I. O.

Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 7

sem I, 2014

4.4. The verb phrase

4.4.1. Definition and structure
Most grammars agree that the verb phrase (VP) consists of a head, which is a lexical or a
primary verb 1 , preceded by the optional elements, the primary and/or modal auxiliaries. A
simple verb phrase consists in the head/main verb only.
The main verb selects the other clause elements that can occur in the clause (see valency). The
auxiliaries further characterize the action, state, or process expressed by the main verb.
Finite verb phrases mark distinctions of tense between present and past and can be preceded by
modal auxiliaries. Non-finite verb phrases are not marked for tense and cannot occur with modal
auxiliaries.
According to Biber, Conrad and Leech (2002, pp. , 42), in two situations verb phrases are
discontinuous/split into two parts:
-

In questions, the subject is placed after the (first) auxiliary verb: What's he doing? (verb
phrase is doing)
Adverbs or other adverbials can interrupt the parts of a verb phrase: He has just arrived.
(just is placed between the auxiliary and the main verb). Notice that this
interposed position of the adverb between the auxiliary and the main verb never occurs in
Romanian (El a tocmai ajuns.).

Kies models the structure of a verb phrase in the following diagram:

Due to its clarity and simplicity, it can be used for future reference, together with Leech's patterns of
verb choices discussed in 3.9.2 and with Biber, Conrad and Leechs table of the main forms of the VP
below, illustrated with show as main verb and could as a modal auxiliary (2002, pp. , 43).
simple
perfect
1

present tense
shows/show
has/have shown

past tense
showed
had shown

Lexical, primary and auxiliary verb are discussed in 5.4.

modal
could show
could have shown

I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 7

progressive
passive
perfect+ progressive
perfect +passive
progressive +passive

am/is/are showing
am/is/are shown
has/have
been
showing
has/have
been
shown
am/is/are
being
shown

sem I, 2014

was/were showing
was/were shown
had been showing

could be showing
could be shown
could have been showing

had been shown

could have been shown

was/were being shown

could be being shown

As we can see in the table above, primary and modal auxiliaries can combine in forms like may
have done, has been done, is being done. Primary auxiliaries follow modals and, as we have
already seen in Leech's model, if all are present, they occur in the order shown below.
MODAL +

PERFECT + PROGRESSIVE + PASSIVE

Nevertheless, the verb phrases with four or more verbs (such as could have been being shown)
are quite uncommon.
Notice that, in both Romanian and English, more than one auxiliary can occur in the same verb
phrase.
English
structure
example
future perfect
will have done
modal perfect progressive might have been doing
modal perfect progressive could have been being
passive
made

Romanian
structure
example
viitor anterior
va fi fcut
condiional-optativ perfect ar fi putut face
condiional-optativ perfect ar fi putut fi fcut
pasiv

4.4.3. Syntactic functions of verb phrases

As we saw in 4.2, the verb phrase has only one function in the clause and no function in the
phrase. Thus, both the finite (a) and non-finite (b) verb phrases always realise the verbal of the
clause they belong to.
a. His friends| were preparing| a surprise party. (were preparing verbal, finite VP)
b. His friends enjoy || |preparing| surprise parties||. (preparing verbal in ing-Cl, non-finite VP)
4.5. The adjective phrase
4.5.1. Definition and structure
An adjective phrase is a phrase in which the head is an adjective. The simplest type of adjective
phrase consists of an adjective only, as in They had powerful cars.
Like nouns phrases, adjective phrases can be made more complex by adding words that
modify/complement the head. Modifiers qualify what is denoted by the adjective, and they are
optional.
Thus, in terms of structure, the adjective phrase (AdjP) typically consists of a head, optionally
preceded and followed by modifiers. Modifiers that precede the head are alternatively called
specifiers and those that follow it, complements.

I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 7

sem I, 2014

Heads, premodifiers and postmodifiers can appear in the following combinations in the structure
of AdjPs:
adjective phrase structure
head

example
nice

premodifier + head

very nice

head + postmodifier
premodifier + head + postmodifier

nice of you to come

very nice of you to come

The structure of the adjective phrase can also be arranged diagrammatically (source, papyr.com):

The head of the adjective phrase is always realised by an adjective. Adjectives are words that
typically modify nouns, by specifying the properties or the attributes of that noun.
[NP a [AdjP calm] attitude]
His mother is [AdjP very angry with him].
He is [AdjP so interested in linguistics].
Specifiers typically indicate the degree of the quality denoted by the adjective. The most
common type of specifier consists of degree adverbs, such as very, so, too, etc.
The elements following the head serve to complete the meaning of the adjective and are
generally called complements. Complements mainly take the form of
-

prepositional phrases (too late for reconciliation)

comparative constructions (funnier than the last show)
degree adverbs (useful enough)
to-infinitive clauses (too poor to feed themselves)
comparative clauses (His behaviour was ruder than I could imagine.)

Postmodifiers are called complements because they normally complete what is implied in the
meaning of the adjective. For example, if we say His mother is very angry, we mean that the
subject is characterized in some respect by a certain state, and the postmodifier specifies in what
respect: with him.

I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 7

sem I, 2014

Certain adjectives (aware, fond, subject, afraid, etc.) require the presence of a postmodifier for
completeness. Together with other adjectives, they are grouped in lists labelled 'adjectives with
obligatory prepositions' that can be found in usage books such as Raymond Murphys English
Grammar In Use with Answers and CD ROM: A Self-study Reference and Practice Book for
Intermediate Students of English.
Such adjectives that take obligatory postmodifiers have verbs with corresponding meanings. A few
examples are provided in the table below.
adjective
aware
fond
subject
afraid

example
I'm aware of the consequences.
She is fond of cats.
The proposal is subject to debate.
She is afraid of snakes.

verb
know
like
submit
fear

example
I know that there will be consequences.
She likes cats.
They submit the proposal for debate.
She fears snakes.

4.5.2. Syntactic functions of adjective phrases

Adjective phrases have syntactic functions both in the clause and at phrase level. They are
illustrated with examples in the table below.
in the clause
in the phrase

syntactic function
1. subject complement
2. object complement
1. premodifier of a noun or NP

example
That moment was special.
They found him nice.
a special surprise

2. postmodifier of a noun or NP
3. head in NP

the nicest surprise party possible

the blind

Subject complement is the most typical role of the adjective phrase in the clause. The head
adjective in an adjective phrase functioning as subject complement is classified as predicative
adjective. Predicative adjectives occur after a link verb, which is the normal position the subject
complement.
The most typical role the adjective phrase at the level of phrase is that of premodifier of NP, where the
adjective is classified as attributive adjective.
Attributive adjectives normally occur before the nouns they modify (see examples above), but
the members of a small subclass, called postpositive adjectives, actually follow the head noun.
The resulting noun phrases are fixed official expressions such as Asia Minor, attorney general,
governor general, heir apparent, notary public, Princess Royal, times past, etc.
Another situation of postposition is when the head the adjective modifies indefinite or demonstrative
pronouns such as something (something nice), everyone (everyone alive), those (no one responsible),
etc.
Postpositive adjectives often combine with specifiers in the superlative, as in the nicest dress
imaginable or the best services available.
Notice that, with the exception of the fixed expressions above, only predicative adjectives can be
postposed.
his closest relative alive his closest relative living

I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 7

sem I, 2014

This happens because they can be expanded into relative clause with subject complement, which
can be reconstructed as follows:
the nicest dress imaginable the nicest dress that was imaginable
the best services available the best accommodations that is available
The adjective living (= alive now, according to Cambridge Dictionaries Online n.d.) can be
used predicatively only, so the instance below is ungrammatical.
his closest relative living his closest relative who is living
Living should be replaced by alive (as in his closest relative alive, that can be expanded to his
closest relative who is alive), which is an exclusively predicative adjective. Nevertheless, most
adjectives can occur in both the attributive and the predicative positions.
A very long modifying adjective phrase can also be postposed, as in the following two examples.
Our mother was a fabulous farm cook, able to mix, roll, and cut biscuits as easily as blinking.
(The Sun Magazine)
An adjective phrase modifying a noun can be discontinuous, with the noun head splitting it in
two parts:
During journeys to and from school Asia was a different sibling than the one I knew at home.
(The Sun Magazine)
4.6. The adverb phrase
4.6.1. Definition and structure
The adverb phrase (AdvP) is a phrase in which the head is an adverb. An adverb phrase may
consist of one word (an adverb alone) or of two or more words. Mainly one-word adverb phrases
modify adjectives (barely alive) or adverbs (very slowly).
Adverb phrases (as forms) should not be mistaken for adverbials (as functions). The adverb
phrase is a phrase (= a word or group of words which can fulfil a syntactic function in a clause),
while the adverbial is a clause element that can be realised by adverb phrases, prepositional
phrases and adverbial clauses.
Much like adjective phrases, adverb phrases (AdvP) may contain, besides the head, one or more
modifiers. The modifiers (premodifiers/ specifiers and postmodifiers/complements) in an adverb
phrase are optional elements that are dependent on the head. They can all combine to form the
following basic structures:
(premodifier/specifier)

head
separately
almost separately

(postmodifier/complement)
from him

The structure of the adverb phrase was arranged diagrammatically by Kies (papyr.com):

I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 7

sem I, 2014

Semantically, most of the premodifiers are intensifiers that express the degree of the
characteristic expressed by an adjective or adverb. The most common intensifier is very.
Premodifiers are usually realized by degree adverbs, while postmodifiers are typically realized
by prepositional phrases or comparative clauses (She did not manage as smoothly as she had
expected).
Here are some examples of possible structures of adverb phrases:
adverb phrase structure
head
premodifier + adverb
adverb + postmodifier
premodifier + adverb + postmodifier

Example
separately
almost separately
separately from him
almost separately from him

4.6.2. Syntactic functions of adverb phrases

Adverb phrases have syntactic functions both in the clause and at phrase level. They are
illustrated with examples in the table below.
in the clause

in the phrase

syntactic function2
1. adverbial
2. subject complement
3. direct object
4. subject (marginally)
1. modifier in AdjP
2. modifier in AdvP
3. modifier in NP
4. modifier of determiners
5. modifier in PpP
6. submodifier in AdjP

example
They had a surprise party yesterday.
Thats quite all right.
I dont know when. They didnt tell me why.
Today is the last Friday in the month.

a very pleasant surprise party

almost surprisingly
the then Minister of Health; a nearby hotel
about double; roughly half; almost all
right out of sight; just down the road
much too short; rather more interesting

Functions and examples 2 to 4 in clause and 3 to 10 in phrase are adapted from Downing and Locke (English
Grammar - A University Course, 2nd edition, 2006, pp. , 509).

I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 7

7. submodifier in AdvP
8. post-modifier in AdjP
9. post-modifier in AdvP
10. post-modifier in NP
complement in PpP

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(not) all that easily; far too often

quick enough; very beautiful indeed
quickly enough; nicely indeed; never again
the journey back; the way ahead
over here; through there; from inside; till now

In the enumeration in the table above, the most common syntactic roles of the adverbial phrase are 1 in
the clause and 1 and 2 in the phrase.
Many adverbs can function both as modifiers in phrases and as adverbials at clause level. In the
clause He was totally satisfied with the party, totally is a premodifier for the head adjective
satisfied, while in She totally agreed with him, totally is an adverb phrase functioning as an
adverbial in the clause.
When adverb phrases realise adverbials, they are frequently optional in the sense that they can be
omitted without the clause becoming ungrammatical.

4.7. The prepositional phrase

4.7.1. Definition and structure
The prepositional phrase is a phrase consisting of a preposition followed normally by a noun
phrase called either prepositional complement or the object of the preposition.
The structure following a preposition is called a complement because it completes the meaning
of the preposition, due to the semantic association between the preposition and the following NP.
The same structure is also called the object of the preposition because a prepositional
complement is object territory and personal pronouns are therefore in the objective case
(Greenbaum & Quirk, 1990, p. 188).
The prepositional phrase is a structure with three parts:
(modifier/specifier)

head
into
right towards

complement/object
the car
her

The head of a prepositional phrase is always a preposition, and, unlike the heads of all the other
phrase types, it cannot occur by itself, without its complement.
Much like in Romanian, the preposition can be seen as a link that connects the noun phrase and
the preceding units. The order of the constituents in the prepositional phrase can be inferred from
the name of the word-class the head word belongs to: the preposition (foregoing position)
normally comes before its complement.
Nevertheless, according to Greenbaum and Nelson (2002) and Swan (2005), in contemporary English,
structures with stranded prepositions have become the rule (or at least a popular alternative) in the
following situations:
The stranding is obligatory when the prepositional complement becomes the subject of
the clause.

I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 7

sem I, 2014

o Your case will soon be attended to.

o The picture is worth looking at.
In questions and relative clauses the prepositional complement may be a pronoun or
adverb that is fronted. In that case, the preposition is normally stranded.
o Where are you coming from?
o I am the person (that) you are waiting for. [In relative clauses the pronoun may be
omitted.]
Notice that in formal style the preposition is fronted with its complement.
o For whom are you waiting?
o I am the person for whom you are waiting.
In passive structures, prepositions go with their verbs:
o She likes to be looked at.
o Carol was operated on last night.
Notice that even in a formal style, prepositions cannot be moved away from passive
verbs:
o In my family, money was never spoken about. (not about money was never
spoken)
In infinitive structures, infinitive complements can have prepositions with them:
o The village is pleasant to live in.
o Ive got lots of music to listen to.
Even in very formal style, prepositions are not often put at the beginning of questions
which have be as the main verb.
o Who is it for, madam? (not For whom is it?)
The structures whereto, whatlike and whatfor have a fixed order:
o Where shall I send it to? (but not To where shall I send it?)
o What does she look like? (but not Like what does she look?)

Additionally, Swan (2005, pp. , 453-4) lists a number of exceptions to the exceptions above.
common adverbial expressions consisiting of preposition + NP (e.g. with great
patience, in a temper) in which the preposition is closely connected with the noun and is
kept as near as possible to it. The preposition cannot usually be moved to the end of a
clause.
o I admired the patience with which she spoke. (not the patience she spoke with).
During and since are not normally put at the end of clauses.
o During which period did it happen? (not Which period did it happen during?)
o Since when have you been working for her? (not When have you been working for
her since?)
The modifier is normally a degree object and it is the only optional element of a prepositional
phrase.
The prepositional complement is typically realised by a noun phrase, but it may also be realised by
other word classes or phrases3: Adjective and adverb phrases as complements are uncommon and
limited to certain set expressions such as at last, for good, for ever, etc. (see 4 and 5 below).
3

Realizations and examples are adapted from Downing and Locke (English Grammar - A University Course, 2nd
edition, 2006, pp. , 536)

I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 7

prepositional complement
1. noun phrase
2. nominal relative clause
3. -ing clause
4. adjective phrase
5. adverb
6. preposition phrase
7. wh + to-inf. Cl

sem I, 2014

example
at home, above the city
from what I know
before getting to you
at long last, for good, in private
until very recently, ever since, for ever
except in here, from out of the forest
Do you have any problems apart from where to stay?

4.7.2. Syntactic functions of prepositional phrases

Prepositional phrases have syntactic functions both in the clause and at phrase level. They can
actually realise every element of clause structure except the predicator, each illustrated with
examples in the table below4.
Syntactic function
In the 1. adverbial
clause 2. subject
3. direct object
4. prepositional object
5. subject complement
object complement
In the 1. postmodifier in NP
phrase 2. complement in AdjP

Example
She talked to him after the party.
After dark is the only good time for fireworks.
I dont consider next to a railway line a good place to
live.
Someone has been tampering with the scanner.
Monica must be out of her mind to reject such an
interesting offer.
His illness left him without a job.
the tree in the garden
happy with his reaction, brilliant at gardening

3. complement in AdvP

far from here

4. premodifier in NP
5. complement in PpP

an out-of-date report, off-the-record comments

except on Mondays

As Downing and Locke note, the use of PpPs in the functions of subject and object is normally
restricted to expressions of place or time. PpPs are used freely as sCs or oCs to express
temporary states, where they are often interchangeable with adjectives. (Monica must be out of
her mind ~ mad, His illness left him without a job ~ jobless).
The fact that the PpP realized as adverbial and the PpP realized as postmodifier in NP often occur
in the same place in a clause may lead to ambiguity. Consequently, an example like I saw the
man in the bus can be read either I saw the man who was sitting in the bus or I was in the bus
and I saw the man.
In much less frequent cases, the same ambiguity may arise in Romanian; if we translate the
example above (Am vzut un om din autobuz), the PpP can be identified either as atribut
substantival prepoziional or complement circumstanial de loc.

Functions and examples are adapted from Downing and Locke (English Grammar - A University Course, 2nd
edition, 2006, pp. , 541-2).

I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 7

sem I, 2014

PpPs have an ability to be embedded recursively in other PpPs or phrases. In other words, one
unit is embedded in another, which is embedded in another, and so on, as in: A car accident [on
the motorway [to Yorkshire]]. (English Grammar - A University Course, 2nd edition, 2006, pp. ,
541)
Another illustration is provided by Greenbaum and Nelson (2002: 89). In the clause There were
variations in the degree of bitterness of taste, embedding can be shown as follows:
prepositional phrase
noun phrase
prepositional phrase
noun phrase
prepositional phrase

in the degree of bitterness of taste

the degree of bitterness of taste
of bitterness of taste
bitterness of taste
of taste

A last observation here is that two or more prepositional phrases that realise adverbials may
appear independently and simultaneously in the same clause (see 3.8.), as in the following
example:
At midnight (1) she secretly (2) eloped with her lover (3) to his lodgings (4).
Exercises:
Exercise 4.25 The adjective phrase
Underline each adjective phrase.
1. Fragrant homemade bread is becoming common in many American homes.
2. In a recent sample, 30 per cent of the subscribers to a womans magazine said that they baked
bread.
3. The first bread was patted by hand.
4. The early Egyptians added yeast and made conical, triangular, or spiral loaves as well as large,
flat, open-centred disks.
Exercise 4.26 The adjective phrase
Complete the sentences below by adding a post-modifier to the adjectives at the ends of the
sentences.
1. No doubt you are aware _______________________
2. My children are always happy _______________________
3. It is sometimes possible _______________________
4. They are sure _______________________
Exercise 4.27 Functions of adjective phrases
Identify the function of each underlined adjective phrase by writing the appropriate abbreviation
in the brackets after it: prm (pre-modifier in noun phrase) pm (post-modifier in noun phrase) sC
(subject complement) oC (object complement)
1. The former ( ) champion is now very ill ( ).
2. He has a rare ( ) viral ( ) infection.
3. The drugs he takes make him sick ( ).
Exercise 4.28 The adverb phrase
Underline each adverb phrase.
1. Disposing of nuclear waste is a problem that has recently gained much attention.

I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 7

sem I, 2014

2. Authorities are having difficulties finding locations where nuclear waste can be disposed of
safely.
3. There is always the danger of the waste leaking very gradually from the containers in which it
is stored.
4. Because of this danger, many people have protested quite vehemently against the dumping of
any waste in their communities.
Exercise 4.29 Functions of adverb phrases
Identify the function of each underlined adverb phrase by writing the appropriate abbreviation in
the brackets after it: A (adverbial) m adj (modifier of adjective) m adv (modifier of adverb)
1. Small forks first ( ) appeared in eleventh-century Tuscany.
2. They were widely ( ) condemned at the time.
3. It was in late eighteenth-century France that forks suddenly ( ) became fashionable.
4. Spoons are thousands of years older than forks and began as thin, slightly ( ) concave pieces of
wood.
5. Knives were used far ( ) earlier than spoons.
Exercise 4.32 The prepositional phrase
Underline each prepositional phrase and circle each preposition. If a prepositional phrase is
embedded within another prepositional phrase, underline it twice.
1. It may come as a surprise to you that massage is mentioned in ancient Hindu Chinese writings.
2. It is a natural therapy for aches and pains in the muscles.
3. The Swedish technique of massage emphasizes improving circulation by manipulation.
4. Its value is recognized by many doctors.
5. Some doctors refer to massage as manipulative medicine.
*Exercise 4.33 The prepositional phrase
Rewrite the sentences below, moving prepositions to alternative positions that they can occur in.
You may need to make some consequent changes.
1. The secretary is the person who you should send your application to.
2. Relativity is a theory on which many modern theories in physics are based.
3. Who are you writing to?
4. This article is one that researchers in economics often make reference to.
Exercise 4.34 Functions of prepositional phrases
Identify the function of each underlined prepositional phrase by writing the appropriate
abbreviation in the brackets after it: pn (post-modifier of a noun) padj (post-modifier of an
adjective) A (adverbial)
1. Politicians in the United States must raise large sums of money ( ) if they want to get elected.
2. A candidate can no longer win with little campaign money ( ).
3. Candidates are keenly aware of the need for huge financial contributions ( ).
4. They need the money to employ staff and for the frequent advertisements they run on
television ( ).
5. In recent campaigns ( ), television advertisements have been quite belligerent.