Public relations

This article is about relationships between organizations an organization... followed by executing a program of acand their publics. For the Czech rock band, see Public tion to earn public understanding and acceptance. HowRelations (band).
ever, when PR pioneer Ivy Lee was later asked about his
role in a hearing with the United Transit Commission, he
said I have never been able to nd a satisfactory phrase to
Public relations (PR) is the practice of managing
[5]
the spread of information between an individual or an describe what I do. In 1948, historian Eric Goldman
organization (such as a business, government agency, or noted that the denition of public relations in Websters
be disputed by both practitioners and critics in the
a nonprot organization) and the public.[1] Public rela- would[5]
eld.
tions may include an organization or individual gaining
exposure to their audiences using topics of public interest
and news items that do not require direct payment.[2] This
dierentiates it from advertising as a form of marketing
communications. The aim of public relations is to inform the public, prospective customers, investors, partners, employees, and other stakeholders and ultimately
persuade them to maintain a certain view about the organization, its leadership, products, or of political decisions.
Public relations professionals typically work for PR and
marketing rms, businesses and companies, government,
government agencies, and public ocials as PIOs, and
nongovernmental organizations and nonprot organizations.

According to Edward Bernays, the public relations counsel is the agent working with both modern media of communications and group formations of society in order to
provide ideas to the publics consciousness. Furthermore,
he is also concerned with ideologies and courses of actions as well as material goods and services and public
utilities and industrial associations and large trade groups
for which it secures popular support.[6]
In August 1978, the World Assembly of Public Relations
Associations dened the eld as
the art and social science of analyzing
trends, predicting their consequences, counseling organizational leaders, and implementing planned programs of action, which will
serve both the organization and the public interest.[7]

Public relations specialists establish and maintain relationships with an organizations target audience, the
media, and other opinion leaders. Common activities
include designing communications campaigns, writing
news releases and other content for news and feature articles, working with the press, arranging interviews for
company spokespeople, writing speeches for company
leaders, acting as organizations spokesperson by speaking in public and public ocials, preparing clients for
press conferences, media interviews, and speeches, writing website and social media content, facilitating internal/employee communications, and managing company
reputation and marketing activities like brand awareness
and event management [3] Success in the eld of public relations requires a deep understanding of the interests and
concerns of each of the clients many publics. The public
relations professional must know how to eectively address those concerns using the most powerful tool of the
public relations trade, which is publicity. [4]

Public Relations Society of America, a professional trade

association,[8] dened public relations in 1982 as:
Public relations helps an organization and
its publics adapt mutually to each other.[9]
In 2011 and 2012, the PRSA developed a crowd-sourced
denition:
Public relations is a strategic communication process that builds mutually benecial
relationships between organizations and their
publics.[10]
Public relations can also be dened as the practice of
managing communication between an organization and
its publics.[11]

Denition

Ivy Lee and Edward Louis Bernays established the rst 2 History
denition of public relations in the early 1900s as follows: a management function, which tabulates public at- Main article: History of public relations
titudes, denes the policies, procedures, and interests of
1

4 TACTICS

Most textbooks consider the establishment of the Publicity Bureau in 1900 to be the founding of the public relations profession. However academics have found early
forms of public inuence and communications management in ancient civilizations, during the settling of the
New World and during the movement to abolish slavery in
England. Basil Clark is considered the founder of public
relations in the United Kingdom for his establishment of
Editorial Services in 1924, though academic Noel Turnball believes PR was founded in Britain rst by evangelicals and Victorian reformers.

40,000 ($68,880) for a practitioner with a similar job in

the UK.[14] Top earners make around $89,220 annually,
while entry-level public relations specialists earn around
$28,080.[15] Corporate, or in-house communications is
generally more protable, and communications executives can earn salaries in the mid six-gures, though this
only applies to a fraction of the sectors workforce.[16]

The role of public relations professionals is changing because of the shift from traditional to online media. Many
PR professionals are nding it necessary to learn new
skills and to understand how social media can impact
Propaganda was used by the United States, the United upon a brands reputation.[17]
Kingdom, Germany and others to rally for domestic
support and demonize enemies during the World Wars,
which led to more sophisticated commercial publicity ef- 4 Tactics
forts as public relations talent entered the private sector.
Most historians believe public relations became estabPublic relations professionals present the face of an orgalished rst in the US by Ivy Lee or Edward Bernays, then
nization or individual, usually to articulate its objectives
spread internationally. Many American companies with
and ocial views on issues of relevance, primarily to the
PR departments spread the practice to Europe when they
media. Public relations contributes to the way an orgacreated European subsidiaries as a result of the Marshall
nization is perceived by inuencing the media and mainplan.
taining relationships with stakeholders. According to Dr.
The second half of the 1900s is considered the pro- Jacquie LEtang from Queen Margaret University, public
fessional development building era of public relations. relations professionals can be viewed as discourse workTrade associations, PR news magazines, international PR ers specializing in communication and the presentation of
agencies, and academic principles for the profession were argument and employing rhetorical strategies to achieve
established. In the early 2000s, press release services be- managerial aims.[18]
gan oering social media press releases. The Cluetrain
Specic public relations disciplines include:
Manifesto, which predicted the impact of social media
in 1999, was controversial in its time, but by 2006, the
Financial public relations communicating nancial
eect of social media and new internet technologies beresults and business strategy
came broadly accepted.
Consumer/lifestyle public relations gaining publicity for a particular product or service

Salaries and growth

According to the U.S. News & World Report, the U.S

Bureau of Labor Statistics reported that in 2012, the
median annual salary for public relations practitioners
was $54,170. The top ten percent in the eld made
about $101,030, and the bottom ten percent made about
$30,760.[12]
For public relations managers, however, the median annual wage in 2011 was $93,310. Workers in the 90th percentile earned around $176,400, and workers in the 10th
percentile earned $50,360, according to the U.S. Department of Labor.[13]
The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics also projects an employment growth of 12 percent between 2012 and 2022
for the profession, where an additional 27,400 jobs will
need to be lled. The public relations profession has
claimed the No. 85 spot on the 2014 U.S. News &
World Report list of Best Jobs because of its promising
direction.[12]

Crisis communication responding in a crisis

Internal communications communicating within
the company itself
Government relations engaging government departments to inuence public policy
Food-centric relations communicating specic information centered on foods, beverages and wine.
Media Relations a public relations function that involves building and maintaining close relationships
with the news media so that they can sell and promote a business.
Building and managing relationships with those who inuence an organization or individuals audiences has a
central role in doing public relations.[19][20] After a public
relations practitioner has been working in the eld, they
accumulate a list of relationships that become an asset,
especially for those in media relations.

In the United States, public relations professionals earn an Within each discipline, typical activities include
average annual salary of $49,800 which compares with publicity events, speaking opportunities, press releases,

4.4

Other techniques

newsletters, blogs, social media, press kits and outbound

communication to members of the press. Video and audio news releases (VNRs and ANRs) are often produced
and distributed to TV outlets in hopes they will be used
as regular program content.

4.1

Audience targeting

A fundamental technique used in public relations is to

identify the target audience and to tailor messages to be
relevant to each audience.[21] Sometimes the interests of
diering audiences and stakeholders common to a public
relations eort necessitate the creation of several distinct
but complementary messages. These messages however
should be relevant to each other, thus creating a consistency to the overall message and theme. Audience targeting tactics are important for public relations practitioners
because they face all kinds of problems: low visibility,
lack of public understanding, opposition from critics and
insucient support from funding sources. [22]
On the other hand, stakeholder theory identies people
who have a stake in a given institution or issue.[23] All audiences are stakeholders (or presumptive stakeholders),
but not all stakeholders are audiences. For example, if
a charity commissions a public relations agency to create an advertising campaign to raise money to nd a cure
for a disease, the charity and the people with the disease
are stakeholders, but the audience is anyone who is likely
to donate money. Public relations experts possess deep
skills in media relations, market positioning and branding. They are powerful agents that help clients deliver
clear, unambiguous information to a target audience that
matters to them. [24]

4.2

Messaging

3
rectly with the public, customers and prospects. We will
continue to witness changes in public relations practices.
People wishing to pursue a future with PR will be required to think dierently. They will have to adopt new
strategies and learn new ways to conduct searches. During the rst years of social media, PR had a hard time
keeping up with the speed of these new technologies
(Breakenridge, 2012). PR practitioners have always relied on the media such as TV, Radio, and Magazines to
promote their ideas and messages tailored specically for
a given audience. Social media marketing is not only a
new way to achieve that goal but its also a continuation
of a strategy that existed for decades. Lister et al. said
that Digital media can be seen as a continuation and extension of a principal or technique that was already in
place.[25] PR professionals are well aware of the fact that
digital technology is used in a practically dierent way
than before. For instance, cellphones are no longer just
devices we use to talk to one another. They are also used
for online shopping, dating, learning and getting the most
up to date news around the world.[26]

4.4 Other techniques

Litigation public relations is the management of the communication process during the course of any legal dispute
or adjudicatory processing so as to aect the outcome
or its impact on the clients overall reputation (Haggerty,
2003).

5 Ethics
Public Relations professional both serve the publics interest and private interests of businesses, associations,
non-prot organizations and governments. This dual obligation gave rise to heated debates among scholars of the
discipline and practitioners over its fundamental values.
This conict represents the main ethical predicament of
public relations.[27] In 2000, the Public Relations Society
of America (PRSA) responded to the controversy by acknowledging in its new code of ethics advocacy for
the rst time as a core value of the discipline.[27]

Messaging is the process of creating a consistent story

around a product, person, company or service. Messaging aims to avoid having readers receive contradictory
or confusing information that will instill doubt in their
purchasing choice or other decisions that have an impact
on the company. Brands aim to have the same problem
statement, industry viewpoint or brand perception shared
across sources and media.
The eld of public relations is generally highly unregulated, but many professionals voluntarily adhere to
the code of conduct of one or more professional bodies
4.3 Social media marketing
to avoid exposure for ethical violations.[28] The Chartered
Institute of Public Relations, the Public Relations SociMain article: Digital marketing
ety of America and The Institute of Public Relations are
a few organizations that publish an ethical code. Still,
Digital marketing is the use of Internet tools and tech- Edelman's 2003 semi-annual trust survey found that only
nologies such as search engines, Web 2.0 social book- 20 percent of survey respondents from the public believed
marking, new media relations, blogging and social me- paid communicators within a company were credible.[29]
dia marketing. Interactive PR allows companies and or- Public relations people are growing increasingly conganizations to disseminate information without relying cerned with their companys marketing practices, quessolely on mainstream publications and communicate di- tioning whether they agree with the companys social re-

6 SEE ALSO

sponsibility. They seek more inuence over marketing

and more of a counseling and policy-making role. On the
other hand, marketing people are increasingly interested
in incorporating publicity as a tool within the realm marketing. [30]

identity. The objective in DPR is to discredit someone else, who may pose a threat to the clients business
or be a political rival. DPR may rely on IT security,
industrial espionage, social engineering and competitive
intelligence. Common techniques include using dirty setarget, producing misleading facts to fool a
According to Scott Cutlip, the social justication for pub- crets from the
[37][38][39][40]
competitor.
In politics, a decision to use neglic relations is the right for an organization to have a fair
negative campaigning.
ative
PR
is
also
known
as
hearing of their point of view in the public forum, but
to obtain such a hearing for their ideas requires a skilled
advocate.[31]
5.3 Politics and civil society
In Propaganda (1928), Bernays argued that the manipulation of public opinion was a necessary part of
democracy.[41] In public relations, lobby groups are creMain article: Spin (public relations)
ated to inuence government policy, corporate policy or
public opinion, typically in a way that benets the sponSpin has been interpreted historically to mean overt deceit soring organization.
meant to manipulate the public, but since the 1990s has In fact, Edward Bernays stresses that we are in fact domshifted to describing a polishing of the truth.[32] Today inated in almost every aspect of our lives, by a relatively
spin refers to providing a certain interpretation of infor- small number of persons who have mastered the menmation meant to sway public opinion.[33] Companies may tal processes and social patterns of the masses, which
use spin to create the appearance of the company or other include our behavior, political and economic spheres or
events are going in a slightly dierent direction than they our morals.[42] In theory, each individual chooses his own
actually are.[32] Within the eld of public relations, spin is opinion on behavior and public issues. However, in pracseen as a derogatory term, interpreted by professionals as tice, it is impossible for one to study all variables and
meaning blatant deceit and manipulation.[34][35] Skilled approaches of a particular question and come to a conpractitioners of spin are sometimes called spin doctors. clusion without any external inuence. This is the reaIn Stuart Ewens PR! A Social History of Spin, he argues son why the society has agreed upon an invisible governthat public relations can be a real menace to democracy ment to interpret on our behalf information and narrow
[43]
as it renders the public discourse powerless. Corporations the choice eld to a more practical scale.

5.1

Spin

are able to hire public relations professionals and transmit

their messages through the media channels and exercise
a huge amount of inuence upon the individual who is
defenseless against such a powerful force. He claims that
public relations is a weapon for capitalist deception and
the best way to resist is to become media literate and use
critical thinking when interpreting the various mediated
messages.[36]

When a lobby group hides its true purpose and support

base, it is known as a front group.[44] Front groups are
a form of astroturng, because they intend to sway the
public or the government without disclosing their nancial connection to corporate or political interests. They
create a fake grass-roots movement by giving the appearance of a trusted organization that serves the public, when
they actually serve their sponsors.

The techniques of spin include selectively presenting facts Politicians also employ public relations professionals to
and quotes that support ideal positions (cherry picking), help project their views, policies and even personalities
the so-called "non-denial denial, phrasing that in a way to their best advantages.[45]
presumes unproven truths, euphemisms for drawing attention away from items considered distasteful, and ambiguity in public statements. Another spin technique in- 6 See also
volves careful choice of timing in the release of certain
news so it can take advantage of prominent events in the
Brand management
news.
Impression management

5.2

Negative

See also: Negative campaigning

Media manipulation
Promotion (marketing)
Propaganda

Negative public relations, also called dark public relations

(DPR) and in some earlier writing Black PR, is a process of destroying the targets reputation and/or corporate

Publicist
List of public relations journals

5
Reputation management
Public relations in India

References

[20] Kamau, C. (2009) Strategising impression management in

corporations: cultural knowledge as capital. In D. Harorimana (Ed) Cultural implications of knowledge sharing,
management and transfer: identifying competitive advantage. Chapter 4. Information Science Reference. ISBN
978-1-60566-790-4

[1] Grunig, James E; Hunt, Todd (1984), Managing Public Relations (6th ed.), Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich

[21] Franklin, Bob; Hogan, Mike; Langley, Quentin; Mosdell,

Nick; Pill, Elliot (2009). Target audience. Key concepts
in public relations. SAGE. p. 227. ISBN 978-1-41292318-7.

[2] Seitel, Fraser P. (2007), The Practice of Public Relations.

(10th ed.), Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall

[22] Smith, Ronald D. Strategic Planning for Public Relations.

Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2002. Print.

[3] Rubel, Gina F. (2007), Everyday Public Relations

for Lawyers (1st ed.), Doylestown, PA, ISBN 978-09801719-0-7

[23] Freeman, R Edward (2004), The Stakeholder Approach Revisited, Zeitschrift fr Wirtschafts- und Unternehmensethik (Rainer Hampp Verlag) 5 (3)

[4] Roos, Dave. What Is Public Relations?" HowStuWorks. N.p., 5 Apr. 2008. Web. 25 Nov. 2014.

[24] Andrews, Mark. Climate Change and Public Relations. StarTribune.com: News, Weather, Sports from
Minneapolis, St. Paul and Minnesota. Livefyre, 11 Aug.
2014. Web. 25 Nov. 2014.

[5] Goldman, Eric (1948). Two-Way Street. Bellman Publishing Company.

[6] Edward Bernays, The New Propagandists, in Propaganda, (New York: H. Liverlight, 1928), 38.
[7] Jensen Zhao. Encyclopedia of Business, 2nd. Ed. Retrieved from ndarticles.com
[8] Special Events: The Roots and Wings of Celebration. ISBN
978-0-470-14492-3.
[9] PRSAs Old Denition of Public Relations
[10] Stuart Elliot (March 1, 2012). Public Relations Dened,
After an Energetic Public Discussion. New York Times.
[11] Grunig, James E. and Hunt, Todd. Managing Public Relations. (Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1984),
6e. Public relations is what you do with what you know
and what other think about what you say.
[12] http://money.usnews.com/careers/best-jobs/
public-relations-specialist
[13] http://education.yahoo.net/articles/how_a_masters_
degree_can_help_your_career.htm
[14]

[25] Lister, M., Dovey, J., Giddings, S., Grant, I., & Kelly, K.
(2009). New media: A critical introduction. (2nd ed.).
New York: Routledge.
[26] Tapscott, D. (2009). Grown up digital: How the net generation is changing your world. New York: McGraw hill.
[27] Kathy Fitzpatrick and Carolyn Bronstein, Introduction:
Towards a Denitional Framework for Responsible Advocacy, in Ethics in Public Relations, Responsible Advocacy, ed. Kathy Fitzpatrick and Carolyn Bronstein (USA:
Sage Publications, Inc. 2006), ix.
[28] Marshall, Tim (2002). Ethics Who needs them?".
Journal of Communication Management 7 (2): 107112.
doi:10.1108/13632540310807313. ISSN 1363-254X.
[29] Natasha Tobin, (2005), "Can the professionalisation of the
UK public relations industry make it more trustworthy?",
Journal of Communication Management, Vol. 9 Iss: 1 pp.
5664
[30] Kermani, Faiz, and Alan Needham. Marketing and Public
Relations. Marlow: Institute of Clinical Research, 2006.
N. pag. Print.

[15] $alaries in the City, New York Magazine, archived from

the original on 24 December 2013

[31] Cutlip, Scott (1994), The Unseen Power: Public Relations:

A History, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, ISBN 0-80581464-7

[16] Public Relations Specialist Careers: Employment &

Salary Trends for Aspiring Public Relations Specialists.

[32] Sare, William (1996) The Spinner Spun

[17] Media consumption is diversifying, nds Ofcom, New Media Age, 19 August 2010
[18] L'Etang, Jacquie (2 September 2004). Public Relations in
Britain: A History of Professional Practice in the Twentieth
Century. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-4106-1081-2.
Retrieved 22 May 2013.
[19] Phillips, David (2006), Towards relationship management: Public relations at the core of organizational development, Journal of Communication Management (Emerald Group Publishing Limited)

[33] The Free Dictionary

[34] Spin Doctor a Derogatory Term That Needs to Go, Dilenschneider Says. Don Hale PR. Retrieved on 2013-07-16.
[35] Dear Gracie: Is Flack a Four-Letter Word? | Beyond PR.
Blog.prnewswire.com (2012-02-17). Retrieved on 201307-16.
[36] W. Timothy Coombs and Sherry J. Holladay, Does Society Need Public Relations? Criticisms of Public Relations in Its Not Just PR: Public Relations in Society,
(Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2007), 10.

8 FURTHER READING

[37] Wattenberg, Martin P. (22 Aug. 1996). Negative Campaign Advertising: Demobilizer or Mobilizer. eScholarship Repository. UC Irvine, Department of Politics and
Society. Retrieved on 29 January 2005
[38] Bike, William S. (28 March 2004). Campaign Guide:
Negative Campaigning. CompleteCampaigns.com. City:
San Diego. Retrieved on 3 August 2005.
[39] Saletan, William (25 November 1999). Three Cheers for
Negative Campaigning. Slate. City: Washington. Retrieved on 3 August 2005.
[40] Does Attack Advertising Demobilize the Electorate?
Stephen Ansolabehere, Shanto Iyengar, Adam Simon,
Nicholas Valentino, 1994, American Political Science Review, 88:829838; Winning, But Losing, Ansolabehere
and Iyenger, 1996
[41] Edward Bernays Propaganda (1928) p. 10
[42] Edward Bernays, Organizing Chaos, in Propaganda,
(New York: H. Liverlight, 1928), 10.
[43] Edward Bernays, Organizing Chaos, in Propaganda,
(New York: H. Liverlight, 1928), 11.
[44] See Peter Viggo Jakobsen, Focus on the CNN Eect Misses
the Point: The Real Media Impact on Conict Management is Invisible and Indirect, Journal of Peace Research,
vol.37, no.2. Institute of Political Science, University of
Copenhagen (2000).
[45] Oakes, Laurie (2010), On the Record: Politics, Politicians
and Power, Hachette Australia, p. 191, ISBN 978-07336-2700-2

Further reading
A History of Public Relations, The Institute for Public Relations
Breakenridge, D. (2012), Social media and public
relations: Eight new practices for the pr professional,
New jersey: FT Press
Cutlip, Scott (1994), The Unseen Power: Public Relations: A History, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,
ISBN 0-8058-1464-7
Cutlip, Scott (1995), Public Relations History: from
the 17th to the 20th Century, Lawrence Earlbaum
Associates, ISBN 0-8058-1780-8
Heitmueller, Lars M. (2012), Corporate Communication Map: Outline of an interactive Overview of
the fundamental Models and Theories of Public Relations

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

9.1

Text

Public relations Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public%20relations?oldid=646543431 Contributors: Magnus Manske, Eloquence,

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83d40m, Jorfer, S Gladkova, Alnokta, Yingfan, Stuartewen, Equazcion, Ikemcf, Jbrianrose, Bonadea, LastChanceToBe, Pdcook, DASonnenfeld, MaddCheddar, Rperigo, Signalhead, Wikieditor06, Dcherrin, Photographworks, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Coder Dan,
Ghostnotediana, Flyte35, Joshuavr, Canuckle, Z.E.R.O., CoJaBo, Crohnie, Grace E. Dougle, Anna Lincoln, WazzaMan, Bass shing
physicist, Bluestripe, BotKung, Katimawan2005, Catherine Arr, Ephricon, Andrewaskew, Enigmaman, GREENCREST, Falcon8765, Enviroboy, Nick Levinson, Lisabastian, Gforce69, WillyFourEyes, Alcmaeonid, Ginarubel, Saamihung, Corepr, NHRHS2010, Deconstructhis, Sevensalmon, SieBot, Coee, Whiskey in the Jar, Dusti, John Berard, Frans Fowler, Zephyrus67, Eagleal, Rspritchard, Exemplar
sententia, Lacihobo, BunnyColvin, JetLover, Ghuzee, Lightmouse, Sun2009, Drinkanotherday, PRIAInfoOcer, Heds, Ajk91, Altzinn,
Phida, Explicit, ClueBot, SummerWithMorons, Binksternet, Rosskarchner, Foxj, Wikievil666, Mattgirling, Aadler1204, Bboymonkeyking, Nrcjersey, KellJones, Bwark, Joseph W. Reriani, Jimbaar, Robert Skyhawk, Excirial, Alexbot, Hopcaen, Rhododendrites, Magus619,
Thingg, Versus22, SoxBot III, Jalapeanodeano, XLinkBot, Gnowor, Enred, Gonzonoir, Frikkdog, ChyranandChloe, Urban witch, Bradv,
Nepenthes, JoelXX, Neonbrown, Alexius08, MystBot, Valesca001, AvayaLive, Robbertf, Willking1979, Cantaloupe2, Nleighto, Tcncv,
Leonard Falke, Crazysane, Luggerhead, Daveydaveydave, SpellingBot, Corporate4, MrOllie, Download, MrVanBot, CarsracBot, Andrewgraham.nyc, Glane23, Favonian, West.andrew.g, Tide rolls, Poluphemos, Mineralsab, TotientDragooned, Brownanddutch, 1snailbyte, Luckas-bot, Yobot, WikiDan61, MikeStu, HoofPR, Cision US, Truthbody, Rrhodes24, AnomieBOT, Dtrogef, Noq, Jim1138,
IRP, Dwayne, Proger, AloysiusLiliusBot, Kingpin13, Ask4plastic, Materialscientist, Stacionari, Citation bot, Local Calls, Hypocrisypedia, RCPassault, UrbanZebra, LilHelpa, SpaceHeater2187, Xqbot, Sheila1760, Capricorn42, Untpr4lambiase, Binaemanvel, Tomwsulcer,
Justinsiefert, GrouchoBot, Step1image, PurpleKiwi, Rasool Sarang, RibotBOT, Techpeople5, MerlLinkBot, Rvarshneya, Thanjai, Jenmitch, Smbrown123, Shadowjams, CorporateM, Imveracious, Evpope, Prwebmaster, FrescoBot, Carmen Smith Jones, SMAir2009, StaticVision, Ankit1 nagpal, PeterEastern, Eagle4000, Laowai.blogger, Dakota Detective, Pinethicket, LauraHale, Rushbugled13, Tinton5,
Maxjammett, Allthingstoallpeople, Jandalhandler, Uttrillom17, Crayon101, Michael.goldshmidt, FoxBot, Sweet xx, RicardoJ1972, Lotje,
Rachael.PR, Writeread82, Vrenator, Markpackuk, January, TanishaElleBrown, Defender of torch, Jarmihi, Aoidh, Tradingcalc, Prmania,
Suusion of Yellow, Infostar10, Chrispracy, AspectusPR, TjBot, ACDJ, Ha us 70, Jameswdcrawford, Rblandings, Slon02, DASHBot,
EmausBot, MizrahiPrince, Mouafac, GoingBatty, Kesharajcox, Keonaprude, JeanneLPD, Researcher67, Encilee, Raqsv, Professionaleducator, Taylor2 m, AvicBot, ZroBot, Meisele, F, Traxs7, Wurdjunky, Azuris, Virbonusdicendiperitus, A930913, H3llBot, Yjngoi123,
Jaydeepray1988, Aleach2, Ocaasi, Tolly4bolly, Brandincasia, L Kensington, Cloud21pr, Noodleki, Christheman200, Donner60, Wikiloop, Paul D Seaman, Frity, TomBarat, Shi Hou, 28bot, Hansann, ClueBot NG, Akstorm, Jnorton7558, Gareth Grith-Jones, CocuBot,
MelbourneStar, Steadydoesit, Satellizer, Jerey Scott Maxwell, Environmental Relations, Nie-bert, Kresensha, Chicago2011, Widr, Antiqueight, Linguaua, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bancroft595, HMSSolent, Titodutta, BG19bot, Island Monkey, Banwala, Loaww, Mrjohncummings, Ceradon, StevenLLL122, MusikAnimal, RyanGib, Raymondlafourchette, TexasTiger87, Compfreak7, Jchuterwiki, WikiHannibal, Wikiz876, Klilidiplomus, Introtoprclass1, Himmick, Kranton54, AK456, Rogrio Bunito, AlysonDutch, Infopediagirl, Lugia2453,
SFK2, SteenthIWbot, Mokelembebe, 069952497a, HeatherMKCampbell, Pseudosound, PinkAmpersand, S.s.kulkarni9090, Londomollari42, Vanamonde93, Everymorning, Kogmaw, Star767, Anderson1515, Babitaarora, Ebalogh, Archmarch, Manu sahib, RainCity471,
PRDR123, Emilybuyaki, Emere b, Vivian bright, XXBoBXx96, Respicenem, NastyMan99, Ajay.u.pai, Teejaney Teymi, Eddie Makele,
Mad bar, Inuwa fatima, Kpakol emmanuella, Sbryanj, Harrieth Champion, Sokosa, Gogrady123, Sally Belle, Gunners4Life, Massmediapr, Biancasam1, TheFloydPig, Ajay.star.08, Strife Lim, Pro436, Csabo3land, Perapin, Yehgud, Sbrunson24, Firas Boudaqa, Mjmroy,
Emilyscarr, Skrakov, Brittjay1234, Kellcesarz and Anonymous: 915

9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

9.2

Images

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9.3

Content license

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