Self-help book for WLAN installers/providers

Introduction
To meet the needs of many people interested in building WLAN networks, we have decided to
collect in one article a bit of theory and a lot of practical information on quick and effective
implementation of wireless networks working in 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands (802.11).
WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network) means technology that allows to build wireless data
networks with satisfactory parameters and quite large ranges of operation at a comparatively low
cost. Additional advantage of this technology is short time needed for its implementation.
The potential of WLANs and its use

wireless access to a local network in home, office, business etc.

wireless access to the Net in public space, e.g. in airports, stations, cafes etc. (hot-spot)

wireless point-to-point links (connecting LAN networks, telemetry, remote control,

remote monitoring)

wireless access to the Internet (both in cities and in the country)

emergency communications links (wireless backup of wired networks)

WLAN standards
We will describe some solutions compliant to the following three standards:

802.11a - in 5 GHz band: 5.150 - 5.350 GHz and 5.470 - 5.725 GHz, transfer rate up to
54 Mbps;

802.11b - in 2.4 GHz band: 2.4 - 2.483 GHz, transfer rate up to 11 Mbps;

802.11g - in 2.4 GHz band: 2.4 - 2.483 GHz, transfer rate up to 54 Mbps;

However, other standards are used as well:

802.11f - IAPP - Inter Access Point Protocol - for cooperation between access points;

802.11i - standard defining new security methods in wireless networks;

802.11n - standard for transmitting multimedia in homes using MIMO technology, up to

300 Mbps;

802.11e - standard defining QoS - support for high quality of services;

802.16 - WiMax standard for backbone networks of high capacity

Wireless network range

It should be realized that the range of a wireless network depends on many factors; we can have
an influence on some of them and the rest is unknown. The range of a wireless network depends
on:
1. Factors related to the devices used:

output power (it has been decided by the manufacturer),

cable attenuation (depends on the cable and its length),

gain of the antennas (given by the manufacturer),

sensitivity of the devices (given by the manufacturer).

2. External factors:

attenuation between antennas (can be estimated basing on FSL model);

interferences from other devices (can't be predicted - some additional margin of safety
needs to be provided for their compensation),

influence of physical barriers (walls, floors, trees etc.)

So, if we want to know what would be the effective range of our network we have to gather the
information mentioned above and carry out simple calculations showed in the further part of this
self-help book.
Propagation of radio waves
Fresnel zone
Fresnel zone is one of the most important concepts connected with propagation of
electromagnetic waves, which is indispensable to assess parameters of any wireless link. It is the
area actively participating in transmission of radio signal energy. Shape of this area is an ellipse
in longitudinal section, and circle in cross-section. Radius of this circle is a function of the ratio
of distances of the cross-section to the antennas - it has the maximum value in the middle of the
link. The importance of the first Fresnel zone comes from the fact that almost all energy of the
signal is conveyed via this space.

The shape of Fresnel zone. R1 is the radius of the I zone.

[m];

where:

dkm = d1km+d2km, is the distance between masts in km

d1km - distance from the first antenna in km

d2km - distance from the second antenna in km

Wrongly made installation. The installer didn't ensure mutual visibility of antennas. The radio
link does not work.

Another example of wrongly made installation. Presence of barriers in the first Fresnel zone
causes that radio link still doesn't work properly.

Installation made correctly. Visibility of antennas and no barriers in the first Fresnel zone. The
link has been set up properly.
In practice, no obstacles in the central 60% of the I Fresnel zone guarantee quite minimal power
loss.
Relationship of the I Fresnel zone radius as the function of the radio link length,
for systems working in 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz band (table).
60% of the I Fresnel zone radius
(0.6R1[m])
Radio link length
[km]
2.4 GHz

5 GHz

0.1

1.1

0.7

0.2

1.5

1.0

0.5

2.4

1.6

3.4

2.3

4.7

3.3

5.8

4.0

6.7

4.6

7.5

5.2

8.2

5.7

8.9

6.1

9.5

6.6

10.1

7.0

10

10.6

7.3

Curvature of the Earth

In the case of distances reaching a few kilometers and more, it is needed to include curvature of
the ground. For the distance equal 5 km the height of barriers in the middle of link raises by 1m
(let's represent the quantity as curvature factor) and for 10km distance - yet 4 m. Antennas should
be situated at or slightly above the minimum height fulfilling the condition:
Height of antennas = elevation of the highest barrier on the route + 0.6 R1 + curvature factor
At longer distances, more precise calculations should be performed, based on hypsometric
profile of terrain and methods including effects of beam refraction and multiple reflections.
Attenuation of gases and rain
These phenomena are well known and recognized as disadvantageous for proper work of radio
systems; in practice they are harmless for 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz WLAN systems.
FSL model and attenuation in free space
The basic problem is to estimate attenuation between transmitter and receiver. When we design
outdoor link we can use for this purpose FSL model. It is propagation model of free space, which
assumes that:

there is no barrier between transmitter and receiver,

reflected waves don't influence the receiver,

the fist Fresnel zone isn't covered,

there aren't taken into consideration outer interferences and fading.

Attenuation of free space is defined as the loss of signal caused by spherical dispersion of radio
waves in space.
FSL for the frequency of 2.4 GHz is determined by the pattern:
Lp [dB] = 100 + 20log10 D, where D - distance
FSL for frequency 5.4 GHz is determined by the pattern:
Lp [dB] = 106 + 20log10 D, where D - distance
Attenuation of free space and 6dB rule
Radio signal will weaken during its propagation in space, as it moves away from transmission
antenna. Determination of attenuation of radio signal is the next step in the designing process.

Distanc

0.1

0.2

0.5

10
6 dB rule says that double increment in distance causes increase of signal attenuation by 6 dB
and double reduction of distance causes increase of signal level by 6dB. Simplicity of this rule
allows for easy memorization of the relation. It is enough to remember that in 2.4 GHz band the
attenuation at the distance of 1 km is 100 dB.
So, using the 6 dB rule, we will get for distances 2, 4, 8 km attenuation values of 106, 112, 118
dB respectively. For distances 500, 250, 125 m, the attenuation will be 94, 88, 82 dB adequately.
The 6 dB rule is also applicable for 5 GHz band and other bands, however, the attenuation in the
5 GHz band for a 1 km distance will be 106 dB, so it means that the 6 dB rule is also applicable
in the frequency domain.
Other propagation models
For professional applications engineers use highly sophisticated models, developed for specific
conditions and environments, such as:

propagation model with covered Fresnel zone

propagation model including attenuation of walls inside buildings

It is not possible to use such models in amateur calculations.

RSL calculations

The basis for range calculation is creation of the radio link balance in order to obtain the RSL
value (received signal level).

Elements of energetic balance of a link:

TSL[dBm] - transmitter signal level (transmitter output power)

RSL[dBm] - received signal level

FSL[dB] - free space loss

GT[dBi] - transmitting antenna gain

GR[dBi] - receiving antenna gain

CLT[dB] - loss of transmitted signal in cable and connectors

CLR[dB] - loss of received signal in cable and connectors

The transmitter sends high frequency signal with TSL[dBm] power level via cable link with
CLT[dB] attenuation to transmitting antenna input. Then the antenna radiates the signal and
simultaneously focuses it in half power angle, this way achieving amplification effect, given as
the gain of the antenna GT[dBi]. Radio wave is attenuated by the value FSL[dB] after it passes
distance d [km]. Receiving antenna changes electromagnetic wave into received signal that is
increased thanks to the gain of receiving antenna GR[dBi]. After the signal passes through the
cable link with CLR[dB] loss to the receiver, it finally has the RSL[dBm] level.
RSL[dBm]= TSL - CLT + GT - FSL + GR - CLR
To secure operation of wireless link against short power drops (or fluctuations), into the
calculation there is put additional FM parameter (fade margin). Typical value of this parameter is
equal 10 dB.
FM = RSL- RSLFM

RSLFM means the minimum level of the received signal (when a fading occurs). For example, if
we want to reach RSLFM = -80 dBm, it is required that the radio link has to obtain RSL = -70
dBm
Our goal is to choose such antennas and equipment that would guarantee the required level of
signal (-80 dBm) for most of the time. Most of wireless WLAN devices ensure highest possible
speed then.
Selection of devices - an example
Antennas for 2.4 GHz band have usually gain between 7 dBi and 24 dBi. For this band the
commonly used cables are H-155 E1170, with attenuation 49.6 dB/100 m, and H-1000 E1192
with attenuation 21.5 dB/100 m.
However, there are already available latest cables up to 6 GHz. These cables are recommended
for use in new installations instead of above mentioned cables - Tri-Lan 240 (E1171) and Tri-Lan
400
WLL
E1173.
More about cables used with WLAN
Use of coaxial cables in WLAN systems

equipment

you

can find

in the

article:

In 5 GHz band, antennas reach energetic gain from 10 dBi to 32 dBi. So the gain is generally a
little higher in comparison to 2.4 GHz band.
As an example - we want to set up radio link over 2 km distance and achieve the best possible
parameters of the connection. We use devices with 18 dBm output power. The length of the cable
connecting antenna with WLAN device is 7 m for both sides of the link. We can read from the
table that for these parameters the sum of GT and GR gain shouldn't be less than 21.65 dB. From
the next table we know that we should use ATK8 A7120 antennas.
Caution. Some manufacturers, for marketing purposes, intentionally overestimate energetic gain
of antennas. It may cause poor work of radio links using such antennas, drop in transmission
speed and even momentary loss of connection. So, the best solution is to use antennas which
have been tested in laboratory and which have relevant documents proving these tests. Besides
that, existence of a number of neighbor wireless networks may cause degradation of our signal.
Therefore it is sometimes better to increase the criterion for FM and assume FM=20 dB.
Range of radio link [km]
Transmitter
power
[dBm]

16

Type
of cable

H-155

Length
of cable [m]
0.5

10

15

11.38

17.38

23.38

26.88

29.38

32.98

35.48

37.38

40.88

15.34

21.34

27.34

30.84

33.34

36.94

39.44

41.34

44.84

H-1000

H-155

15

23.28

29.28

35.28

38.78

41.28

44.88

47.38

49.28

52.78

9.79

15.79

21.79

25.29

27.79

31.39

33.89

35.79

39.29

11.65

17.65

23.65

27.15

29.65

33.25

35.75

37.65

41.15

15

15.36

21.36

27.36

30.86

33.36

36.96

39.46

41.36

44.86

9.38

15.38

21.38

24.88

27.38

30.98

33.48

35.38

38.88

13.34

19.34

25.34

28.84

31.34

34.94

37.44

39.34

42.84

15

21.28

27.28

33.28

36.78

39.28

42.88

45.38

47.28

50.78

7.79

13.79

19.79

23.29

25.79

29.39

31.89

33.79

37.29

9.65

15.65

21.65

25.15

27.65

31.25

33.75

35.65

39.15

15

13.36

19.36

25.36

28.86

31.36

34.96

37.46

39.36

42.86

7.38

13.38

19.38

22.88

25.38

28.98

31.48

33.38

36.88

11.34

17.34

23.34

26.84

29.34

32.94

35.44

37.34

40.84

15

19.28

25.28

31.28

34.78

37.28

40.88

43.38

45.28

48.78

5.79

11.79

17.79

21.29

23.79

27.39

29.89

31.79

35.29

18

H-1000

20

H-155

H-1000

7.65

13.65

19.65

23.15

25.65

29.25

31.75

33.65

37.15

15

11.36

17.36

23.36

26.86

29.36

32.96

35.46

37.36

40.86

Table indicating required gain of radio link when there are given: length of the link, transmitter
power, type and total length of the used cable
Total required gain
of radio link

14

22

26

28

33

48
Above values are theoretical rather, the practical range of links working in 2.4 GHz band
wouldn't exceed 2 km. The reason is limitation of radiated power, max. 100 mW EIRP (20 dBm),
and usually congested band, which requires to adopt high FM value. As a rule, it is more
advantageous to use lower power transmitter and antenna with higher gain than the other way
round.
EIRP and choice of devices
Will we break the law using transmitting antenna with very high energetic gain? It should be
remarked that regulations don't inform about limits of gain, which can't be exceeded.
So how is it possible that one person can have an antenna with 15 dBi gain, when another breaks
the
law
installing
antenna
having
10
dBi
gain?

Why some companies indicate, in compliance certificate, antenna with 15 dBi gain, when others
recommend antennas with10 dBi gain?
The answer for this questions involves the regulations regarding maximal acceptable value of
radiated power - EIRP. In many countries the maximum value of EIRP that can be radiated
without a special license is 100 mW (20 dBm) in 2.4 GHz band, 200 mW in 5.150-5.250 GHz,
and 1 W (30 dBm) in 5.47-5.725 GHz band. But the same levels of EIRP can be achieved in
many ways, according to the formulas:
EIRP[dB] 2.4G = Transmitter power [dBm] - (attenuation of connectors [dB] + attenuation of
cable [dB]) + gain of antenna [dBi] <= 20dBm
EIRP[dB]5G = Transmitter power [dBm] - (attenuation of connectors [dB] + attenuation of
cable [dB]) + gain of antenna [dBi] <= 30dBm
In order not to exceed maximum permissible EIRP value, there have to be selected adequate
parameters:

transmitter power,

type and length of cables

gain of antenna.

It's worth stressing again that it is much more advantageous to use lower power transmitter and
the antenna with higher gain than the other way round. Why? From the link balance we see that
desired radiated power level can be achieved in any way, however the base station isn't only a
transmitter, but also a receiver, and then, when it receives signal from a client, no matter the
power has been transmitted, only sensitivity of the receiver and gain of the antenna is important.
So the gain of antennas is important both during transmitting and during receiving.
The output power level is an important issue, too. Usually it seems that the higher power the
better results. But it's not the truth. There is some optimal power level adjusted for the location of
clients. Too high transmitting power means needless transmission of our signal beyond the
desired area. We can interfere networks working far away from us. We will also be vulnerable to
attacks on our network performed by people that are quite a long way from us and thus difficult
to spot.
The gains of client stations should also be selected carefully. The client that uses a high gain
antenna close to the base station, although receives strong signal, it may during transmission also
interfere other, even distant networks. Besides that, it will "see" those networks and what it
implies, they will cause additional noise (the higher noise the larger number of errors and lower
transmission speed), or it will even share with them the transmission medium - which will also
decrease speed. On the other hand, client stations with lower gain, optimal for the specific
distance, will only see the base station and won't cause such problems.
Connectors
Most of WLAN devices are equipped with SMA-RP connectors, whilst outdoor antennas have
N-type connectors. Using H-155 cable it is needed to terminate it with SMA RP connector on

one side, and adequate male or female connector (depending on the antenna) on the other side. If
we don't have crimping tool we should choose twist-on connectors. However, crimp-on
connectors are preferred for their reliability.
N

connectors

on

H-155

and

Tri-Lan

240

connectors

on

H-1000

and

Tri-Lan

400

SMA/RP connectors on H-155 and Tri-Lan

Crimping

tools

for

H-155

and

Tri-Lan

240

Crimping

tools

for

H-1000

and

Tri-Lan

400

The installer also needs a soldering iron.

The E83220 connector on H-155 cable

Antenna connectors

The ways of terminating cables can be found here. After we have prepared the cable, we need to
solder the inner wire, then put the central tip on and heat it with a soldering iron.
Selecting a radio channel
2.4 GHz band consists of 13 channels, from which only three are separated from one another. It
means that only maximum three WLAN networks can work in a particular area. The installer of a
new network should check for free channels before he starts to build the WLAN system. In the
case of free channels, he should choose the channel with the lowest level of noise/interference.

Arrangement of channels in 2.4 GHz band. Only 3 channels of total 13 do not overlay, e.g. 1, 7,
13; 1,6,11; 1, 6, 12; 1, 6, 13.
Practical tests show that mutual influence of two networks working in the same area depends on
the chosen channels and decreases with increasing the space between the channels. When both
networks use the same channel, they have up to half of the maximum capacity. The worst case is
when they use neighboring channels - their signals make mutually a high level noise that
dramatically reduces the effective transfer rate to about 20% of their capacity. 4-channel spacing
allows for 70% efficiency. Unfortunately, theoretically independent channels also have certain
influence on each other.
Choice of polarization
There are two popular variants of polarization: circle and linear. Circle polarization means that
the end of the vector of electricity field draws a circle in space. Circle polarization can be
dextrorotary or levorotatory. Radio systems with dextrorotary polarization don't influence
systems with levorotatory polarization and vice versa.

Circle polarizations: dextrorotary and levorotatory

In the case of linear polarization, the electric field vector oscillates only in one plane. It is
horizontal or vertical plane.
Radio systems with horizontal polarization don't affect systems with vertical polarization, and
vice versa, as these polarizations are orthogonal. This feature allows doubling the number of
radio systems in one place.
Caution. It is not allowed to use antennas with orthogonal polarization i.e. an antenna with
horizontal polarization at one side of a link and with vertical polarization at the other side of the
link. When it comes to cooperation of circle polarization antennas with linear polarization
antennas - it is possible - however with 3dB power loss.
Noise
In practice, noise is the sum of undesired radio signals, i.e. interferences. Too big level of noise
can spoil parameters of any radio link or even make the link unserviceable. Even well balanced
radio link may appear to be useless for the reason of high noise level. The designer has no
influence on the level of ambient noise. So, how can we protect ourselves against interferences?
The simplest way to defend our link against them is finding less congested radio channel.
Another way is to select antennas with higher gain, to improve signal to noise ratio (S/N).

The throughput of a wireless link depends on the power level of the received signal and S/N
ratio (It is marked as signal strength and signal quality in the drawing.) To reach maximal speed
(11 Mbps) the indicator should be in green field (Excellent). If the level of noise increases, even
a high value of received signal won't protect us from bandwidth loss.
Effective transfer rate
Because WLAN system is based on CSMA/CA techniques and uses transmission with ACK
confirmation, the end user connected to the network via e.g. 11 Mbps link cannot reach real file
transfer higher than half the value, i.e. about 5 Mbps. Effective transfer rate of any WLAN
link is less than half of the declared bandwidth capacity of the radio channel.

Modes of operation of Access Points

Access Point may work in a few different modes. Each mode is characterized by capability (or
not) of supporting specific devices and the features collected in the table:

AP mode

LAN support
Support for
(number of clients equipped
supported
with WLAN
computers)
cards

Cooperation with APs

Wireless bridge

Yes

No

Wireless Bridge

Multiple bridge

Yes

No

Wireless Bridge

Repeater

No

Yes

Access Point

Access Point

Yes

Yes

Relay Node, AP Client

AP Client

Yes

No

Access Point

Planning of WLAN cells and the service for clients

There are a few ways to cover an area with WLAN signal. It all depends on desired range and
capability of the network.

The ways of covering an area with radio signal - sector cells and omnidirectional cell
In the case on the left we have a terrain covered by three APs and three sector antennas. Each AP
uses different frequency. In the example on the right we use a single AP with an omnidirectional

antenna. The first system can cover 6 times bigger area than the second, and can serve 3 times
more subscribers. The cost of connecting a subscriber in each of the systems will depend on the
distance from the subscriber to the base station. Subscribers who are located closer to the base
station can be equipped with low-gain antennas, which means lower cost.
The size of a cell should be chosen taking into consideration all features of the base station,
density of population in the area, and estimated degree of saturation of the market.
In practical solutions, the size of a cell is limited by the shape of the land and various barriers
like trees, chimneys, buildings etc.
Devices integrated with antennas
Wireless devices integrating active components (access points) with antennas are still gaining
popularity. They are connected with computers directly via twisted pair cables (UTP/FTP),
instead of traditional coaxial cables (between wireless modules and passive antennas) with
lengths limited to several meters (due to attenuation of RF signal). The UTP/FTP cables can be
long up to 30 m (it depends on the power requirements of the device and capacity of the power
supply using PoE option). This solution eliminates the difficult problems of running GHz coaxial
cables (low flexibility) and their attenuation.
Devices for 2.4 GHz band:
Outdoor access point TL-WA5210G High Power 2.4
GHz. Wireless data transmission can be performed in
AP, AP Router, WISP, or WISP Client mode. The
device is equipped with a high gain antenna, which,
together with the electronic board, is put in a weatherresistant housing. Thanks to the antenna with 12 dBi
gain, high output power of the transmitter (27 dBm)
and high sensitivity of the receiver, the device allows to
create long-range, stable and efficient wireless
connections.
TP-LINK TL-WA5210G N2350
Devices for 5 GHz band:
ULTIAIR devices have been designed for creating
efficient wireless IP CCTV and ISP networks.ULTIAIR
series is characterized by short delays and high
throughput. The devices operate in unlicensed 5GHz
band - no special permissions are needed.
Professional ULTIAIR devices
Common problems with WLAN networks
Reasons for no connection

Solution

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Barriers in the I Fresnel zone

Use higher masts. change locations of antennas

Wrongly calculated energetic balance Use cables of lower attenuation. e.g. instead of H-155
of the link. wrongly chosen devices
use H-1000; use antennas with higher gain

Wrong polarization of antennas

Align antennas to the same polarization

Wrong alignment of antennas

Use signal level meter during antennas' installation.

Set antennas in positions in which signals have the
highest power

High level of interferences or noise

Select radio channel with the lowest noise level.

change polarization of the link to the opposite. use
antennas with higher energetic gain. As a last resort change antennas locations.

Wrong operation of radio system

Diagnosis

Solution

A.

Loss of connection and low bandwidth

of radio link

Low value of S/N

parameter

Points 1-5 of the previous

table

B.

Low transfer rate from base station with

radio link working at maximal speed

Frequent collisions

Turn on RTS/CTS
mechanism for clients