composition of Water?

Pure water is a simple combination of hydrogen and oxygen. The common formula is H 2O. As
a matter of general interest, however, there are several 'hybrid' forms of water which are
present in all supplies. Water contains about 300 ppm of deuterium oxide (D.,O) or "heavy
water". This doesn't quench thirst or make plants grow but in a pure form it has found use in
moderating nuclear reactors. Another form of water, tritium oxide (T2O), is made radioactive
by cosmic rays. Although only a minute fraction of water exists in this form, its radioactivity
serves as a means of measuring the age of a water supply. For all practical purposes,
though, only ordinary water (H2O) is considered for use in boilers.

Answer to : back
At Temperature Does Water Boil?
The boiling point of water depends on the pressure to which the water is subjected. At
atmospheric pressure water boils at about 100C. As pressure increases the boiling point
also increases. At the critical pressure near 22.000kPa (where water can be converted to
steam without a change in volume) the boiling point is lowered. Under extreme vacuum

conditions, water will boil at temperatures as low as 2C.

Answer to : back
Why is Steam Ideal for "Carrying" Heat Energy?
The Traditional formula was : 1 Btu raises 1 pound of water 1F. This can be converted to 4.2
kJ to raise 1 kg. of water 1C. It takes an additional 2256 kJ/kg. to change 1 kg. of water (at
the boiling point) to steam. This amount of heat (the heat of vaporization) is then "stored" in
the steam. When steam condenses, this heat energy is given off. Consider, for example, the
amount of heat which can be "carried" by 1 kg. of water. If the water temperature is
originally 38C (100F) it takes 260 kJ/kg. to heat it to 100C and 2256 kJ/kg. to convert it to
steam. A total of 2516 kJ/kg. has been added and will be released as the water is condensed
and cooled back to 38C. Since this transfer is never 100 percent efficient, some of the heat
energy will be dissipated in the process. But much of the heat from burning fuel can be
absorbed by boiler water, transported with the steam, and released at the desired points.

Answer to : back
Why is Water Not Always Satisfactory for Boiler use?
Completely pure water is nonexistent. All natural waters contain various types and amounts
of impurities. Since water impurities cause boiler problems, careful consideration must be
given to the quality of the water used for generating steam.

Answer to : back
What General Types of Impurities Does Water Contain?
Impurities picked up by natural waters may be classed as : (a) dissolved solids, (b) dissolved
gases, and (c) suspended matter. Water is a good solvent; it dissolves the rocks and soil it
contacts. It dissolves gases from the air and gases given off from organics is the soil. It picks
up suspended matter from the earth. It is also subject to contamination with trade wastes,
oils and process materials. In general, the type of impurities water contains depends on
what it contacts; the amount of impurities deepens on the contact times.

Answer to : back
What Dissolved Minerals Do Natural Waters Contain?
The minerals which water picks up from rocks consist chiefly of calcium carbonate
(limestone); magnesium carbonate (dolomite); calcium Sulphate (gypsum), magnesium
Sulphate (Epsom salts); silica (sand); sodium chloride (common salt); sodium Sulphate
(Glaubers salts); and small quantities of iron, manganese, fluorides, aluminum, and other
substances. Wastes from mines and certain industrial processes make some surface waters
very acin, while minerals in the earth make some ground waters very alkaline. Sometimes
Nitrates are found in water and in many cases, this is associate with sewage contamination.

Answer to : back
What is Hardness?
Waters which contain large amounts of calcium and magnesium minerals are "hard to wash
with". The calcium and magnesium compounds react with soap to form a curb in the water.
These compounds are therefore referred to as water hardness. The amount of hardness in a
natural water may vary from several parts per million to over 500 parts per million. Since
calcium and magnesium compounds are relatively insoluble in water, they tend to
precipitate out to cause scale and deposit problems. Water hardness, therefore, is an
important consideration in determining suitability of a water or use in generating steam.

Answer to : back
What Gases are Dissolved in Natural Waters?
Water dissolves varying amounts of air which is composed of 21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen, 1%
other gases (including 0.03 - 0.06% carbon dioxide). Oxygen is soluble in water at room
temperature and atmospheric pressure to the extent of about 9ppm. The solubility of oxygen
decreases as the temperature of the water goes up, but water under pressure can hold
larger quantities of dissolved oxygen. Although nitrogen is dissolved in natural water it is
inert gas and has little effect on the character of water used in boilers. Water doesn't usually
pick up more than 10 ppm of carbon dioxide from the air. Carbon dioxide may be dissolved
in water to a much greater extent, though, through the decay of vegetation and organics in
the soil. Hydrogen Sulphate and methane may be dissolved in some waters, but this is not a
general occurrence. These gases, however, can be important when they occur as
contaminants.

Answer to : back
What Types of Other Impurities May Water Contain?
Natural waters may contain turbidity, colour, soil, and precipitated minerals, as well as oil
and other trade wastes. Colour comes from decaying vegetable matter. Turbidity may
consist of very finely divided organic material and microorganisms, as well as suspended
clay and silt. Oils, fats, greases, sewage and other wastes may contaminate water supplies.

Answer to : back
What is the Difference between Sea Water and Fresh Water?
The main difference is in the amount of dissolved minerals. Sea water contains about 30 kg.
of minerals per 1000 liters (mostly salt). The mineral content of fresh water supplies is much
lower and generally ranges form 5 g. to 1 kg. per 10001. While work is now in progress on
methods of purifying sea and brackish water at the present time only fresh water supplies
are generally used for boiler feed purposes.

Answer to : back
What are the Sources of Fresh Water and How do they Vary in Composition?
Fresh water supplies may be either surface water (rivers, streams, reservoirs, etc.) or ground
water (shallow or deep well waters). In general, ground water supplies are more consistent
in composition and contain less suspended matter and turbidity than surface supplies which
are affected directly by rainfall, soil erosion, and trade wastes. On the other hand, ground
waters are usually harder than surface waters. For example, an average surface supply will
contain about 95 ppm total hardness as opposed to an average of about 200 ppm total
hardness for ground supplies. In some instances where the ground water is normally
encountered in surface supplies.

Answer to : back
How Does Water Composition Vary from Geographical Standpoint?
Water composition varies throughout the states depending upon the type and strata of the
earth formations. In the limestone areas the waters contain large quantities of calcium
carbonate. In parts of the country where there is more of the granite type of rock formation,
much less mineral matter is dissolved and the water will not contain much hardness.
Throughout some state, there are deposits of alkali which the water will pick up. These are
the general geographic variations, but local conditions in any area may greatly influence the
composition of the water.

Answer to : back
What is Boiler Feed Water?
The water added to a boiler to repave evaporation and blow-down losses is termed 'feed
water'. In may cases, steam is condensed and returned to the boiler as part of the feed
water. Whatever water is needed to supplement the condensate returned is termed 'makeup water'. The make-up water is usually natural water either in its raw state, or treated by
some process before use. Feed-water composition therefore depends on the quality of the
make-up water and the amount of condensate returned to the boiler.

Answer to : back
Is there any Relationship between Good water for drinking use and for Boiler
Feed?
Except that sewage pollution is harmful to both, there is not a great deal of similarity
between the requirements for drinkable water and the requirements for boiler feed-water.
The minerals in drinking water, while they might affect the taste, are absorbed by the body
and many so called 'health waters' are high in minerals. On the other hand, water impurities
cannot be handled as well by boilers. Although a boiler is a mass of steel, it is generally
more sensitive about what it consumes than is the human stomach. For this reason, much
care is needed in selecting water treatment.

Answer to : back
How Pure Must Feed Water be?
Feed-water purity is a matter both of quantity of impurities and nature of impurities... some
impurities such as hardness, iron and silica are of more concern, for example, than sodium
salts, The purity requirements for any feed-water depend on how much feed water is used
as well as what the particular boiler design (pressure, heat transfer rate, etc.) can tolerate.
Feed-water purity requirements therefore can vary widely. A low pressure fire-tube boiler can
usually tolerate high feed-water hardness with proper treatment while virtually all impurities
must be removed from water used in some modern, high pressure boilers.

Answer to : back
How does Operating Pressure Influence Boiler Water Composition requirements?
The Boiler and affiliated Industries Manufacturers' Association has established limits for
boiler water composition with respect to operating pressure to assure good quality steam.
Pending the evolving of new, round figure ratios in S.I. units, we literally convert the p.s.i.g.
column below :

BOILER PRESSURE

TOTAL SOLIDS ALKALINITY

SUSPENDED

(kPa)

(psig)

(ppm)

(ppm)

solids

silica*

0-2070

0-300

3500

700

300

125

2070-3100

301-450

3000

600

250

90

3100-4135

451-600

2500

500

150

50

4135-5170

601-750

2000

400

100

35

5170-6200

751-900

150

300

60

20

6200-6890

901-1000

1250

25

40

6890-10335

1001-1500

1000

20

20

2.5

10335-13780

1501-2000

750

50

10

1.5

over 13780

over 2000

500

100

0.5

(*) Silica limits based on limiting silica in steam to 0.02-0.03 ppm.

Answer to : back
What is Meant by 'External' and 'Internal' Feed water Treatment?
External treatment is the reduction or removal of impurities from water outside the boiler. In
general, external treatment is used when the amount of one or more of the feed=water
impurities is too high to be tolerated by the boiler system in question. There are many types
of external treatment (softening, evaporation, deaerarion, etc.) which can be used to tailor
make feed-water for a particular system. Internal treatment is the conditioning of impurities
within the boiler system. The reactions occur either in the feed lines or in the boiler proper.
Internal treatment may be used alone or in conjunction with external treatment. Its purpose
is to properly react with feed water hardness, condition sludge, scavenge oxygen and
prevent boiler water foaming.

Answer to : back
What Causes Boiler Deposits?
Boiler scale is caused by impurities being precipitated out of the water directly on heat
transfer surfaces or by suspended matter in water settling out on the metal and becoming
hard and adherent. Evaporation in a boiler causes impurities to concentrate. The high
temperatures break down some minerals, cause others to become less soluble. In general,
water in contact with hot metal will tend to deposit out impurities as it evaporates.

Answer to : back
Which are some Common Types of Boiler Deposits?
In untreated boiler water, the formation of deposits is like a back to nature movement. That
is as minerals are deposited out from water they form many types of crystalline and rock like
structures such as are encountered in the earth's strata. Deposits are seldom composed of
one constituent alone but are generally a mixture of various types of minerals, corrosion
products and other water contaminants. The most common types of boiler deposits may
contain : Calcium carbonate, Sulphate or silicate; magnesium hydroxide or silicate, iron
oxide, and silica, sludge deposits form boiler water which has been treated may also contain
calcium and magnesium phosphates.

Answer to : back
What are the Characteristics of a carbonate deposit?
A carbonate deposit is usually granular and sometimes of a very porous nature. The crystals
of calcium carbonate are large but usually are matted together with finely divided particles
of other materials so that the scale looks dense and uniform. A carbonate deposit can be
easily identified by dropping it in a solution of acid. Bubbles of carbon dioxide will effervesce
from the scale.

Answer to : back
What are the Characteristics of a Sulphate Deposit?
A Sulphate deposit is much harder and more dense than a carbonate deposit because the
crystals are smaller and cement together tighter. A Sulphate deposit is brittle, does not
pulverize easily, and does not effervesce when dropped into acid.

Answer to : back
What are the Characteristics of a Silica Deposit?
A high silica deposit is very hard, resembling porcelain. The crystal of silica are extremely
small, forming a very dense and impervious scale. This scale is extremely brittle and very
difficult to pulverize. It is not soluble in hydrochloric acid and is usually very light coloured.

Answer to : back
What are the Characteristics of an Iron Deposit?
Iron deposits, due either to corrosion or iron contamination in the water, are very dark
coloured. Iron deposits in boilers are most often magnetic. They are soluble in hot acid
giving a dark brown coloured solution.

Answer to : back
What Problems do Deposits Cause?
The biggest problem that deposits cause is overheating and failure of boiler tubes. A deposit
acts as an insulator and excessive deposits prevent an efficient transfer of heat through the
tubes to the circulating water. This causes the metal itself to become over heated. When the
overheating is severe enough the metal fails. Boiler deposits can also cause plugging or
partial obstruction of corrosive attack underneath the deposits may occur. In general, boiler
deposits can cut operating efficiency, produce boiler damage, cause unscheduled boiler
outages, and increase cleaning expense.

Answer to : back
What is Corrosion?
Stated simply, general corrosion is the reversion of a metal to it 's form. Iron, for example,
reverts to iron oxide as the result of corrosion. The process of corrosion, however is a
complex electro chemical reaction and it takes many forms. Corrosion may produce general
attach over a large metal surface or it may result in pinpoint penetration of metal. While
basic corrosion in boilers may be primarily due to reaction of the metal with oxygen, other
factors such as stresses, acid conditions, and specific chemical corrodents may have an
important influence and produce different forms of attack.

Answer to : back
Where is Corrosion Usually Experienced?
Corrosion may occur in the feed-water system as a result of low pH water and the presence
of dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide. Corrosion in the boiler proper generally occurs when
the boiler water alkalinity is low or when the metal is exposed to oxygen bearing water
either during operation or idle periods. High temperatures and stresses in the boiler metal
tend to accelerate the corrosive mechanisms. In the boiler metal tend to accelerate the
corrosive mechanisms. In the steam and condensate system corrosion is generally the result
of c contamination with carbon dioxide and oxygen. Specific contaminants such as ammonia
or sulphur bearing gases may increase attack on copper alloys in the system.

Answer to : back
What is Corrosion Fatigue?
This type of cracking in boiler metal may occur by two different mechanisms. In the first
mechanism, cyclic stresses such as are created by rapid heating and cooling are
concentrated at points where corrosion has roughened or pitted the metal surface. This is
usually associated with improper corrosion prevention. The second type of corrosion fatigue
cracking occurs in boilers with properly treated water. In these cases corrosion fatigue is
probably a misnomer. These cracks often originate where the metal surfaces are covered by
a dense protective oxide film and cracking occurs from the action of applied cyclic stresses.
Corrosion fatigue cracks are usually thick, blunt and cross the metal grains. They usually
start at internal tube surfaces and are most often circumferential on the tube.

Answer to : back
What is Caustic Cracking?
Caustic cracking (caustic embrittlement) is a serious type of boiler metal failure
characterized by continuous, mostly inter granular cracks. The following conditions appear
to be necessary for this type of cracking to occur :

1. The metal must be stressed,

2. the boiler-water must contain caustic,

3. at least a trace of silica must be present in the boiler-water, and

4. some mechanisms, such as a slight leak, must be present to allow the boiler
water to concentrate on the stressed metal.

Answer to : back
What Problems does Corrosion Cause?
Corrosion, in general, causes difficulty from two standpoints. The first is deterioration of the
metal itself, and the second is deposition of the corrosion products to form deposits.
Generally, uniform corrosion of boiler surfaces is seldom of real concern. Corrosion, however,
takes many insidious forms and deep pits resulting in only a minimum of iron loss may cause
penetration and leaking of boiler tubes. Corrosion underneath certain types of boiler
deposits can so weaken the metal that failure of tubes occurs. In steam condensate system,
replacement of lines and equipment due to corrosion can be a costly problem.

Answer to : back
What Measures are taken to Prevent Boiler System Corrosion?
Corrosion, in general, causes difficulty from two standpoints. The first is deterioration of the
metal itself, and the second is deposition of the corrosion products to form deposits.
Generally, uniform corrosion of boiler surfaces is seldom of real concern. Corrosion, however,
takes many insidious forms and deep pits resulting in only a minimum of iron loss may cause
penetration and leaking of boiler tubes. Corrosion underneath certain types of boiler
deposits can so weaken the metal that failure of tubes occurs. In steam condensate system,
replacement of lines and equipment due to corrosion can be a costly problem.
Why Water Treatment is Needed :
As feed-water enters a boiler the heat causes hardness (calcium and magnesium salts) to
come out of solution. Untreated the hardness deposits on the hot boiler metal to from scale.
As water evaporates in the boiler the feed-water impurities concentrate. Even small amounts
to iron, copper, and silica can accumulate in the boiler-water and cause serious deposit
problems in higher pressure boilers. Since scale can cause overheating and failure of boiler
metal, preventive water treatment is needed. The corrosion of boiler system metal is a
complex process and takes many forms: general attack, localized pitting, and various types
of cracking in stressed metal. In general, the main factors causing corrosion are dissolved
gases in the water (primarily oxygen) and acid conditions. High temperatures speed up the
corrosion process. Corrosion is damaging from several standpoints: it causes weakening and
failure of metal and produces corrosion products which can cause boiler deposits. High
concentrations of dissolved and suspended matter in boiler-water can cause foaming of the
water at the steam release surface. This produces carry-over of the water and its impurities
into the steam. Carry-over results in deposits and other problems in turbines, engines and
other processes using steam. While mechanical and operational factors also cause carryover, proper control of water conditions is important in producing pure steam.

Answer to : back
What is Boiler Water Carryover?

Boiler water carry-over is the contamination of the steam with boiler-water solids. There are
four common types of boiler-water carry-over. In one bubbles or froth actually build up on
the surface of the boiler-water and pass out with the steam. This is called foaming and can
be compared to the stable foam found on beer. In the second type small droplets of water in
the form of spray or mist are thrown up into the steam space by the bursting of the rising
steam bubbles at the steam release surface. This is sometimes called
aquaglobejectionEand is like ginger ale or champagne where no stable foam is formed but
droplets of liquid are ejected from the liquid surface. The third condition of carry-over, called
priming, is a sudden surge of boiler-water that carries over with the steam, similar to the
effects produced in uncapping a bottle of charged water. stem contamination may also occur
from leakage of water through improperly designed or installed steam separating equipment
in a boiler drum.

Answer to : back
What Causes Foaming?
Very high concentrations of any solids in boiler-water cause foaming. It is generally believed,
however, that specific substances such as alkalis, oils, fats, greases, certain types of organic
matter and suspended solids are particularly conducive to foaming.

Answer to : back
What Causes Priming?
Priming may be caused by improper construction of boiler, excessive ratings, or sudden
fluctuations in steam demand. priming is sometimes aggravated by impurities in the boilerwater

Answer to : back
How Does Oil Affect Carryover?
Oil contamination in boiler feed-water, usually form reciprocating engines, pumps, etc., can
cause serious foaming. This is generally attributed to the formation of soaps in the boilerwater due to specification of the oil by boiler-water alkalis.

Answer to : back
How Do Suspended Solids Affect Carryover?
The theory advanced is that suspended solids collect in the surface film surrounding a steam
bubble and make it tougher. The steam bubble therefore resists breaking and builds up a
foam. It is believed that the finer the suspended particles the greater their collection in the
bubble. Experience indicates, however, that many boilers operate with exceedingly high
suspended solids without carry-over while others have carry-over with only a trace of
suspended solids. This would seem to indicate that the type as well as the quantity of
suspended solids has much to do with carry-over.

Answer to : back
What is Selective Silica Carryover?
Silica can carry over into the steam in two ways. It can be present in the steam as the result
of general boiler-water carry-over or it can go into steam in a volatile form. In the latter case
silica acts much like a gas and is considered to be selectively carried over. As Pressures
increase above 2760 kPa (400 p.s.i), there is an increased tendency for silica to be
selectively carried into the steam in amounts proportionate to the amount of silica in the
boiler-water.

Answer to : back
What Problems are Caused by Carry-over?
The disadvantages of wet steam include a general decrease in operating efficiency and
erosion of turbines and engines. In addition any dissolved or suspended solids in the boilerwater tend to deposit out in the steam and condensate system,. when the solids deposit in
super heaters and turbine, overheating and failure of superheated tubes and reduction in
turbine efficiency can result. Impurities carried over with the can cause difficulties in many
processes for which the steam is used.

Answer to : back
What Measures are Usually Taken to Prevent Carryover?
The most common measure is to maintain the concentration of solids in the boiler water at
reasonably low levels. Avoiding high water levels, excessive boiler loads, and sudden load
changes also helps. Very often contaminated condensate returned to the boiler system
causes carry-over problems. In these cases the condensate should be temporarily wasted
until the source of contamination is found and eliminated. The use of chemical anti-foam
agents can be very effective in preventing carry-over due to high concentrations of
impurities in the boiler-water.
Removing Impurities from Water :
Coagulants are chemicals to enmesh fine particles of suspended matter in a water supply to
form a flock which settles or can be filtered out. Adding softening chemicals (lime, soda, ash,
etc.) to a water causes some dissolved hardness salts to precipitate and the suspended
matter can then be coagulated and filtered out. Precipitation processes such as lime soda
softening can effectively remove suspended matter, hardness and alkalinity and in some
cases reduce the silica content of the water. When a salt dissolves in water it forms positive
ions (cations) and negative ions (anions). For example, calcium carbonate (CaCO3) forms a
calcium cation (Ca++) and a carbonate anion (CO3=). The most common form of ion
exchange involves passing water through material which substitutes sodium for calcium and
magnesium cations. This is a typical softening treatment. Anions can also be removed from
water by the use of special ion exchange resins. Demineralization or complete removal of
dissolved minerals involves the use of both cation and anion exchange materials. In
removing impurities from water there are many possible combinations of coagulation,
precipitation and ion exchange methods. Other methods of treatment include: deaerarion
(heating the water and venting the gases) for reduction of oxygen and carbon dioxide; and
evaporation to produce distilled water.

Answer to : back
What is Clarification?
Clarification is the removal of suspended matter and/or colour from water supplies. The
suspended matter may consist of large particles which settle out readily. In these cases
clarification equipment merely involves the use of settling basins and/or filters. Most often,
however, suspended matter in water consists of particles so small that they do not settle out
and even pass through filters. The removal of these finely divided or colloidal substances
therefore requires the use of coagulants.

Answer to : back
What is Coagulation?
Coagulation is the clumping together of finely divided and colloidal impurities in water into
masses which will settle rapidly and/or can be filtered out of the water. Colloidal particles
have large surface areas which keep them in suspension and in addition the particles have
negative electrical charges which cause them to repel each other and resist adhering
together. Coagulation, therefore, involves neutralizing the negative charges and providing a
nucleus for the suspended particles to adhere to.

Answer to : back
What Various Types of Coagulants are Used?
The most common coagulants are iron and aluminum salts such as ferric Sulphate, ferric
chloride, aluminum Sulphate (alum) and sodium acuminate. Ferric and alumina ions each
have three positive charges and therefore their effectiveness is related their ability to react
with the negatively charged colloidal particles. With proper use these coagulants form a
flock in the water which serves as a kind of net for collecting suspended matter. In recent
years synthetic materials called polyelectrolyte have been developed for coagulation
purposes. these consist of long chain like molecules with positive charges. In some cases
organic polymers and special types of clay are used in the coagulation in making the flock
heavier, causing it to settle out more rapidly.

Answer to : back
What is Chemical Precipitation?
In precipitating processes the chemicals added react with dissolved minerals in the water to
produce a relatively insoluble reaction product. Precipitation methods are used in reducing
dissolved hardness, alkalinity and in some silica. The most common example of chemical
precipitation in water treatment is lime soda softening.

Answer to : back
How Does Lime React in the softening Process ?

Hydrated lime (calcium hydroxide) reacts with soluble calcium and magnesium bicarbonates
to form insoluble precipitates. This is shown by the following equations:

Ca(OH)2

Lime

Ca(OH)2 +

Lime

Ca(HCO3)2 ======>

2CaCO3

Calcium

Calcium

Bicarbonate

Carbonate

Mg(HCO3)2======>

Magnesiu
m

Bicarbonate

Hydroxide

2H2O

Water

Mg(OH)2 +

Magnesium

2CaCO3

Calcium

2H2O

Water

Carbonat

Most of the calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide come out of solution as a sludge
and can be removed by settling and filtration. Lime, therefore, can be used to reduce
hardness present in the bicarbonate form (temporary hardness) as well as decrease the
amount of bicarbonate alkalinity in a water. Lime reacts with magnesium Sulphate and
chloride and precipitates magnesium hydroxides but in this process soluble calcium Sulphate
and chloride are formed. Lime is not effective in removing calcium Sulphate and chlorides.

Answer to : back
How Does soda Ash React in the Softening Process?
Soda ash is used primarily to reduce non-bicarbonate hardness (also called Sulphate
hardness or permanent hardness). It reacts as follows:

Na2CO3

Soda Ash

Na2CO3

CaSO4

======>

CaCO3

Na2SO4

Calcium

Calcium

Sodium

Sulphate

Carbonate

Sulphate

CaC12

======>

CaCO2

2NaCl

Calcium

Calcium

Sodium

Chloride

Carbonate

Chloride

The calcium carbonate formed by the reaction tends to come out of solution as a sludge. The
sodium Sulphate and chloride formed are highly soluble and non-scale forming.

Answer to : back
What are the Various Methods of Lime Soda Softening?
The two general types are intermittent (batch type) and continuous. The older method of
intermittent softening consists of mixing the chemicals with the water in a tank, allowing
time for reaction and settling of the sludge, and drawing off the clear water. The more
modern method of continuous lime soda softening involves the use of specially
compartmented tanks with provisions for

1. proportioning chemicals continuously to the incoming water

2. retention time for chemical reactions and settling of sludge, and
3. continuous draw-off of softened water. Lime soda softening may also be
classified as hot or cold, depending on the temperature of the water. Hot
process softeners increase the rate of chemical reactions and give better
quality water.

Answer to : back
Why are Coagulants Used in the Lime-Soda Process?
Just as coagulants are used for removing suspended matter in clarification processes, they
serve to clump together precipitates in the softening process. Coagulants can speed up
settling of sludge as much as 25 - 50 per cent. Sodium acuminate has a special advantage
as a coagulant in lime soda softening since unlike most other coagulants it is alkaline and
also contributes to the softening redactions, particularly in reducing magnesium. Effective
use of coagulants helps remove silica in the softening process. Silica tends to be absorbed in
the flock produced by coagulation of sludge.

Answer to : back
Under What Conditions Are Phosphate Softeners Use?
Sodium phosphates react readily with calcium and magnesium salts. Phosphate softeners
are generally used only on naturally soft or pre softened waters, however, because relatively
high amounts of magnesium in the water cause a very sticky precipitate in reacting with
phosphate. Properly used, phosphate softeners can effectively reduce hardness to very low
levels. Improved ion exchange softening methods have largely supplanted phosphate
softeners in new installations.

Answer to : back
What are the Disadvantages of Lime Soda Softening?
The main disadvantage is that while hardness is reduced it is not completely removed. Wide
variations in raw water composition and flow rate also make control of this method difficult
since this involves adjusting the amounts of lime and soda ash being fed.

Answer to : back
What are the Advantages of Lime Soda Softening?
The main advantage is that in reducing hardness, alkalinity and silica can also be reduced. In
addition, prior clarification of the water is not usually necessary since suspended matter and
turbidity are also removed in the process. Another advantage is that with continuous hot
process softening some removal of oxygen and carbon dioxide can be achieved.

Answer to : back
What is Ion Exchange?
When minerals dissolve in water they form electrically charge particles called ions. Calcium
carbonate, for example, forms a calcium ion with plus charges (a cation) and a carbonate ion
with negative charges (an anion). Certain natural and synthetic materials have the ability to
remove mineral ions from water in exchange for others. For example, in passing water

through a simple cation exchange softener all of calcium and magnesium ions are removed
and replaced with sodium ions. Ion exchange materials usually are provided in the form of
small beads or crystals which compose a bed several feet deep through which the water is
passed.

Answer to : back
What are the Various Types of Ion Exchange Materials?
Ion exchange materials are basically of two types: cation and anion exchangers. Cation
exchange materials react only with positively charged ions such as Ca++ and Mh++. Anion
exchanger materials react only with the negatively charged ions such as carbonate (CO3)
and Sulphate (SO4). Zeolite materials are cation exchangers composed chiefly of sodium,
aluminum and silica. There are several other types of cation exchange materials of an
organic or resinous nature. The anion materials are usually organic in nature and are of two
basic types: weak base and strong base types. Weak base exchangers dont take out carbon
dioxide or silica (actually carbonic acid and silica acid) but remove strong acid anions by a
process that is more like adsorption than ion exchange. Strong base anion exchangers on
the other hand can reduce silica and carbon dioxide to very low values. Cation exchangers
usually opals which settle out readily. In these cases clarification equipment merely involves
the use of settling basins and/irate on either a sodium or hydrogen cycle E That is, they
may be designed to replace all cations in the water with either sodium or hydrogen. Strong
base anion exchangers are generally operated on a hydroxide weak base on a carbonate
cycle. Chloride anion exchange is also used in some processes.
Why Water Treatment is Needed :
As feed-water enters a boiler the heat causes hardness (calcium and magnesium salts) to
come out of solution. Untreated the hardness deposits on the hot boiler metal to from scale.
As water evaporates in the boiler the feed-water impurities concentrate. Even small amounts
to iron, copper, and silica can accumulate in the boiler-water and cause serious deposit
problems in higher pressure boilers. Since scale can cause overheating and failure of boiler
metal, preventive water treatment is needed. The corrosion of boiler system metal is a
complex process and takes many forms: general attack, localized pitting, and various types
of cracking in stressed metal. In general, the main factors causing corrosion are dissolved
gases in the water (primarily oxygen) and acid conditions. High temperatures speed up the
corrosion process. Corrosion is damaging from several standpoints: it causes weakening and
failure of metal and produces corrosion products which can cause boiler deposits. High
concentrations of dissolved and suspended matter in boiler-water can cause foaming of the
water at the steam release surface. This produces carry-over of the water and its impurities
into the steam. Carry-over results in deposits and other problems in turbines, engines and
other processes using steam. While mechanical and operational factors also cause carryover, proper control of water conditions is important in producing pure steam.

Answer to : back
What is Boiler Water Carryover?
Boiler water carry-over is the contamination of the steam with boiler-water solids. There are
four common types of boiler-water carry-over. In one bubbles or froth actually build up on
the surface of the boiler-water and pass out with the steam. This is called foaming and can
be compared to the stable foam found on beer. In the second type small droplets of water in
the form of spray or mist are thrown up into the steam space by the bursting of the rising

steam bubbles at the steam release surface. This is sometimes called

aquaglobejectionEand is like ginger ale or champagne where no stable foam is formed but
droplets of liquid are ejected from the liquid surface. The third condition of carry-over, called
priming, is a sudden surge of boiler-water that carries over with the steam, similar to the
effects produced in uncapping a bottle of charged water. stem contamination may also occur
from leakage of water through improperly designed or installed steam separating equipment
in a boiler drum.

Answer to : back
What are the Disadvantages of Ion Exchange?
The main disadvantage with sodium cycle ion exchange softening is that the total solids,
alkalinity and silica contents of the raw water are not reduce. A problem encountered with
cation exchange on the hydrogen cycle is corrosion from acidity of the effluent. With
demineralization the chief difficulties are with cost particularly on high solids raw waters,
and the corrosive nature of the effluent water. In general, fouling of the ion exchange
material with suspended or colloidal matter in the raw water can produce difficulties and
some water impurities cause degradation of the material. In many cases, therefore, ion
exchange processes require pretreatment of the water supply.

Answer to : back
What are the Advantages of Ion Exchange?
The main advantage of zeolite softening is ease of control. Ordinary variations of hardness in
the raw water or in flow rate do not affect completeness of softening. Also the system
generally takes up less space than the lime-soda system and in most cases gives a softer
water. The use of acid exchangers has advantages when a low alkalinity soft water is
required. The main advantage of ion exchange demineralization is its ability to produce
better quality water than can be obtained by any other method.

Answer to : back
How Does Oil Affect Carry-over?
Oil contamination in boiler feed-water, usually form reciprocating engines, pumps, etc., can
cause serious foaming. This is generally attributed to the formation of soaps in the boilerwater due to specification of the oil by boiler-water alkalis.

Answer to : back
How Do Suspended Solids Affect Carry-over?
The theory advanced is that suspended solids collect in the surface film surrounding a steam
bubble and make it tougher. The steam bubble therefore resists breaking and builds up a
foam. It is believed that the finer the suspended particles the greater their collection in the
bubble. Experience indicates, however, that many boilers operate with exceedingly high
suspended solids without carry-over while others have carry-over with only a trace of

suspended solids. This would seem to indicate that the type as well as the quantity of
suspended solids has much to do with carry-over.

Answer to : back
What is Selective Silica Carry-over?
Silica can carry over into the steam in two ways. It can be present in the steam as the result
of general boiler-water carry-over or it can go into steam in a volatile form. In the latter case
silica acts much like a gas and is considered to be selectively carried over. As Pressures
increase above 2760 kPa (400 p.s.i), there is an increased tendency for silica to be
selectively carried into the steam in amounts proportionate to the amount of silica in the
boiler-water.

Answer to : back
What Problems are Caused by Carry-over?
The disadvantages of wet steam include a general decrease in operating efficiency and
erosion of turbines and engines. In addition any dissolved or suspended solids in the boilerwater tend to deposit out in the steam and condensate system,. when the solids deposit in
super heaters and turbine, overheating and failure of superheated tubes and reduction in
turbine efficiency can result. Impurities carried over with the can cause difficulties in many
processes for which the steam is used.

Answer to : back
What Measures are Usually Taken to Prevent Carry-over?
The most common measure is to maintain the concentration of solids in the boiler water at
reasonably low levels. Avoiding high water levels, excessive boiler loads, and sudden load
changes also helps. Very often contaminated condensate returned to the boiler system
causes carry-over problems. In these cases the condensate should be temporarily wasted
until the source of contamination is found and eliminated. The use of chemical anti-foam
agents can be very effective in preventing carry-over due to high concentrations of
impurities in the boiler-water.
Removing Impurities from Water :
Coagulants are chemicals to enmesh fine particles of suspended matter in a water supply to
form a flock which settles or can be filtered out. Adding softening chemicals (lime, soda, ash,
etc.) to a water causes some dissolved hardness salts to precipitate and the suspended
matter can then be coagulated and filtered out. Precipitation processes such as lime soda
softening can effectively remove suspended matter, hardness and alkalinity and in some
cases reduce the silica content of the water. When a salt dissolves in water it forms positive
ions (cations) and negative ions (anions). For example, calcium carbonate (CaCO3) forms a
calcium cation (Ca++) and a carbonate anion (CO3). The most common form of ion
exchange involves passing water through material which substitutes sodium for calcium and
magnesium cations. This is a typical softening treatment. Anions can also be removed from
water by the use of special ion exchange resins. Demineralization or complete removal of
dissolved minerals involves the use of both cation and anion exchange materials. In

removing impurities from water there are many possible combinations of coagulation,
precipitation and ion exchange methods. Other methods of treatment include: deaerarion
(heating the water and venting the gases) for reduction of oxygen and carbon dioxide; and
evaporation to produce distilled water.

Answer to : back

Answer to : back
What is Coagulation?
Coagulation is the clumping together of finely divided and colloidal impurities in water into
masses which will settle rapidly and/or can be filtered out of the water. Colloidal particles
have large surface areas which keep them in suspension and in addition the particles have
negative electrical charges which cause them to repel each other and resist adhering
together. Coagulation, therefore, involves neutralizing the negative charges and providing a
nucleus for the suspended particles to adhere to.

Answer to : back
What Various Types of Coagulants are Used?
The most common coagulants are iron and aluminum salts such as ferric Sulphate, ferric
chloride, aluminum Sulphate (alum) and sodium acuminate. Ferric and alumina ions each
have three positive charges and therefore their effectiveness is related their ability to react
with the negatively charged colloidal particles. With proper use these coagulants form a
flock in the water which serves as a kind of net for collecting suspended matter. In recent
years synthetic materials called polyelectrolyte have been developed for coagulation
purposes. these consist of long chain like molecules with positive charges. In some cases
organic polymers and special types of clay are used in the coagulation in making the flock
heavier, causing it to settle out more rapidly.

Answer to : back
What is Chemical Precipitation?
In precipitating processes the chemicals added react with dissolved minerals in the water to
produce a relatively insoluble reaction product. Precipitation methods are used in reducing
dissolved hardness, alkalinity and in some silica. The most common example of chemical
precipitation in water treatment is lime-soda softening.

Answer to : back
What is the Purpose of Deaeration?

Since dissolved oxygen in water is a big factor in corrosion in boiler systems it is desirable
that this be removed before the water is put into a boiler. Feed-water deaerarion is
accomplished by intimately mixing the water and steam in a deaerating heater. Part of the
steam is vented, arraying with it the bulk of the dissolved oxygen from the water. There are
two basic types of steam deaerators: the spray type and the tray type. In the spray
deaerator a jet of steam mixes intimately with the feed water being sprayed into the unit. In
the tray type the incoming water is allowed to fall over a series of trays causing the water to
be broken up into small droplets to permit intimate contact with incoming steam.

Answer to : back
How are Evaporators Employed?
Water is sometimes pretreated by evaporation to produce relatively pure vapor which is then
condensed and used for boiler feed purposes. Evaporators are of several different types, the
simplest being a tank of water through which steam coils are passed to heat the water to the
boiling point. Sometimes to increase the efficiency the vapor from the first tank is passed
through coils in a second tank of water to produce additional heating and evaporation. Other
types of evaporation include a flash type which operates under a partial vacuum causing a
lowering of the boiling point of water and evaporation at lower temperatures. Evaporators
have advantages where steam as a sources of heat is readily available. They also have
particular advantages over demineralization, for example, when the dissolved solids in the
raw water are very high.

Answer to : back
What Combinations of External Treatment Methods are Generally Used?
As mentioned previously, water containing suspended solids, organics, and/or turbidity
usually requires clarifications prior to ion exchange methods. Also, since simple cation
exchange does not reduce the total solids of the water supply, it is sometimes used in
conjunction with precipitation type softening. One of the most common and efficient
combination treatments is the hot lime-zeolite process. This involves pretreatment of the
water with lime to reduce hardness, alkalinity and in some cases silica, and subsequent
treatment with a cation exchange softener. This system of treatment accomplishes several
functions: softening, alkalinity and silica reduction, some oxygen reduction, and removal of
suspended matter and turbidity.

Answer to : back
When is Internal Treatment of Boiler Feed-water Necessary?
Chemical treatment of water inside the boiler is usually essential whether or not the water
has been pretreated. Internal treatment, therefore, complements external treatment by
taking care of any impurities entering the boiler with the feed water (hardness, oxygen,
silica, etc.) regardless of whether the quantity is large or small. In many cases external
treatment of the water supply is not necessary and the water can be treated by internal
methods alone. Internal treatment can constitute the sole treatment when boilers operate at
low or moderate pressure, when large amounts of condensed steam are used for feed water,

or when the raw water available is of good quality.

Answer to : back
What Should a Good Internal Water Treatment Programme Accomplish?
The purpose of an internal treatment programme is fourfold: (1) react with any feed-water
hardness and prevent it from precipitating on the boiler metal as scale, (2) condition any
suspended matter such as hardness sludge or iron oxide in the boiler and make it nonadherent to the boiler metal, (3) provide anti-foam protection to permit a reasonable
concentration of dissolved and suspended solids in the boiler water without foam carry-over,
and (4) eliminate oxygen from the water and provide enough alkalinity to prevent boiler
corrosion. In addition, as supplementary measures an internal treatment should prevent
corrosion and scaling of the feed-water system and protect against corrosion in the steam
condensate systems.

Answer to : back
What chemicals are Used in Internal Treatment?
The softening chemicals used include soda ash, caustic and various types of sodium
phosphates. These chemicals react with calcium and magnesium compounds in the feed
water. At times sodium silicate is used to contributed alkalinity as well as react selectively
with magnesium hardness. The materials used for conditioning sludge include various
organic materials of the tannin, lignin or alginate classes. It is important that these organics
are so selected and processed that they are both effective and stand stable at the boiler
operating pressure. Certain synthetic organic materials are used as anti-foam agents. The
chemicals used to scavenge oxygen include sodium sulphite and hydrazine. Various
combinations of polyphosphates and organics are used for preventing scale and corrosion in
feed-water systems. Volatile neutralizing amines and filming inhibitors are used for
preventing condensate corrosion.

Answer to : back
How are Carbonates Reacted on by Internal Treatment?
Calcium bicarbonate entering with the feed water is broken down at boiler temperatures or
reacts with caustic soda to form calcium carbonate. Since calcium carbonate is relatively
insoluble it tends to come out of solution. Sodium carbonate partially breaks down at high
temperature to sodium hydroxide (caustic) and carbon dioxide. When phosphates are used
in internal treatment they react with calcium carbonate to form calcium phosphate and
sodium carbonate (soda ash). In the presence of sufficient hydroxides (caustic) alkalinity,
magnesium bicarbonate will precipitate as magnesium hydroxide or will react with any silica
present to form magnesium silicate. The minerals precipitated from solution (calcium
carbonate, calcium phosphate, magnesium hydroxide, magnesium silicate, etc..) form
sludge in the water which must be conditioned to prevent its sticking to the metal. The
conditioned sludge is removed from the boiler by blow-down.

Answer to : back
How are Sulphates Reacted on by Internal Treatment?
High temperatures in the boiler water reduce the solubility of calcium Sulphate and tend to
make it precipitate out directly on the boiler metal as scale. Consequently calcium Sulphate
must be reacted upon chemically to cause a precipitate to form in the water where it can be
conditioned and removed by blow-down. Calcium Sulphate is reacted on either by sodium
carbonate, sodium phosphate or sodium silicate to form insoluble calcium carbonate,
phosphate or silicate. Magnesium Sulphate is reacted upon by caustic soda to form a
precipitate of magnesium hydroxide. some magnesium may react with silica to form
magnesium silicate. Sodium Sulphate is highly soluble and remains in solution unless the
water is evaporated almost to dryness.

Answer to : back
How is Silica Reacted upon by Internal Treatment?
In untreated waters silica tends to precipitate out directly as scale at hot spots on the boiler
metal or it may combine with calcium to produce a hard calcium silicate scale. Treatment for
silica involves keeping the boiler-water alkalinity high enough to hold silica in solution.
Usually there is enough magnesium in the water to precipitate some of the silica as sludge.
At times proper treatment with magnesium can tie up silica when it is a special problem.
Some organic materials such as starches tend to prevent the adherence of silica to the boiler
metal probably by a physical action.

Answer to : back
How is Sludge Conditioned in Internal Treatment?
There are two general approaches to conditioning sludge inside a boiler: by coagulation or
dispersion. When the total amount of sludge is great (as the result of high feed-water
hardness) it is practical to coagulate the sludge to form large flocculent particles. This flow
readily with the boiler water and can be removed by blow-down. This can be accomplished
by careful adjustment of the amounts of alkalis, phosphates and organics used for
treatment, based on the fee-water analysis. When the amount of sludge is not great (low
hardness feed-waters) it is more practical to use a higher percentage of phosphates in the
treatment. Phosphates form finely divided sludge particles. A higher percentage of organic
sludge dispersants is used in the treatment to keep the sludge particles dispersed
throughout the boiler water.

Answer to : back
What Difficulties are Encountered in Internal Treatment?
The main difficulty is the presence of a large amount of sludge formed when feed-water
hardness is high. This may increase the amount of blow-down required. When internal
treatment is used alone (without pretreatment of the water by external means) there is more
possibility for scale in the pre-boiler system and fee-water lines. it is important that someone
experienced in the technology helps to set up an internal treatment programme which will

minimize these difficulties.

Answer to : back
What are the Advantages of Internal Treatment?
The prime advantage is that in many instances internal treatment can eliminate the need for
extensive external treatment equipment. This gives a definite economic advantage. In
addition, the simplicity of an internal treatment programme offers a decided savings in
manpower for feeding and control. A qualified consultant can help decide what water quality
is required for a specific boiler system, and choose the most economical means of obtaining
the required quality.

Answer to : back
How are Internal Treatment Chemicals Fed?
Common feeding methods include the use of chemical solution tanks and proportioning
pumps or special ball briquette chemical feeders. In general, softening chemical
(phosphates, soda ash, caustic, etc.) are added directly to the fee-water at a point near the
entrance to the boiler drum. They may also be fed through a separate line discharging in the
feed-water drum of the boiler. The chemicals should discharge in the fee-water section of the
boiler so that reactions occur in the water before it enters the steam generating areas.
Softening chemicals may be added continuously or intermittently depending on feed-water
hardiness and other factors. Chemicals added to react with dissolved oxygen (Sulphate,
hydrazine, etc.) preferably should be fed continuously as far back in the feed-water system
as possible. Similarly, chemicals used to prevent scale and corrosion in the feed-water
system (polyphosphates, organics, etc.) should be fed continuously. Chemicals used to
prevent condensate system corrosion may be fed directly to the steam or into the feedwater system, depending on the specific chemical used. continuous feeding is preferred but
intermittent application will suffice in some cases.

Answer to : back
How are Chemical Dosages Controlled?
Chemical dosages are based primarily on the amount of impurities in the feed-water. For
example, the amount of softening chemicals needed depends on fee-water hardness; the
amount of sodium Sulphate needed depends on the amount of dissolved oxygen in the feedwater. In addition, however, a set amount of extra chemical treatment is added to provide a
residual is alkies of insurance and serves as the basis for treatment control.

Answer to : back
What Boiler Water Tests are Used for Treatment Control?
Routine control test of the boiler water vary according to the type of chemical treatment
used but they may include tests for: alkalinity M phosphate, Sulphate and organic color.
Boiler water hardness tests are not often made because it is generally assumed that if there

is enough alkalinity and/or phosphate present in the boiler-water, the hardness has reacted
completely. In testing for Sulphate it is assumed that if an adequate residual is present, the
feed-water oxygen has been removed; this may not always be true, especially if the
Sulphate feed is not continuous and if ordinary unanalyzed sodium Sulphate is used.
Generally antifoams are incorporated in organic treatments so testing for organic color gives
an indication both of sludge conditioner present as well as level of antifoam treatment.

Answer to : back
What Tests are Usually Made as a Check for Contaminants?
Here, again, the specific tests made vary with the type of contamination suspected. Some
checks made fairly often, however, include test for: iron, oil and silica. Usually the iron test
serves as a check on corrosion products brought back with the condensate but may also be
used when appreciable iron is present in the make up water. Oil tests usually require
laboratory facilities but visual inspection of samples can show up gross contamination. While
silica is usually present to some extent in boiler waters, periodic checks are sometimes
made to detect unusual contamination or to indicate when additional blow-down is needed
to keep silica concentrations below a preset limit.

Answer to : back
What Units are Used in Expressing Water Analysis Results?
The most common unit is parts per million. One p.p.m. of a substance in a water sample
represents one unit mass of the substance in each million unit mass of the water. For
example, one p.p.m of salt (NaCl) means one kg of salt per million kg of water. There is still
some diehard use of the classic unit grains per gallon (g.p.g.) but this expected to disappear
due to universal S.I. usage as will the unit equivalents per million (e.p.m). This mention is
therefore made merely as a matter of record.

Answer to : back
Why are some Analysis Results Express As CaCO2E
Water treatment reactions are based on the combining mass of the reacting substances. For
example, 106 kilograms of soda ash (molecular mass 106) reacts with 136 kilograms of
calcium Sulphate (molecular weight 136). The molecular mass of calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
is the round number 100. In order to simplify chemical dosage calculations all hardness and
alkalinity results are usually based on the molecular mass of calcium carbonate and are
expressed as CaCO3E For example, using this system, one p.p.m of calcium Sulphate
(expressed as CaCO3). This is the same as converting English pounds, German marks, or
fresh francs into a 100 cent dollar.

Answer to : back
What is Blow-down?

Blow-down is the removal from the boiler of water containing concentrated dissolved and
suspended solids. As the blow-down water is replaced with lower solids feed water the boiler
water is essentially being diluted. By regulating the amount of blow-down, therefore, the
amount of solids in the boiler-water can be controlled.

Answer to : back
How much Blow-down is Needed?
This depends on how many concentrations of the various feed-water impurities a given
boiler can tolerate; the more concentrations possible the less blow-down needed. For
example, with 10 feedwater concentrations in a boiler, blow-down equal to 10 per cent of
the feed-water flow rate is needed; with 20 concentrations only 5 per cent blow-down is
needed. To illustrate how blow-down requirements are calculated let us assume that the
maximum amount of suspended solids (sludge) in the boiler water that a particular boiler
can tolerate is 500 p.p.m. If the fee-water contains 50 p.p.m. of hardness it can be
concentrated only about 10 times (since feed water hardness is precipitated as suspended
solids in the boiler water). This means that for every 50 kg of water fed to the boiler about 5
kh of boiler water must be blown down to keep the suspended solids from exceeding 500
p.p.m. Suspended solids, however, may not be the limiting factor in all cases; other factors
which may limit feed-water concentrations include dissolved solids, alkalinity, silica or iron.

Answer to : back
What Tests are Made in Regulating Blow-down?
Since there are no simple test for routinely checking the amount of suspended solids in
boiler-water, blow-down is usually controlled through use of a simple instrument which
measures the electrical conductivity of the water. This test gives an estimate of the
dissolved solids present in the boiler-water. Chloride tests are also used for blow-down
control since chlorides are not reacted on by chemical treatment. By checking both the feewater and boiler-water chlorides the number of feed-water concentrations can be calculated.
In some higher pressure boilers, silica or iron tests may also be made to control blow-down.

Answer to : back
What is the Difference between Continuous and PuffEBlow-down?
All boilers have blow-down connections located at low points where sludge is likely to collect.
Opening these blow-down valves periodically for shot intervals gives a puff Eor intermittent
removal of sludge and solids. Many boilers also have blow-down connections consisting of an
overtake located just below the water level in the steam release area. A small amount of
water is continuously removed through these connections. The use of continuous blow-down
in addition to puffEor bottom blow-down keys it possible to maintain the solids and
chemical residuals at more consistent levels in the boiler water. Continuous blow-down also
minimizes the amount of blow-down required with resultant savings in heat and chemicals.
Continuous blow-down also causes less upset in boiler water circulation and operation.

Answer to : back
What Causes Corrosion in Steam Condensate Systems?
Most condensate system corrosion is caused by carbon dioxide and oxygen, arrived into the
system with the steam. Carbon dioxide, dissolved in the pure condensed steam, form
corrosive carbonic acid. if oxygen is present with carbon dioxide, the corrosion rate is much
higher, and is likely to produce localized pitting. Ammonia, in combination with carbon
dioxide or oxygen, attacks copper alloys.

Answer to : back
How is Steam Condensate Corrosion Prevented?
The general approach may involve removing oxygen from the feed-water mechanically and
chemically, and providing pretreatment of the make-up water to minimize potential carbon
dioxide formation in the boiler. In addition, an effective chemical treatment programme is
required. This may consist of using volatile amines to neutralize carbon dioxide and/or a
volatile filming inhibitor to form a barrier between the metal and the corrosive condensate.
Mechanical conditions such as poor trapping and draining of lines, and air in-leakage may
need to be correct-ed.

Answer to : back
How do Chemical Oxygen Scavengers Help Control Condensate System Corrosion?
As previously mentioned mechanical equipment (de-aerator) is often used to reduce feedwater oxygen. The best designed and operated de-aerators can reduce oxygen to as low as
0.007 parts per million or less. Most de-aerators or feed-water heaters are less effective.
Since very small amounts of oxygen, however, can cause boiler corrosion and corrosion in
steam condensate system, chemical treatment is therefore, needed to assure complete
oxygen removal. Sodium Sulphate is the chemical most commonly used for this purpose.
Greatly improved oxygen removal is obtained, however, when the Sulphate is catalyzed.
Catalyzed sodium Sulphate can reduce oxygen content of water (at room temperature) from
the saturation point to zero in less than 30 seconds. Without a catalyst it takes up to 10
minutes under the same conditions to reduce the oxygen content by only about 30 per cent.
Fast reactions are important since oxygen should be removed before the water enters the
boiler. Otherwise some oxygen will escape form the boiling water into the steam lines and
corrosion in the condensate system.

Answer to : back
What is the Basis for Choice between Neutralizing and Filming Inhibitors?
The proper choice of inhibitor depends on the boiler system, plant lay-out operating
conditions and fee-water composition. In general, volatile amines are better with low makeup, low feed-water alkalinity, and good oxygen control. Filming inhibitors usually give more
economical protection with high make-up, air in-leakage high feed-water alkalinity or where
the system is operated internally. In some cases a combination of treatments is needed.

Answer to : back
What Characteristics Should a Good Condensate Corrosion Inhibitor Have?
A good volatile neutralizing amine should have a favorable distribution ratio in steam and
condensate so that it protects the entire steam-condensate system. It should have no
insoluble reaction products and should be stable at high temperatures and pressures. A good
filming inhibitor should be easy to disperse in water so that it can be fed uniformly. It should
be stale under usage conditions and form a thin protective film without causing deposits in
either the boiler or the steam-condensate system.

Answer to : back
How are Deposits and Corrosion Prevented in Feed-water Systems?
Deposits in feed-water systems are most frequently caused by hardness coming out of
solution as the water goes through feed- water heaters or as the feed lines enter the boiler.
Deposits also can occur from premature reaction of treatment chemicals with hardness in
the feed-water. Prevention involves the use of stabilizing chemicals fed continuously to
retard hardens precipitation. Proper design of the chemical feed system can minimize
premature chemical reactions. Corrosion of feed-water system generally results from low
alkalinity or dissolved oxygen in the water. Raising the pH of the water and the continuous
feed of catalyzed sodium Sulphate will minimize this problem.

Answer to : back
What is the Wet Method of Boiler Lay-Up?
This is a method of storing boilers full of water so that they can be readily returned to
service. it involves adding extra chemicals (usually caustic, organics, and sodium sulphite to
the boiler-water.) The water level is raised in the idle boiler to eliminate air spaces and the
boiler is kept completely full of treated water. Special considerations are needed for
protecting super heaters.

Answer to : back
What is the Dry Method of Boiler Lay-Up?
This method of lay-up is usually for longer boiler outages. It involves draining, cleaning and
drying out the boiler. a material which absorbs moisture such as hydrated lime or silica gel is
placed in trays inside the boiler. The boiler is then sealed carefully to prevent in leakage of
air. Periodic inspection and replacement of the drying chemical is required during long
storage periods.

DATA USED IN WATER CHEMISTRY

The chemicals listed in this section include those found as impurities in water and also those
used as treatments. The chemical formulas, ion forms, and molecular and equivalent
weights are given for each substance. Abbreviations and symbols are used extensively to
simplify water analysis reports and calculations. This section explains the meanings of some
common symbols and what they represent in water analyses. Very often the units used in
water chemistry need to be converted back and forth for practical application. For example,
parts per million may be converted to grams per 1000 liters and vice versa. The conversion
factors in this section simplify this type of calculation.

Ion
Formula

Ionic
Weight

Equivalent
Weight

A1+++

27.0

9.0

Ammonium

NH4+

18.0

18.0

Calcium

CA++

40.1

20.0

H+

1.0

1.0

Ferrous Iron

Fe++

55.8

27.9

Magnesium

Mg++

24.3

12.2

Manganese

Mn++

54.9

27.5

Potassium

K+

39.1

39.1

Na+

23.0

23.0

NCO3-

61.0

61.0

CATIONS

Aluminum

Hydrogen

Sodium

ANIONS
Bicarbonate

Chloride

CO3-

60.0

60.0

Fluoride

F-

19.0

19.0

NO3-

62.0

62.0

OH-

17.0

17.0

PO4--

95.0

31.7

Phosphate (dibasic)

HPO4--

96.0

48.0

Phosphate (monobasic)

H2PO4-

97.0

97.0

Sulphate

SO4--

96.1

48.0

Sulphite

SO3--

80.1

40.0

COMPOUNDS

Formula

Molecular
Weight

Equivalent
Weight

Aluminum hydroxide

Al(OH)3

78.0

26.0

Aluminum Sulphate

Al2(SO4)3

342.0

57.0

Al2O3

102.0

17.0

Ca(HCO3)2

162.1

81.1

Nitrate

Hydroxide

Phosphate (

Alumina
Calcium bicarbonate

Calcium carbonate

CaCO3

100.1

50.1

Calcium chloride

CaCl2

111.0

55.5

Calcium hydroxide (pure)

Ca(OH)2

74.1

37.1

Calcium hydroxide (90%)

Ca(OH)2

--

41.1

Calcium Sulphate
(anhydrous)

CaSO4

136.2

68.1

Calcium Sulphate
(gypsum)

CaSO4.2H2O

172.2

86.1

Ca3(PO4)2

310.3

51.7

Disodium phosphate

Na2HPO4.12H2
O

358.2

119.4

Disodium phosphate
(anhydrous)

NaHPO4

142.0

47.3

Ferric oxide

Fe2O3

159.6

26.6

Iron oxide (magnetic)

Fe3O4

321.4

FeSO4.7H2O

278.0

139.0

MgO

40.3

20.2

Mg(HCO3)2

146.3

73.2

Calcium phosphate

Ferrous Sulphate
(copperas)

Magnesium oxide
Magnesium bicarbonate

Magnesium carbonate

MgCO3

84.3

42.2

Magnesium chloride

MgCl2

95.2

47.6

Mg(OH)2

58.3

29.2

Mg3(PO4)2

263.0

43.8

MgSO4

120.4

60.2

Monosodium phosphate

NaH2PO4.H2O

138.1

46.0

Monosodium phosphate
(anhydrous)

NaH2PO4

120.1

40.0

NaPO3

102.0

34.0

Na2Al2O4

164.0

27.3

Sodium bicarbonate

NaHCO3

84.0

84.0

Sodium carbonate

Na2CO3

106.0

53.0

Sodium chloride

NaCl

58.5

58.5

Sodium hydroxide

NaOH

40.0

40.0

NaNO3

85.0

85.0

Magnesium

Magnesium phosphate

Magnesium Sulphate

Metaphosphate

Sodium acuminate

Sodium nitrate

Sodium Sulphate

Na2SO4

142.0

71.0

Sodium sulphite

Na2SO3

126.1

63.0

Trisodium phosphate

Na3PO4.l2H2O

380.2

126.7

Trisodium phosphate
(anhydrous)

Na3PO4

164.0

54.7

Ammonia

NH3

17

--

Carbon Dioxide

CO2

44

--

Hydrogen

H2

--

Oxygen

O2

32

--

H2CO3

62.0

31.0

HCl

36.5

36.5

Phosphoric

H3PO4

98.0

32.7

Sulphuric

H2SO4

98.1

49.1

GASES

ACIDS

Carbonic

Hydrochloric