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SomeObservationsonPhotovoltaicCellPanels

SomeObservationsonPhotovoltaicCellPanels
byOliverSeely
Thetextandphotosonthispageareinthepublicdomain.Copyingisencouraged!

RevisedJanuary4,2013
Introduction
FormanyyearsI'vetaughtacourseonscienceandtechnologyfromahistoricalperspective.Thevoraciousappetite
forenergybyadvancedsocietiesandparticularlytheUnitedStatesfiguresprominentlyinthecourse.Icomment
eachsemesterthatwhenhumansareforcedfinallytostopusingfossilfuels,eitherbecauseofincreasingcostsor
globalpollution,therewillstillbeplentyofenergyfromthesun,particularlyinregionsluckyenoughtohave
cloudlessdaysmostoftheyear.Onedaymywifesaidtome,"Whydon'tyouputyourmoneywhereyourmouth
is?"SoIdid.
Thedecisiontoinstallphotovoltaiccell
panelshingesonwhereonelives.The
amountofsunlightasdeterminedbythe
climateofone'slocationandtheabilityto
receivethedirectraysofthesunwhenitis
shininghelpsonetodecideifitmakessense
toinstallthepanels.Ontheleftandrightare
imagesshowingavailablesunlightforthe
UnitedStatesandtheworldrespectively.
Althoughourlocationappearstobeideal
becauseoftheavailablesunlightperyear,in
actualfactourdistancefromthePacific
Oceanisonly12kmandcoastalfogisa
problempartoftheyear.Ontheaverage,the
amountofsunlightwegetislimitedto
between5and8hoursperdaythroughout
theyear(seethebluestripalongthecoastin
theleftimageinfrontofthearrowtip).

HereisanotherimageofthecontinentalUnitedStateswitha
legendincludingunitsofkilowatthourspersquaremeterper
day.

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Aroofsloping
towardthe
southinfull
viewofthesky
wouldbeideal.
However,our
rooflineslopes
towardtheeast
andthewest.
Thereisa
chimneynear
thepeak,as
youcansee.

Thepanelshavetobeinstalledwheretherearenoshadowsduringtheday,soweinstalledour2.5kilowattsystem
ontheeastslopingroofwithanadditionaltilttowardthesouth.Thereareactually18panelseachratedat165
wattswhichbringsthesystemtoatheoreticalmaximumpoweroutputof2970wattsor2.97kilowatts.Therating
of2.5kilowattsmaybeduetotheinstallingcompanyknowingthatthetiltofourpanelswouldbelessthanideal.
Maximumoutputoccursaround11ameachdaythatthesunshines.

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Miscellaneous
Observations
Agoodenergy
outputperday
duringthesummeris
14kilowatthours.A
REALLYgoodday
brings15andthere
havebeenafew
exceptionaldayswhichbroughtin16kwhours.Cloudlesswinter
daysyieldaround7.5kwhours.Rainissomethingelseagain.Here
iswhatitlookedlikeon28December,2004allday.Andwithmore
thanalittlerain.Still,2.20kWhwasn'tallthatbad.Therewasadaytwoweeksearlierthatachievedonlyalittle
morethan0.5kWh.NotetheACpowermeter.Theremaybe271voltsbeingproducedbutthereisn'tenoughlight
toofferevenonewattofpower.

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Onsomepartiallycloudydaysduringtheearly
springacuriousobservationcanbemadeasthe
sunperiodicallypeeksthroughtheclouds.Here
aretwoimagesonApril22,2006.Exceptfor
theoccasionalgapsintheclouds,thiswas
NOTatypicalsunnydayinsouthern
California.Buttakealookatthemeter:2507
Watts!Isitfavorableatmosphericconditions
whichallowalargeamountofUVlightto
arriveatthepanelsorisittheadded
illuminationofreflectedlightfromtheclouds
whichincreasesthepoweroutputtoan"as
advertised"level?

Structural
modificationsof
anykindcarrythe
riskofunintended
consequences.Our
installationcaused
aleakthroughthe
bathroomvent
duringheavyrain
asaresultof
runoffontothe
roofand
subsequentsplashingintothevent.Theventwasmodifiedby
addingashield,asshown.Uglythoughitmaybe,itdidthetrickas
demonstratedbyanotherrainstormshortlyafteritsinstallation.
Eachmorningthecontrollergoesthroughitscountdown,
synchronizingtheinverterphasewiththatofthegrid.Whenitlocks
intothephaseofthegridthesystemgoesonlineandelectricity
beginstoflowfromthepanels.Weestimatethatitwilltake14
yearstorecoupouroutofpocketexpenses.RichardCorkishofthe
PhotovoltaicsSpecialResearchCentreattheUniversityofNew
SouthWalesestimatesthatitwilltakebetween3and7yearsto
produceenoughenergytoequalthatamountcontainedinthenon
renewablefossilfuelsusedtofabricatethepanelsinthefirstplace.
Thatestimatecanbefoundinhisoffering,CanSolarCellsEverRecapturetheEnergyInvestedintheir
Manufacture?
PanelMaintenance
Thepanelsareguaranteedfor25years.Thegoodnewsisthatthepanelsworksilentlywithnomovingparts,
pumpingexcesselectricalenergyroutinelyintotheelectricalgridwhenweuselessthanthatwhichisgenerated.At
thosetimesthemeterturnsbackward.

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Thebadnewsisthat
overtimeinan
urbanareawhere
thereisalotof
dustfall,the
efficiencydrops.In
theLosAngelesarea
severalmonthscan
gobywithoutrain.
Theseimagesshow
whathappensafter
suchaperiod.We
havefoundit
advisabletodoaonceamonthrinsingofthepanelstomakethemsparklingcleanandtobringthembackto
maximumefficiency.

Here'sanimagetakenofthepanelsaftertwomonths
withoutrain.Myguessisthatthedropinpoweroutputwas
somewherearound10%.

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Thefirstpointinthegraphontheleftshowstheoutputfrompanels
whichhadbeenallowedtocollectdustforamonth.Afterrinsing
thepanels,theoutputwasmonitoredin7minuteincrements
followingthefirstmeasurement.The"bestfit"linecrossesthetime
ofthefirstmeasurementatanoutputof905watts.Themeasured
outputofthedirtypanelsatthattimewas811wattsoraround10%
lessthanthatwhichmighthavebeengeneratedatthattimebyclean
panels.

Here'sanotheroneabitmore
dramatic.Theminutesfrom3to
45wereminutesfollowing
10am,August5,2005.Itwasa
cloudlessandhotsummer
morning.Therehadbeennorain
fortwomonths.Readingswere
takeneverysevenminutes.The
firstthreereadingsweretaken,
thepanelswerethengivena
coldwaterrinseandfour
additionalreadingsweretaken.
Notethelargeincreaseinoutput
forthefourthreadingandthe
subsequentdropoff.Iassume
thatthelargerreadingis
characteristicofthecolder
operatingtemperature
immediatelyafterthecoldwater
rinse.Thereappearstobea15%
increaseaftertherinse.

Recentlyavisitortothispagecomplainedthatmyclaimofasignificantincreaseinpoweroutputafterrinsingwas
notconvincing.Hereisathirdsetofdatawhichmaybecopiedandusedinanymanneryouwish.
Thedataweretakenstartingat9:12amonacloudlessmidsummermorning,2006.Thecoldwaterrinsewas
effectedbetweenreadingstakenat9:26and9:33.Thepreviousrinsehadbeendoneaboutamonthbeforethisone.
Therehadbeennorainbetweenrinses.
Power
Time output
(watts)
9:12 1838
9:19 1869
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9:26 1896
cold
water xxxx
rinse
9:33 2157
9:40 2079
9:47
9:54
10:01
10:08
10:15

2070
2086
2124
2136
2160

10:22 2174
10:29 2177

Hereismygraphicalspinonthedata.Iwouldventurethattherewasa5%increaseinpoweroutputaftertherinse.
Howmuchwater?
Iwasaskedrecentlyaboutwater
needsforpanelsinstalledinsomeof
thedesertregionsofCalifornia.The
frequencyofrinsingdependsonthe
dustfalloftheregion,soany
projectionofneedsrequiresa
measurementofdustfallanda
comparisonwithareasforwhichthe
dustfallandaccompanyingenergy
lossisknown,buttherinsing
frequencyisajudgmentcallbasedon
thatenergylosswhichoneiswilling
totolerate.Myoncepermonth
rinsingduringthedryseasonin
suburbanLosAngelesseemsto
coincidewithanenergylossof5
10%.The"casestudy"rinsing
frequency(below)seemstobebasedonanenergylossof15%totriggerarinse.Atypicalrinseofmy18panels
usingthemethodshowninthephotoaboverequires1.21cu.ft.ofwater.Therinseconsistsofafirstpass"to
softenup"thelayerofdustandbirddroppingsfollowedbyasecondpasstoremovethesoftenedresidue.1.21cu.
ft.=9.05gallons(U.S.,liq.)=34.3liters.Acarefulmeasurementofvolumeneededandthenobleexpectationthat
onewillbeabletoclaimthattherunoffwillgointoone'sgardenisshatteredwhenoneobservestherunofflyingin
theraingutterbehindapileofleavesandevaporatingslowly.Ileaveittothereadertomakethecalculations
neededforhisorherapplication.Sufficeittosaythatmymethodisjustaboutthemostinefficientonecoulduse.
Anindustrialoperationwouldhaveanadvantageofscaleandrecyclingpotential.
Particulatematter

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Allkindsofstufffallsroutinelyfromthesky:meteorites,cosmic
dustandusedsatellitesforstarters.Atourhouseinsouthern
Californiaandnearanairportwegetlittlespotsofyellowgunk
whichproducesopaquespotsonthesolarpanels.Ithasthe
consistencyofdustparticlesmixedwithoiljudgingfromtheway
itscrapesoffthepanels.Fortunatelytheultravioletlightbreaks
enoughofthechemicalbondsinwhateverbindstheparticles
togethertoallowthemfinallytosluffoffduringrepeated
rinsings.Still,theydorepresentapotentialfalloffofenergy
generatedbyone'sinstallation.

RateGames
Whenoursystemwasfirstinstalledwewerebilledataflatrateperkilowatthour.Themeterroutinelyturned
backwardduringtheday.Wehavesinceswitchedto"timeofuse"orTOUmetering.Forthefirsttwoyearsof
TOUbilling,insteadofabilleachmonthatthefixedrate,wereceivedaspreadsheet,thebottomlineforwhich
didn'thavetobepaidbutonceeachyear.ThefirstyeartheelectriccompanyputusontheTOUD2schedule(the
oneforbigusers).TOUmeteringusesfourdifferentrates.ThosewhichareestablishedfortheTOUD2schedule
are:
Period
Costper
kwh($U.S.)
WinterOnPeak 0.15
WinterOffPeak 0.11
SummerOnPeak 0.335
SummerOffPeak 0.1075

Thespreadsheetfor06/09/05to06/09/06lookedlikethis:

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Thenegativebottomlinewithinthespreadsheet($107.19)isastatementofourcredit,butaccordingtoCalifornia
law,thereisnocompensationtothecustomerforwhatevercreditmightaccrueduringtheyear.Thatis,theelectric
companyneverwritesusacheckforourcontributiontothepowergrid.Wedo,however,havetopayanannual
TOUmeterchargeandCustomerCharge.
ThereistheaddedcomplicationofTOUschedules.TOUD2isforbigusers.Thoseuserspayaloweraverage
kwhrate,buttheirflatTOUmeterchargeandCustomerChargearehigherthanthoseforcustomersontheTOUD
1Schedule.Thefirstyear,shownhere,wasontheTOUD2schedule.Attheendoftheyearshown,wechanged
totheTOUD1scheduleintheexpectationofbreakingevenagainattheendofthenextfiscalyearandpaying
lowerannualfixedcharges.
HerearethefourrateschargedontheTOUD1schedule.NotetheusuriousSummerOnpeakrate,whichasit
turnsout,workedinourfavorseebelow:
Period
Costper
kwh($U.S.)
WinterOnPeak 0.202
WinterOffPeak 0.142
SummerOnPeak 0.504
SummerOffPeak 0.147

Thespreadsheetfor06/09/06to06/09/07lookedlikethis:

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Thecreditaccruedduringthisyearwas$134.00,asshown.Thefixedchargescameto$41.36,whichgaveusa
considerablesavingoverthepreviousyear.Mostunfortunately,theelectriccompanydiscontinuedthespreadsheet
fortheirTOUcustomersseveralmonthsago.Insteadwereceiveashortstatementwhichoutlinestheapplicable
chargesforthatmonth.Tothoseofuswhotookthetimetolearnhowtoreadthespreadsheetthisdecisionputsus
atadecideddisadvantagetobeabletoestimatehowwearedoingthroughouttheyear.Asiftoaddinsulttoinjury,
theshortstatementoffersthecustomeralabyrinthinesummaryoftherateschedulewithchargesforsuchthingsas
the"TransmissionOwnersTariffCharge,"the"NuclearDecommissioningCharge,"the"PublicPurposePrograms
Charge,"the"ThePublicUtilitiesCommissionReimbursementFee",andthe"CaliforniaAlternateRatesfor
EnergySurcharge,whereapplicable."AllofthesefeesarechargedbythekWhourandIhavebeentoldbya
representativethatthereisvariabilityfromonemonthtothenextastowhichareappliedtoaspecificcustomer's
billsothatevenifthecustomerwantedtocreateaprivatespreadsheet,itwouldbeimpossiblebecausetherate
changesslightlyfrommonthtomonthowingtowhichoftheabovechargesapply.Ontheotherhand,an
approximateratecanbedeterminedbyusingsimultaneousequationsbetweenpairsofmonthsinwhichonlyone
rate"season"wasinvolved:winterorsummer.Sinceonpeakandoffpeakratesaredifferent,onecanthen
calculateeachrateforthatparticularpairofmonths.Itisn'texact,butitisclose.Itdoeshoweverrequireapassage
ofsixmonthsthroughtheyear(summerthroughfalltowinter)tobeabletoestablishacredibleestimate.Stay
tuned.IhaveonemonthyettogobeforeI'llhaveabeadonjustwhatI'mbeingchargedformyelectricity.
Thelargecreditaccruedhasatleastonemisleadingcharacteristic:itlargelyrepresentscreditatthehighestrate,
thatis,"SummerOnPeak."IfarathersmallbalanceshiftweretooccurtowardNetLoadfromNetGenerationfor
thisperiod,orpossiblyworse,iftheSummerOnPeakratedroppedsignificantly,acustomerwouldriskreceiving
alargeelectricitybill.Oneimplicationofthissubtletyisthatanownerofanewsolarelectricalgenerationsystem
whichgeneratesatsomewhatbelowthelevelofuse,mightbeshockedtoreceiveawhoppingelectricalbillbased
ontheinflatedSummerOnPeakrate($0.335perkilowatthourfortheTOUD2scheduleand$0.504fortheTOU
D1schedule).However,thematterofcreditvs.chargecutsbothways.Fortheperiods20052006and20062007,
ourenergyuseoffthegridwaspositive.Thatis,moreenergywaspumpedinfromthegridthanwasgeneratedby
thesolarpanels(20052006,+443kwhours20062007,+312kwhours),butmostofthisenergycametous
duringperiodsofthelowbillingratesandwasoffsetbynetenergygeneratedduringthehighbillingrateperiod
(SummerOnPeak).HadwebeenabletooptNOTtoconverttoTimeOfUsebilling,andhadcontinuedreceivinga
billcalculatedataflatrate,wewouldhavehadtopayforournetenergyconsumption.At$0.13perkwhour(close
tothegoingflatrate),ourbillsforthosetwoyearswouldhavebeen$57.59and$40.56,respectively).Customersat
thegreatestdisadvantagearethosewhoinstallsolarpanelstogeneratesomesmallfractionofelectricityusedand
thenswitchtoTimeOfUsebilling.Partlyforthisreason,theCaliforniaStateSenateonMay24,2007andthe
CaliforniaStateAssemblyonJune6,2007passedAssemblyBill1714(andapprovedbytheGovernor)which
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allowstheownersofnewphotovoltaicsystemsduringtheyearof2007tooptNOTtohaveTimeofUse(TOU)
meteringtobeinstalled.Thesummaryofthebillreads,inpart:"ThisbillwouldauthorizethePUC(PublicUtilities
Commission)todelayimplementationoftimevariantpricingforratepayerswithasolarenergysystem,untilthe
effectivedateoftheratesestablishedinthenextgeneralratecaseofthestate's3largestelectricalcorporations.If
thecommissiondelaysimplementationoftimevariantpricing,thebillwouldrequirethatratepayersrequiredto
takeserviceundertimevariantpricingbetweenJanuary1,2007,andJanuary1,2008,andthatwouldotherwise
qualifyforflatratepricing,begiventheoptiontotakeserviceunderflatrateortimevariantpricing."
Forthecurrentyearinprogress,achangeintheSummerOnpeakratefrom$0.504perkWhlastyeartoaround
$0.35perkWhthisyearhasoccurredforreasonswhichatthiswritingarenotclear.Thatwillputourdomestic
systematadecideddisadvantagebecauseoftheexcessofgeneratedenergyfortheSummerOnpeakperiods.That
is,thecumulativecreditreceivedforthatperiodwillbelessthanthatgrantedlastyear.
Allthathavingbeensaid,anyannualcredit,whetherreflectingratedisparitiesbetweensummeronpeakgeneration
andwinteroffpeakconsumptionorasurplusofgeneratedenergythroughouttheyearwillendupmakingthe
electriccompanyyourfavoritecharity."DratandBlast!"yousay.Whatistobedone?Acustomernotentirely
sympathetictotheholloweyedpleaforaspiritofgivingfromtheexecutivesofourpublicutilitiesneedstofind
alternativeconsumptionstrategiessoastobringthesurplusorthecreditdowntozero.Thereareanumberof
amusingandintriguingpossibilitieswhichIleavetothecreativegeniusandresourcefuldiligenceofthereaderto
discoverandtoputintopractice.
Getacheckfromtheelectriccompany?
StartinginJanuary,2011,inCalifornia,peoplewhogenerateexcesselectricitywereallowedtosellittotheir
electricutility.Thatis,forthefirsttimeinhistory,thetopsofourroofsbegantohaveprofitpotential.Butbefore
yougooutandplunkdownthebetterpartofyourfamilyfortunetohavesolarpanelsinstalled,thefineprinttells
youthatacustomermusthavebotha$creditattheendoftheyearandhavegeneratedmorekwHthanwere
consumedtogetacheckfromtheelectriccompany.Moreover,sincetheadvantagesofrebatesandtaxcreditsare
forsakenifaninstallationgreatlyexceedsone'sneedforelectricity,veryfewcustomerswilleverseeacheckatthe
endoftheyear.That'sallright,Ihearyousay,I'llinstallmorepanelsthanIneedandnotexpecttogettherebates
ortaxcreditsontheextraones.I'llcovermyroofwiththoseextrasolarpanels,sellalloftheexcesselectricityand
becomerich!
ItturnsoutthattheelectriccompanypracticallystonewalledthatideaintestimonybeforetheCaliforniaPublic
UtilitiesCommissionbypresentingtheargumentthattherearemanyexpensesconnectedwithdeliveringenergyto
thecustomerthoseaddedexpensesjustifythattheamountpaidtothecustomerbediscounted.Theoperativeterm
inCaliforniais"feedintariff,"ortheamountyou'llgetforfeedinginyourgeneratedelectricitytothegrid.This
writerguessed,in2010,thatthediscountwouldresultinapayment40%ofthatwhichwearechargedfor
electricity.Dratandblast!ThemembersoftheCaliforniaPublicUtilitiesCommissioncavedinto28%ofthe
averageratepaidtotheutilityforconsumingitselectricity.Mycheckattheendofthe20102011fiscalyearwas
$8.42,amountingto3.7centsperkilowatthour,basedonanaveragerateof13centsperkilowatthourpaidby
customersinsouthernCalifornia.
Anamusinglydiabolicalopportunity?
Still,manycloudshavesilverlinings,andhereisonetothinkabout.Consideracomputerwhichmonitorsyour
photovoltaicsystemandestimatesonthebasisofdailyuseandgenerationandpastknowledgeofannualuseand
generationhowmuchextraenergyyoucanproduceeachday.Thenthereisthisguywhoshowsupeachmonth
withanemptyblackbox,unhooksafullblackboxfromthepreviousmonth,attachestheemptyblackbox,writes
youacheckandleaves.He'sjollyandwearsawhitejumpsuitjustlikethemanwhodeliversbottledwater,except
thatthisguybringsinsomethingemptyandleaveswithanotheronewhichisfull.Yourassignment,dearreader,is
tofigureoutwhatwillbeintheblackboxtomakeyourich!Niceidea,huh?
TheDownSideofPhotovoltaicPanelInstallationsonYourRoof
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You'retheownerofyourownprivateutility,forbetterorforworse.Mostpeoplewon'tbeinterestedinassuming
thatrole,justasmostpeoplearen'tinterestedinbeinghamradiooperators,modelplaneflyersorparachute
jumpers.Asanownerofyourownprivateutility,itisyourjobtokeepitoperating,soyouhavetohaveasystem
whichwillgiveyoua"headsup"whenthingsgowrong.
Whatdoyoumakeof
this,viewedinthe
middleofacloudless
sunnyday?Itisa
nonfunctioning
inverter,that'swhatit
is.Towardtheendof
lastmonthIclimbed
uptotakealookat
mypanelsand
noticedalayerof
dustaboutamonth
old,soIdidaroutine
rinseofthesurface.
Then,almostasan
afterthought,Itooka
lookatthereadoutof
myinverterandsaw
whatyouseehere.
Therewasnothing!
Whatdiditmean?I
contactedthe
repairman
recommendedbythe
SunnyBoywebsite
andsetupavisitforthefollowingday.

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Meanwhile,Itooka
lookinthejunction
boxwherethewires
fromthepanels
connecttothewire
whichleadstothe
inverter.The
removalofthe
inspectionplateand
abriefinvestigation
revealedthedamage
youseehere.The
plasticshieldofthe
twistconnectorhad
melted,leavingthe
conicalcompression
connectorwhich
holdsthewires
together.Thesingle
redwireleadingout
oftheconnectorto
theinverterhad
meltedclosetoits
entranceinthe
connector.The
meltedbreakisn'tvisibleherebecauseoftheangleofthephoto.Muchrelieved,Icalledtherepairmanandtoldhim
thattheproblemwasnotamalfunctioninginverter,butsimplyabroken(melted)connection.Thevoltagecoming
outofmypanelsisaround350V.D.C.,soIchosetolettherepairmandothework.Hearrivedthefollowingday,
madetherepairandIwasbackinbusiness.ButtheownerofaPVsystemmustrealizethatanonfunctioning
systemismoneyoutofhis(her)pocketPVsystemsneedtobemonitoredandmaintained.Thiskindofproblem
criesout,attheveryleast,foravisibleindicatorinone'shousewhenthingsareoperatingproperlyandperhapsa
readoutshowingthekwHgeneratedthroughoutaday.Whydidithappen?Thejuryisstillout,butaninspectionof
theinterioroftheinverterrevealedaboutadozendeadgrasshoppers.Perhapsaninsectinthejunctionboxwas
electrocuted.Perhapsoxidationoverfiveyearsofoperationbegantoproduceanexcessiveamountofheatinthe
connectionwhichfinallycausedthebreakage.Staytuned.

SolarSilliness
WhenweinstalledthepanelsonourhouseroofIhadtheexpectationthatwecouldallowthemtosittherewithout
aworryorcareandtogenerateelectricityduringdaylighthoursforthenexttwentyfiveyearswhentheguarantee
runsout.Thattheyoughttobeexposedtounshadedsunlightwasobvious,butmyearlydiscoverythatinorderto
achievemaximumoutputtheyneedalsotoberinsedperiodicallywasanearlylessoninthemaintenanceofsolar
panels.Ihavebeenmorerecentlysurprisedthatthesetwopointsarenotfullyappreciatedbyeveryone,noteven
some"experts."

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Asmorepeople
installPVsystemsit
standstoreasonthat
somewillmake
informedchoicesand
otherswillnot.Itis
withmorethana
littleamusementthen
thatonecanfind
someratherlargebut
illconceived
installationscarried
outbypeopleone
wouldthinkshould
knowbetter.Hereis
anambitiousprivate
installationof
approximately35
kWonanapartmenthouseinSantaMonica,California,consistingofboth
verticallyandhorizontallymountedpanels.Theverticalpanelsfacesouthwest
anddonotreceivedirectsunlightuntillateeachmorning.Moreover,neitherthe
verticalpanelsnorthehorizontalpanelsattherightaretiltedtowardthesouth
attheangleoflatitude.Theshadowscastbythe3palmtreesandtheeucalyptus
tree(right)forthebetterpartofthedayalmostcertainlywillhavean
attenuatingeffectontheenergyoutputhowmuchwouldbeafunctionofthe
internalseries/parallelcircuitrybutcouldbedeterminedwithasimulated
equivalentunshadedsystem.Theredoesseemtobeacleaningschedulein
placejudgingfromthebluecrystallineappearanceofthepanels'surfaces,at
left.
Theshadingofone'ssolar
panelsbyaneighbor'strees
canrisetoalitigiouslevelif
onelivesinCalifornia.The
SolarShadeControlAct,
signedbythegovernorin1978,banstreesorshrubsfrom
shadingmorethan10percentofaneighbor'ssolarpanels
between10a.m.and2p.m.andincludesshadingonpanels
installedafterthetreeswereplantedifthetreesgrowtosucha
heighttoproduceshadewhichexceedsthatwhichisallowedby
thelaw.Arecentcelebratedcaseinvokingthatlawinvolves
neighborsinacommunitynearSanFrancisco.NeighborA
plantedeightredwoodtrees,B,between1997and1999.
NeighborCinstalleda10kWphotovoltaicsolarpanelsystem,C,
in2001.Redwoodtrees,B,grewuntiltheirshade,D,exceeded
thatwhichisallowedbytheSolarShadeControlAct.In
December2007,SantaClaraCountySuperiorCourtJudgeKurt
Kumliruledthatsixofthetreescanremainandthatthetwo
generatingthemostshademustberemoved.Itwasreportedon
July23,2008byKGOTVthatGovernorSchwarzeneggerhas
settledtheconflictbysigningabillwhichstatesthatatreewhich
castsashadowontoaneighbor'ssolarpanelwillnolongerhave
tobecutdown,aslongasthetreeswereplantedbeforethepanels
wereinstalled.
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TheCaliforniaDepartmentofTransportation
buildinginLosAngeles(right)hasasystem
ofpanelssandwichedinacasingofbullet
proofglassonthesouthface,butnoticein
thecloseupthateachrankofpanels
shadowstheonebelow.Moreover,thereis
nocleaningschedulefortheglasssurface.If
onecoulddependonfrequentinundations
blowingfromthesouththenthesepanels
wouldbeperiodicallycleaned,butthatkind
ofweatherdoesn'thappeninsouthern
California.Wehavelengthyperiodswithout
rainandwhenthestormsdocomethey're
moreoftenintheformofverticaldrizzles
whichwillverydefinitelycleanthe
uppermostrankofpanelsbutdolittlegood
fortheonesbelow.

TheLosAngelesConventionCenterhasa
systemwhichwasinstalledbytheL.A.
DepartmentofWaterandPower.Thepanels
wereplacedaroundtheperipheryofthe
buildingwellbelowtheroofline(Iwould
estimate47meters).Thepanelswhichare
mountedontheeastandwestsidesreceivenodirectsunlightforabouthalfofeachday.Theonesmountedonthe
westsideandshowninthephotographattherightareintheshadeuntilearlyafternoon.

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Asystemconsistingof3872300wattpanels(Schott
ASE300DGF/50)yieldingaratedpoweroutputof
1162kilowattswasrecentlyinstalledonthecampus
ofCSUFresnooverParkingLotV.Thegeneral
contractorforthis
installationwas
ChevronEnergy
Solutions.Theowner
ofthepanelsis
MMARenewable
Ventureswithwhich
thecampushas
enteredintoa20
yearpowerpurchase
agreementata
startingrateof$0.16
perkilowatthourand
a2%annualinflation
adjustment.An
examinationof
currentratespaidby
bigusersof
electricitymakesa
rateof$0.16per
kilowatthourappear
tobeabitpricey.
Notethatthereseems
tobeaslighttilt
towardthesouthof
12degrees,possiblywithdrainageinmind.

However,intheimageattherightwhichhashaditsbrightnessreducedandcontrastincreased,theeffectofsuch
drainagewheremorningdewandoccasionaldrizzlesaretheonlysourcesofprecipitationforseveralmonths
runningisadistinctresiduewhichbuildsupoverthecellsatthelowestelevationofeachsetofpanelsegments.It
isnotclearatthiswritingifthereisaprogramofroutinerinsinginplace.

Here'soneworthmentioning.This205kilowattarrayisinWashington,D.C.andissaidtocomprise891230W
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solarpanels.Sure
enough,891x230/
1000=204.93
kilowatts.But
Washington,D.C.is
atlatitude38o53'
northwhichmeans
thatattheverybest,
theratedpower
outputofhorizontal
panelswillbe
attenuatedbyan
averagefactorof
cosine(38o53')=
0.78,decreasingthe
figureaboveto159.6
kilowatts.Judging
fromtheimageatthe
right,itwouldappear
thatthereisn'tthe
slightestindicationoftiltsoastoallowthepanelstoselfcleanintheannualrainfallof39.3inches.(100cm).The
averagesolarenergyinWashington,D.C.isabout73%thatofsouthernCalifornia,soitcouldbearguedthat
horizontalpanelswillgainalittlefromthediffusesunlightthroughthefrequentcloudcoveroverWashington,
D.C.,butmostlikelythegainwillbemorethanoffsetbythelossduetothelackoftiltonsunnydays.Moreover,
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onewouldexpectthedustfallonthesepanelstoturntomudonthesurface,notunlikesomeoftheotherexamples
inthissection,untilthepanelguysarrivetogivethemapowerrinse.Whereisthisillconceivedinstallation,Ihear
youask?Itisontheroofoftheheadquartersofthe...waitforit...U.S.DepartmentofEnergy.
This
installation
maybefound
abovethetop
levelofa
parking
structureon
Holliston
Avenueat
Caltechin
Pasadena,
California.It
consistsof
1404170wattSuntechSTP170S24/Ab1panels,givingatotalratedpoweroutputof238.68kilowatts.Thesignin
thephotoatthedrivewayclaims199kilowatts.ItwasinstalledbyEISolutions.Notethatthepanelsaremounted
horizontally.Whatisnotclearfromtheimageisthattheonlypracticalaccesstothepanelsforperiodicrinsing
wouldhavetobebyhydraulicliftontheeastandwestsides.Theinstallationrunsnearlythelengthofthestructure
andthelimitedaccesstothepanelsurfaceatthenorthandsouthendswouldmakeperiodicrinsingoftheentire
panelsurfaceimpracticalfromthoseaccesspoints.ArepresentativeofSuntechEnergySolutionspointsoutthat
wheretherealizationofinstallationssuchasthis,includingtheexecutionof"powerpurchaseagreements"by
investorgroups,areconcerned,optimizingenergyoutputisonlyoneofavarietyofconsiderations.Theothersare
thelevelandconditionsofanyproductionrebate,timeofuseenergytariffsbytheelectricalutility,financing
requirementsfortheareaavailableandthestatedobjectivesoftheclient.Thatis,giventhesometimesconflicting
agendasencounteredwhenputtingtogetheraninvestorgrouptorealizeaninstallationsuchasthis,otherexigencies
havetobeconsidered.

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ACaseStudy
Alargesystem(557
kW)wasrecently
installedonthe
campusofCSU
DominguezHillsby
SunEdison.There
are3279panels,each
ratedat170watts,
bringingthe
maximumrated
poweroutputto
557,430wattsor
557.43kilowatts.
Thepanelshavebeen
mountednearly
horizontallyover
ParkingLot1.Atour
latitudeof34degrees
norththeyoughtto
havebeentilted
towardthesouthby
34degreesifthe
objectiveisto
maximizethegenerationofenergy.Atnoonatourlatitudeonthesummersolsticethesunis10.5degreesfromthe
vertical.Atnoononthewintersolsticeitis57.5degreesfromthevertical.Assuming0%lossifthepanelsare
pointingdirectlyatthesun,horizontalpanelssufferapowerlossof1.7%and46.3%atnoononthesummerand
wintersolstices,respectively,foranaverageannuallossof24%.Ontheotherhand,underTimeofUse(TOU)
billing(discussedabove),theOnpeakperiodisfrom10amto6pmwhentheratechargedishigherandifthe
objectiveistomaximizeone's$creditthepanelsoughttobetiltedappropriatelyinasouthwesterlydirection.Even
thoughweoftengetbrilliantsunlightinsouthernCaliforniafrom7amto10am,thattimeperiodstillfallsinthe
categoryofOffpeak.

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Butitgetsworsethanthat.Thelackoftiltmeans
thatthereisnonaturalgravityrunoffforrainor
rinsewater.Ifitappearstoyouthatfromtheacute
angleofviewinthephotoabovethesurfacecoloris
somethingotherthanthetypicalmetallicblueofa
siliconphotovoltaiccell,youwouldberight.It
appears(atthiswritinginthefallof2006)thatthere
hasbeennorinsingservicetomaintainmaximum
output.Thesurfacehasbeenallowedtocollectthe
dustfallofgreaterLosAngelessinceinstallation
aroundfourmonthsagoduringwhichtimetherehas
beennorainfall.Itisnotclearatthiswritingwhat
thedarkspotsinthemiddleofseveralofthepanels
represent,butthebuildupofdirtcertainlydoesn't
bodewellfortheoveralloutputofthepanelarray.It
isalsonotclearatthiswritingwhosuffersthe
greatestdisadvantage(theuniversityorthepower
company)ifthepoweroutputdropssignificantly
duetolackofmaintenance.Onlyknowledgeofthe
specificbillingarrangementworkedoutinthe
contractwouldrevealthatinformation.
Dorealdatasupportthedepressingconclusion
expressedabove?Well,yes,generally.OnFebruary
28,2007,acloudlessdayfrom10amtoearly
afternoon,thesystemonourrooftoppeakedat
10:51amwithanaveragepoweroutputof2271
wattsoverthe15minuteinterval(7minuteson
eitherside)whichbracketedthemaximumof2284
watts.Takingthetheoreticalmaximumpower
outputspecificationofthesepanels,the2271watt
averagetranslatesto[2271/(18x165)]x100=
76.5%.Onthatsamedaythepoweroftheuniversity
systempeakedat12:15pm,showingapoweroutputof319,841watts.Carryingoutanequivalentcalculationone
gets[318,841/(3279x170)]x100=57.4%,avaluediminished,Iwouldoffer,bythelackoftiltofthepanelsatthe
angleofourlatitude.Wearestymiedatthispointfromlookingmorecloselyatthesefiguresandtryingtoestablish
howmuchthediminishedvalueiscausedbythelackoftiltandhowmuchbydustfallbecausethetiltofthe
domesticrooftopsystemisitselfnotideal.Onewouldneedtoobservetheoutputofatleastone170wattpanelthe
normalvectorofwhichispointingdirectlyatthesunatthetimeofmaximumpowerbythearrayof3279panelsto
establishacredibleattenuationofpowerowingbothtotiltaswellasdustfall.
Hereistheoneyearlinechartofenergygeneratedvs.datefortheuniversitysystem.

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Notethetwodiscontinuitiesidentifiedbythearrows.Theyrepresenttheincreasedoutputfollowingrinsing.That
weareexperiencingthedriestyearsincerecordshavebeenkeptstartinginthelatterpartofthenineteenthcentury,
we'vehadmanycloudlessdays.Allmaximaonthechartabovearerepresentativeofenergyoutputoncloudless
days.Takingthehighestadjacentmaximabeforeandaftercleaning,wehave10/27/2006and10/28/2006,1644
kwhand1930kwh.Thelowervalueis85.2%oftheuppervalue.Againon3/15/2007and3/16/2007wehave2222
kwhand2599kwhrespectively.Thelowvalueis85.5%ofthehighervalue,suggestingthattheeventwhich
triggersrinsingbythemaintenancecrewisa15%dropfrommaximumexpectedvalue.Theverylowenergy
outputsandthoseatzeroareunexplained.Theyareeitheroutagesofthepanelsystemforpartorallofthedayor
therewasafailureofthedatacollectionsystem.Noexplanationisavailableatthiswriting.
Conclusion
Soastogainmaximumadvantagefromaninstalledsystemofphotovoltaicpanels,thefollowingpreliminary
conclusionscanbemade.Mostunfortunately,ifyouarenotaresidentoftheStateofCalifornia,only(2),(3)and
possibly(1)makeanysense.Readon:
1.Ifyouareconnectedtoagrid,installasystemsufficientlylargetogenerateasmuchenergyasyouconsume
duringsummerandwinterperiods,becauseifyourratevariesbytimeofdayandbyseason,andyoutake
advantageofgeneratingmoreenergythanyouconsumeduringsummerdaylighthours,whentherateisthe
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highest,andconsumemorethanyougenerateduringlongwinternightswhentherateislower,thereisno
guaranteethatsucharateschedulewillremaintoyouradvantageoverthelongterm.Inanycase,youneedtostart
thinkingaboutaPlanBtouseuptheenergycredityoubuildupthroughouttheyearandpossiblytoinstallmore
panelsifyoufindyourselfsuddenlyhavingtopayforelectricity.
2.Tiltyourpanelstowardthesouth(inthenorthernhemisphere)ortowardthenorth(inthesouthernhemisphere)
attheangleofyourlatitude.
3.Regularlyrinseyourpanelstokeepthemcleanandtomaximizetheiroutput.
4.Ifthepanelsmeetallofyourelectricalenergyneeds,thatis,ifenergyconsumptionisclosetoenergygeneration,
thenthedecisiontoswitchto"TimeofUse"meteringmakessenseonlyiftheWinterOffPeakrateissomuch
lowerthantheSummerOnPeakratethatsomePlanBforusinguptheaccruedcreditbecomesfinancially
appealing.
5.Don'toptfor"TimeofUse"meteringifyourpanelsproducesomewhatlessthanyourelectricityrequirement
duringthewinter,butmorethanyouuseduringthesummerbecauseaslightchangeinrateofoneperiodvs.
anothercanmakethedifferencebetweenanannualenergycreditandanunwelcomeelectricitybill.Moreover,if
theelectriccompanyeliminatesthemethodyouhaveusedtotrackyourcredit/debitstatusbyintroducinga"new
andimproved"electricitystatementand/orachangeinrateforoneormoreperiodswithoutpriorannouncement,
you'llbe,inourvernacular,upacreekwithoutapaddle.
6.IfyourpanelsproduceonlyasmallfractionoftheelectricalenergyyouusethroughouttheyearthendoNOT
switchtoTOUmetering.Doingsowouldsubjectyoutotheinflated"SummerOnPeak"ratewhichatthiswriting
isontheorderofthreetimestheflatrate.
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