2/13/2012

Module #38
#38
[Excerpt from Deformation and Fracture of Crystalline and Non-crystalline
Non crystalline Solids Course Notes]

Part I: Creep and Superplasticity

Learning Objectives

Prof. M.L. Weaver

High Temperature Deformation

of Crystalline Materials
T < 0.5 Tmp
T > 0.5 Tmp

HIGH
TEMPERATURE
DEFORMATION
MODES

design so < ys
design so < ys
We must also consider
permanent deformation
occurring by CREEP over
long periods of time.

CREEP = time-dependent plastic deformation

YIELDING = time-independent plastic deformation

Prof. M.L. Weaver

2/13/2012

We can incorporate these

things into Deformation
Mechanism Maps (DMM)
[Frost and Ashby]
Ashby]. Well
We ll
address this a bit later.

Stress
YIELDING

glide

/G

creep

They are useful in design

applications have DMM
for each alloy but to really
know/predict
p
high
g T useful
life of alloy, still must do
testing usually
accelerated!

elastic

creep

Temperature

T/Tmp

Prof. M.L. Weaver

Phenomenological
Description of Creep
STRAIN

CREEP
TIME DEPENDENT
Elastic

CONSTANT
LOAD!

YIELDING
TIME INDEPENDENT

Elastic
Plastic

t1

time
When stress is removed

Prof. M.L. Weaver

2/13/2012

Constant Load Creep Test

III

d
dt

III
I

INC. ,T

II

II

INC. ,T

III
II

II

III

0
tf

time

time

tf

Stage II: constant AND minimum, II

There are 3 stages of creep

Prof. M.L. Weaver

Difference between constant load and

constant stress creep tests

Strain

Constant
Load

SS

d
dt

Fracture
X
Constant
Stress

dt

II

III

Secondary (steady state)

creep

Tertiary creep

time
Primary (transient)
creep

Constant stress testing delays the onset of

tertiary creep

Prof. M.L. Weaver

2/13/2012

STAGES OF CREEP
STAGE 0:

Initial Strain on Loading (Elastic, Plastic ???)

STAGE I:

Transient (Primary) Creep

with
i h time
i & strain
i
and subgrains form TEM

to strength of material Analyses

Cause

STAGE II:

Steady State Creep

microstructure constant

rate of due

Cause

to deformation

Constant
minimum
creep rate,
t II

rate of

due to recovery

Prof. M.L. Weaver

STAGES OF CREEP contd

STAGE III: Tertiary Creep

with time & strain
fracture is soon to occur after Stage III begins
recrystallization

Cause coarsening of 2nd phase particles

formation of internal cracks & voids

Prof. M.L. Weaver

2/13/2012

CREEP
Design Considerations

Usually either II or t f
This parameter is usually addressed in
scientific analyses as it is most readily
correlated with microstructures and
creep mechanisms.

tf:

Use when failure must not occur but

deformation/creep is tolerable.
Ex., Casing on rocket combustion chamber

II :

Use when long life is necessary and dimensional

tolerances are critical.
Ex., Jet engine turbine blade

Prof. M.L. Weaver

Empirical Law for Stage I and Stage II creep

Sttrain

Constant
Load

SS

d
dt

Fracture
X
Constant
Stress

dt

Secondary (steady state)

creep

Tertiary creep

Gives a
good fit to
experimental
data

time
Primary (transient)
creep

Garofalos relationship
creep o t 1 e rt sst
o instantaneous strain on loading
t limit for transient creep

r ratio of transient creep rate to transient creep strain

ss steady-state creep rate

F. Garofalo, Fundamentals of Creep and Creep-Rupture in Metals, (Macmillan, New York, 1965) p. 16.
Prof. M.L. Weaver

2/13/2012

Decomposition of
strain into components
STRAIN

Primary
creep

Secondary
creep

creep

sst

t 1 e rt
time

creep o t 1 e rt sst
Prof. M.L. Weaver

Empirical Relationships for Stages I and II

There are of course many other relationships (i.e., time
functions).
Each applies over a specific range of temperature and
stress for particular alloys.
I refer you to the following texts for more detail:
F. Garofalo, Fundamentals of Creep and Creep-Rupture in Metals
(Macmillan, New York, 1965),
F.R.N.
FRN N
Nabarro
b
and
dH
H.L.
L d
de Villi
Villiers, The
Th Ph
Physics
i off C
Creep (Taylor
(T l &
Francis, London, 1995),
M.E. Kassner, Fundamentals of Creep in Metals and Alloys, 2nd Edition
(Elsevier, 2009),
J-P. Poirier, Creep of Crystals (Cambridge University Press, 1985).
J-S. Zhang, High temperature Deformation and Fracture of Materials
(Woodhead Publishing, Oxford, 2010).
Prof. M.L. Weaver

2/13/2012

STAGE II
Steady-State Creep Rate (Sherby-Dorn Relationship)
n

Q
Q
II ss A exp c o exp c
RT
RT
o
n

A & n are material constants

Qc is the creep activation energy

Vary with
&T
due to changes in the
creep mechanism

This equation also holds for many materials and establishes

the temperature and stress dependence of the creep rate.
Correlates with the activation energy for
the mechanisms causing creep. Well
address the mechanisms shortly (in great
detail).

Qc R

ln

1 1
T T
1
2

Prof. M.L. Weaver

Activatio
on Energy for Self Diffusion, QSDD (MJ/mole)

For many materials:

When T 0.3 0.5 Tmp
Qc activation energy for self diffusion of elements/ions

100
Nb
-Fe

Fe UO2
MgO
NaCl

Ni

Al O
-Fe 2 3
-Co
AgBr

Cu
Al
Zn Mg
-Ti

10-1

In

Ca

Au
Pb

Ag

-Ti

Sn

Li

Na
K

Qc = QSD
10-2
10-2

10-1

100

Activation Energy for Creep, Qc (MJ/mole)

Activation energies for steady state creep and self diffusion for a select group of crystalline materials.
Adapted from O.D. Sherby and A.K. Miller, J. Eng. Mater. Technol., v. 101 (1979) p. 387.
Prof. M.L. Weaver

2/13/2012

Several deformation
mechanisms are
operative

Slip
Climb
Cross slip
Twinning
Diffusion???
etc.

Single deformation
mechanism is
operative
(Diffusional flow)

Q = variable

Q = constant

Qc

Hsd

Variation in apparent activation energy for creep in aluminum with temperature.

Adapted from O.D. Sherby et al., Acta Metall., v. 5, p. 219 (1957)
Prof. M.L. Weaver

In general, Hc (or Qc) becomes constant above T/Tm = 0.3 0.5.

This indicates that there is a single operative creep mechanism
1.2

COPPER

1.0
Qc

ALUMINUM

0.8

Q sd 0.6

TUNGSTEN

0.4

SODIUM CHLORIDE

0.2
0
0

02
0.2

04
0.4

06
0.6

08
0.8

10
1.0

HOMOLOGOUS TEMPERATURE, T/Tm

Figure. Ratio between activation energy for steady state creep and activation energy for
self/bulk diffusion as a function of temperature. Data from O.D. Sherby and A.K. Miller, J.
Eng. Mater. Technol., 101 (1979) 387. Figure adapted from Meyers and Chawla,
Mechanical Behavior of Materials, 1st edition, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1999,
p. 554.
Prof. M.L. Weaver

2/13/2012

Generalized form of the Dorn Equation

n

ADGb b

, where D Do exp(Q / kT )
kT G d
D = diffusion coefficient
d = grain size
b = Burgers vector
k = Boltzmanns constant
T = the absolute temperature (degrees Kelvin)
G = the shear modulus
= applied stress
n = stress exponent
p = inverse grain size exponent
A = a dimensionless constant.
This form of the Dorn equation applies for all creep mechanisms.
Prof. M.L. Weaver

Creep Mechanisms
Diffusion Creep
Nabarro-Herring
Coble

Dislocation (Power-Law) Creep

All involve
some form of
diffusion

Solute
S
drag
Dislocation climb-glide

Prof. M.L. Weaver

2/13/2012

CREEP MECHANISMS
T

It is convenient to discuss
deformation (and creep)
mechanisms in terms of
temperature and/or
applied stress.
/G
Deformation mechanism
maps (DMMs) *
* Adapted from: M.F. Ashby, Acta
Metall., v. 20 (1972) p. 887-897.

Ideal shear strength

Dislocation glide
(slip)

Yield strength

(low temp)

Dislocation creep
(Power law creep)
(high temp)

or
/G

Coble (g.b.)

Diffusion creep
NH (lattice)

Elastic
El
i
regime

T/Tmp
Prof. M.L. Weaver

WELL ADDRESS THE DETAILS IN A LITTLE WHILE

DISLOCATION GLIDE AT LOW TEMPERATURES

Low T or High :

Dislocation Glide (DG) Creep

As we noted previously, dislocation () motion can be assisted by

thermal activation.
Thermal activation influences the lattice resistance to dislocation motion
(recall the Peierls barrier).
With sufficient thermal activation, a dislocation can overcome barriers to
their motion at lower applied stresses.
This can involve diffusive processes, as we will discuss later, but does
not necessarily involve them.
them
For the moment, let us consider thermally assisted dislocation glide
without diffusion.
This is not really creep in the truest sense of the word. Rather it is
simply slip assisted by heating.
Prof. M.L. Weaver

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DISLOCATION GLIDE AT LOW TEMPERATURES

Enerrgy

The figures below show the lattice energy before and after a bypasses an
obstacle on its slip plane.
Enerrgy

No stress
applied

With stress
applied

Eo

Eo

E
Obstacle to motion

Obstacle to motion

Position

Position

Eo is the activation energy that must be overcome by the dislocation to

cause it to move. Can be applied thermally (magnitude on the order of kT).
Applied stresses and thermal energy alters the energy-distance profile and
tends to drive the dislocation past the barrier.
Using principles of kinetics, we can derive a deformation rate.
Prof. M.L. Weaver

Rate at which s bypass obstacle (forward in stress-aided dir.):

(E E)
Forward rate exp o

kT

Thermal energy
Reverse reaction rate:
E
[Slower than in forward dir
dir.]]
Reverse rate exp o
kT

Net flow rate strain rate, scales with the difference betw.:

Eo
E 1

exp
kT
kT

dg o exp
Materials
parameter based
on freq. atomic
vibration

E
E
o exp o exp

kT
kT

Prof. M.L. Weaver

Work done by stress

to overcome barrier

Eo
bAs
exp

kT
kT

dg o exp

depends on ratio

bAs
kT

E
exp
1 at low T
kT

Work done by stress

to overcome barrier

Area of slip plane

This derivation is based on

slip in absence of diffusion.
Eqn. similar to creep eqn.
involving diffusion.

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Diffusional Flow Creep Mechanisms

Nabarro-Herring (NH) Creep

Occurs solely by bulk diffusional mass transport

((i.e., bulk diffusion).
)
Is important for at higher Ts and lower s than
was the case for dislocation glide creep.
Can
C occur in
i crystalline
lli andd amorphous
h
materials.
i l

Prof. M.L. Weaver

Diffusional Flow Creep Mechanisms contd

Nabarro-Herring (NH) Creep
Grain boundaries are sources and sinks for vacancies.
Under an applied stress vacancies will move to grain boundaries
with compressive stresses. Atoms will be drawn to grain
boundaries with tensile stresses.
This diffusion leads to shape change.
Applied stress

Arrows denote
vacancy flux

Vacancy
current

After flux

Contraction
Poisson effect

Original
shape

Vacancy sink
Vacancy source

Prof. M.L. Weaver

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At equilibrium, with no applied stress, the atomic fraction of vacancies at a

given temperature (T) is:
# vacancies

# atoms

Qf
nV
NV exp

no
kT

Qf = vacancy formation energy

The equilibrium concentration is thus:

Co

Qf
NV 1
exp

kT

= atomic volume

When a vacancy is created at a face under tension , it is assisted by a

contribution to the free energy. The opposite occurs on compressed
faces The local equilibrium concentrations at both faces becomes:
faces.
tension

compression

Ctensile Co exp

kT

Ccompressive Co exp

kT

Obviously the
concentration is higher
on the tensile side

Prof. M.L. Weaver

There will be a net flux of vacancies from the higher concentration (i.e.,
tensile) to the lower concentration (i.e., compressive) areas. From Ficks
law, this is:
C
J DV c DV

The vacancy diffusivity, DV, can be expressed as:

Q
DV DVo exp m
kT

Qm = vacancy migration energy

This allows us to re-write the flux as:

C
J DV

assuming that the diffusion distance (x) is equivalent to the grain size (d)
and that is a numerical constant.

Prof. M.L. Weaver

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Multiplication of the flux J by the diffusion area (~d2) gives the volumetric
flow rate which is the number of vacancies passing through an area per
second.

V
Jd 2
t

From this, the volume of vacancies arriving per second is . If we divide

by the diffusion area, we get the elongation per second, which can be
divided by the diffusion length (d) to yield the strain rate:
d

3 Jd 2 3
dt
d
d

or

C DV Co

exp
DV
exp

2
d
d
kT
kT
d

Prof. M.L. Weaver

exp
1
kT
kT
Since << kT:
Therefore:

C DV Co 2 2 DV Co

DV
1 kT 1 kT
d
d
d2
kTd 2

From physical metallurgy, the lattice self-diffusion coefficient DL is

given by:
DL DV Co

Thus, the NH creep rate is:

NH

2 DL
ANH
kTd 2

DL

2
d kT

Prof. M.L. Weaver

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The NH creep equation can be expressed more generally as

2

NH

ANH DLGb b

kT
d G
ANH 10 16

DL lattice diffusion coefficient

NH creep is competitive with glide creep

NH creep with T and
(where glide is not competitive)
More important in ceramics than in metals b/c glide is
more difficult in ceramics

Prof. M.L. Weaver

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