Professional Documents
Culture Documents
S U B M I T T E D BY
S A H I L M ATH U R
B.TECH MECHANICAL
SESSION: 2009-2013
PREFACE
As a part of course curriculum of Bachelor of Technology we were asked to
undergo 6 weeks summer training in any organisation so as to give us
exposure to practical skill and competence to get us familiar with various
activities taking place in the organisation.
I have put my sincere efforts to accomplish my objectives within the
stipulated time. I have worked to my optimum potential to achieve desired
goals. Being neophytes in the highly competitive world of technology, I
came across some difficulties to make my objective a reality. With the kind
help and genuine interest and the guidance of my supervisor. I tried my level
best to conduct a research to gain a thorough knowledge about the project. I
put the best of my efforts to bring out this piece of work. If anywhere
something is found unacceptable or unnecessary to the theme; valuable
suggestions are thankfully acknowledged.
Thanks and regards
Yours sincerely
Sahil Mathur
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my gratitude to all the people who provided me with
support and guidance throughout the course of my summer internship
program.
Firstly I wish to thank Mr. Mahajan (Head-Plant Production), Mr. Subhash
Chowdhry (Head-Machining dept.) for giving me an opportunity to undergo
summer training at YAMAHA MOTOR INDIA Pvt. Ltd.,19/6 Mathura
Road, Faridabad. I am also deeply indebted to Mr. Parvinder Gupta of
Head Cylinder dept. without the supervision and continued guidance of
whom it wouldnt have been possible to complete this project.
I would also like to thank Mr. C.V. Sharma for providing me this wonderful
opportunity to work with the YAMAHA family.
(SAHIL MATHUR)
INDEX
1) Preface
2) Acknowledgement
3) Chapters:Chapter 1 Introduction
Chapter 2 - Manufacturing
Chapter 3 Gear Hobbing
Chapter 4 Cam Shaft
Chapter 5 Heat Treatment
Chapter 6 Electroplating
4) Bibleography
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
OVERVIEW - INDIAN AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY
Over a period of more than two decades the Indian Automobile industry has
been driving its own growth through phases. The entry of Suzuki
Corporation in Indian passenger car manufacturing is often pointed as the
first sign of India turning to a market economy. Since then the automobile
sector witnessed rapid growth year after year. By late-90's the industry
reached self reliance in engine and component manufacturing from the
status of large scale importer.
With comparatively higher rate of economic growth rate index against that
of great global powers, India has become a hub of domestic and exports
business. The automobile sector has been contributing its share to the
shining economic performance of India in the recent years.
With the Indian middle class earning higher per capita income, more people are
ready to own private vehicles including cars and two-wheelers. Product
movements and manned services have boosted in the sales of medium and sized
commercial vehicles for passenger and goods transport. Side by side with fresh
vehicle sales growth, the automotive components sector has witnessed big
growth. The domestic auto components consumption has crossed rupees 9000
crores and an export of one half size of this figure
Overview Of Automobile Industry
The Indian automobile industry is going through a technological change
where each firm is engaged in changing its processes and technologies to
sustain the competitive advantage and provide customers with the optimized
products and services. Starting from the two wheelers, trucks, and tractors to
the multi utility vehicles, commercial vehicles and the luxury vehicles, the
Indian automobile industry has achieved tremendous amount of success in the
recent years.
As per Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers (SIAM) the market
share of each segment of the industry is as follows:
The market shares of the segments of the automobile industry
Consistent growth and dedication have made the Indian automobile industry
the second- largest tractor and two-wheeler manufacturer in the world. It is
also the fifth-largest commercial vehicle manufacturer in the world. The
The key players like Hindustan Motors, Maruti Udyog, Fiat India Private
Ltd, Tata Motors, Bajaj Motors, Hero Motors, Ashok Leyland, Mahindra &
Mahindra have been dominating the vehicle industry. A few of the foreign
players like Toyota Kirloskar Motor Ltd., Skoda India Private Ltd., Honda
Siel Cars India Ltd. have also entered the market and have catered to the
customers needs to a large extent.
and
leading
producer
of
audio/visual
products,
snow mobiles, golf carts, outboard engines, and water vehicles, under the
brand name of Yamaha as well.
In 1954 production of the first motorcycles began, a simple 125cc singlecylinder two-stroke. It was a copy of the German DKW design, which the
British BSA Company had also copied in the post-war era and manufactured
as the Bantam.
The first Yamaha, the YAI, known to Japanese enthusiasts as Akatombo,
the "Red Dragonfly", established a reputation as a well-built and reliable
machine. Racing successes helped boost its popularity and a second
machine, the 175cc YCI was soon in production.
The first Yamaha-designed motorcycle was the twin-cylinder YDI
produced in 1957. The racing version, producing 20bhp, won the Mount
Asama race that year. Production was still modest at 15,811 motorcycles, far
less than Honda or Suzuki.
By 1960 production had increased 600% to 138,000 motorcycles. In Japan
a period of recession followed during which Yamaha, and the other major
Japanese manufacturers, increased their exports so that they would not be so
dependent on the home market.
To help boost export sales, Yamaha sent a team to the European Grand Prix
in 1961, but it was not until the 1963 season that results were achieved.
After the Korean War the American economy was booming and Japanese
exports were increasing. In 1962 Yamaha exported 12,000 motorcycles. The
next year it was 36,000 and in 1964 production rose to 87,000.
And the XS Eleven, four-cylinder of 1977, was at the time the biggest
bike produced by a Japanese manufacturer.
Yamaha Vmax
Yamaha Tmax
Utility vehicles
Yamaha-G16-Ultima
Yamaha Snowmobile
Watercraft
Yamaha Waverunner
COMPANY PROFILE
About India Yamaha Motor Pvt. Ltd.
Yamaha made its initial foray into India in 1985. Subsequently, it
entered into a 50:50 joint-venture with the Escorts Group in
1996. However, in August 2001, Yamaha acquired its remaining
stake becoming a 100% subsidiary of Yamaha Motor Co., Ltd,
Japan (YMC). In 2008, Mitsui & Co., Ltd. entered into an
agreement with YMC to become a joint investor in the
motorcycle manufacturing company "India Yamaha Motor Private
Limited (IYM)".
IYM operates from its state-of-the-art-manufacturing units at
Surajpur in Uttar Pradesh and Faridabad in Haryana and produces
motorcycles both for domestic and export markets. With a strong
workforce of more than 2,000 employees, IYM is highly
Presently,
its
product
portfolio
includes
VMAX
(1,679cc), MT01 (1,670cc), YZF-R1 (998cc), Fazer (153cc), FZS (153cc), FZ16 (153cc), YZF-R15 (150cc), Gladiator Type SS &
RS (125cc), Gladiator Graffiti (125cc), G5 (106cc), Alba (106cc)
and Crux (106cc).
Yamaha Vmax
Yamaha MT 01
Yamaha YZF R1
Yamaha R15
Yamaha Fazer
Yamaha FZ S
Yamaha FZ16
Yamaha Alba
Yamaha Gladiator
Yamaha G5
Yamaha Crux
CORE COMPETENCIES
We put customers first in everything we do.
We take decisions keeping the customer in
mind.
Challenging Spirit
We strive for excellence in everything we do and in the quality of goods &
services we provide. We work hard to achieve what we commit & achieve
results faster than our competitors and we never give up.
Team-work
We work cohesively with our colleagues as a multi-cultural team built on
trust, respect, understanding & mutual co-operation. Everyone's contribution
is equally important for our success.
What is Kando?
Kando is a Japanese word for the simultaneous feeling of deep satisfaction
and intense excitement that people experience when they encounter
something of exceptional value.
CORPORATE GOVERNANCE
Director and Executive Officer, the remuneration and bonus system and the
overall direction of governance.
3) Internal Auditing
The Company established an Internal Control Auditing Division (consisting
of twenty-four (24) staff members as of March 25, 2009), under the direct
control of the President and Chief Executive Officer. The Division audit,
based on annual audit plans, the appropriateness, reasonableness, and
efficiency of business execution at the Company and each Group company,
and submits evaluations and makes proposals
4) Yamaha Motors Corporate Governance System and Internal Control
System (As of March 25, 2010)
CHAPTER 2- MANUFACTURING
IYM's Manufacturing facilities comprises of 2 state-of-the-art Plants at Faridabad (Haryana) and Surajpur (Uttar Pradesh). Currently 10 models roll
out of the two Yamaha Plants.
The infrastructure at both the plants supports production of motorcycles and
it's parts for the domestic as well as oversees market. At the core are the 5-S
and TPM activities that fuel our agile Manufacturing Processes. We have Inhouse facility for Machining, Welding processes as well as finishing
processes of Electroplating and Painting till the assembly line.
The stringent Quality Assurance norms ensure that our motorcycles meet the
reputed International standards of excellence in every sphere.
As an Environmentally sensitive organization we have the concept of
"Environment-friendly technology" ingrained in our Corporate Philosophy.
The Company boasts of effluent Treatment plant, Rain water - Harvesting
mechanism, a motivated forestation drive. The IS0-14001 certification is on
the anvil - early next year. All our endeavors give us reason to believe that
sustainable development for Yamaha will not remain merely an idea in
pipeline.
We believe in taking care of not only Your Motoring Needs but also the
needs of Future Generations to come.
RAW MATERIAL:The primary raw materials used in the manufacture of the body of
motorcycle are metal, plastic and rubber. The motorcycle frame is composed
almost completely of metal, as are the wheels. The frame may be overlaid
with plastic. The tires are composed of rubber. The seat is made from a
synthetic substance, such as polyurethane. The power system consists of a
four-stroke engine, a carburetor to transform incoming fuel into vapor, a
choke to control the air-fuel ratio, transmission, and drum brakes. The
transmission system contains a clutch, consisting of steel ball flyweights and
metal plates, a crankshaft, gears, pulleys, rubber belts or metal chains, and a
sprocket. The
electrical system contains a battery, ignition wires and coils, diodes, spark
plugs, head-lamps and taillights, turn signals and a horn.
A cylindrical piston, made of aluminum alloy (preferred because it is
lightweight and conducts heat well), is an essential component of the engine.
It is fitted with piston rings made of cast iron. The crankshaft and crankcase
are made of aluminum. The engine also contains a cylinder barrel, typically
made of cast iron or light alloy
THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS-
A motorcycle engine.
6. The engine is mounted in the painted frame, and various other
components are fitted as the motorcycle is sent down the assembly
line.
7. Wheels, brakes, wiring cables, foot pegs, exhaust pipes, seats,
saddlebags, lights, radios, and hundreds of other parts are installed on
the motorcycle frame. A Honda Gold Wing motorcycle, for example,
needs almost as many parts to complete it as a Honda Civic
automobile.
QUALITY CONTROL:-
At the end of the assembly line, quality control inspectors undertake a visual
inspection of the motorcycle's painted finish and fit of parts. The quality
control inspectors also feel the motorcycles with gloved hands to detect any
bumps or defects in the finish. Each motorcycle is tested on a dynamometer.
Inspectors accelerate the motorcycle from 0-60 mph. During the
acceleration, the "dyno" tests for acceleration and braking, shifting, wheel
alignment, headlight and taillight alignment and function, horn function, and
exhaust emissions. The finished product must meet international standards
for performance and safety. After the dyno test, a final inspection is made of
the completed motorcycle. The motorcycles are boxed in crates and shipped
to customers across North America and around the world.
THE FUTURE
Motorcycles remain popular and the collecting and riding of antique models
is just as popular as riding the new versions. While sleek, new versions will
continue to be produces,
On the left is a conventional aluminum cylinder with a steel liner for the
inner wall. On the right is the Yamaha "DiASil Cylinder" that needs no
liner or cylinder wall plating. As a unit well suited to the massproduction of high-performance, low-cost cylinders, the DiASil
Cylinder manufacturing technology was successful transferred to our
manufacturing base in Indonesia.
TRANSFERRING TECHNOLOGY OVERSEAS:In 2004 Yamaha Motor successfully developed for the first time in the
world a mass-production method for an all-aluminum (sleeveless, uncoated) cylinder named the "DiASil Cylinder" (*1). The production
method for this DiASil Cylinder is in fact the fruit of Yamaha's
advanced die-casting technology known as the "CF (controlled filling)
Aluminum Die Casting Technology" that we have been developing for
some years now. Conventional aluminum cylinders for motorcycles
have either a cast steel sleeve or nickel plating on the inner wall of the
cylinder to improve resistance to abrasion and prevent piston freeze-up.
With Yamaha's DiASil Cylinder no liner or plating is needed (see
photo). That makes this a mass-production aluminum cylinder with
excellent cooling performance as well as nearly full recycle-ability at
The YZF-R6's
aluminum main frame
(left) and magnesium
rear frame (above)
The hob is the cutter used to cut the teeth into the workpiece. It is cylindrical
in shape with helical cutting teeth. These teeth have grooves that run the
length of the hob, which aid in cutting and chip removal. There are also
special hobs designed for special gears such as the spline and sprocket gears.
The cross-sectional shape of the hob teeth are almost the same shape as teeth
of a rack gear that would be used with the finished product. There are slight
changes to the shape for generating purposes, such as extending the hob's
tooth length to create a clearance in the gear's roots. Each hob tooth is
relieved on the back side to reduce friction.
Most hobs are single-thread hobs, but double-, and triple-thread hobs
increase production rates. The downside is that they are not as accurate as
single-thread hobs.
This list outlines types of hobs:
Uses
Hobbing is used to make following types of finished goods:
Hobbing is used to produce most throated worm wheels, but certain tooth
profiles cannot be hobbed. If any portion of the hob profile is perpendicular
to the axis then it will have no cutting clearance generated by the usual
backing off process, and it will not cut well.
Cycloidal forms
For cycloidal gears (as used in BS978-2 Specification for fine pitch gears)
and cycloidal-type gears each module, ratio and number of teeth in
the pinion requires a different hobbing cutter so the technique is only
suitable for large volume production.
To circumvent this problem a special war-time emergency circular arc gear
standard was produced giving a series of close to cycloidal forms which
could be cut with a single hob for each module for eight teeth and upwards
to economize on cutter manufacturing resources. A variant on this is still
included in BS978-2a (Gears for instruments and clockwork mechanisms.
Cycloidal type gears. Double circular arc type gears).
Tolerances of concentricity of the hob limit the lower modules which can be
cut practically by hobbing to about 0.5 module.
Gear cutting is the process of creating a gear. The most common processes
include hobbing, broaching, and machining; other processes
include shaping, forging, extruding, casting, and powder metallurgy. Gears
are commonly made from metal, plastic, and wood.
PROCESS:Broaching
For very large gears or splines, a vertical broach is used. It consists of a
vertical rail that carries a single tooth cutter formed to create the tooth shape.
A rotary table and a Y axis are the customary axes available. Some machines
will cut to a depth on the Y axis and index the rotary table automatically. The
largest gears are produced on these machines.
Other operations such as broaching work particularly well for cutting teeth
on the inside. The downside to this is that it is expensive and different
broaches are required to make different sized gears. Therefore it is mostly
used in very high production runs.
Hobbing
Hobbing is a method by which a hob is used to cut teeth into a blank. The
cutter and gear blank are rotated at the same time to transfer the profile of
the hob onto the gear blank. The hob must make one revolution to create
each tooth of the gear. Used very often for all sizes of production runs, but
works best for medium to high.
Machining
Spur may be cut or ground on a milling machine or jig grinder utilizing a
numbered gear cutter, and any indexing head or rotary table. The number of
the gear cutter is determined by the tooth count of the gear to be cut.
To machine a helical gear on a manual machine, a true indexing fixture must
be used. Indexing fixtures can disengage the drive worm, and be attached via
an external gear train to the machine table's handle (like a power feed). It
then operates similarly to a carriage on a lathe. As the table moves on the X
axis, the fixture will rotate in a fixed ratio with the table. The indexing
fixture itself receives its name from the original purpose of the tool: moving
the table in precise, fixed increments. If the indexing worm is not
disengaged from the table, one can move the table in a highly controlled
fashion via the indexing plate to produce linear movement of great precision
(such as a vernier scale).
There are a few different types of cutters used when creating gears. One is a
rack shaper. These are straight and move in a direction tangent to the gear,
while the gear is fixed. They have six to twelve teeth and eventually have to
be moved back to the starting point to begin another cut.
A popular way to build gears is by form cutting. This is done by taking a
blank gear and rotating a cutter, with the desired tooth pattern, around its
periphery. This ensures that the gear will fit when the operation is finished.
Shaping
The old method of gear cutting is mounting a gear blank in a shaper and
using a tool shaped in the profile of the tooth to be cut. This method also
works for cutting internal splines.
CHAPTER 4-CAMSHAFT
Material
Camshafts can be made out of several different types of material. These
include:
Chilled iron castings: this is a good choice for high volume production. A
chilled iron camshaft has a resistance against wear because the camshaft
lobes have been chilled, generally making them harder. When making
chilled iron castings, other elements are added to the iron before casting to
make the material more suitable for its application.
Billet Steel: When a high quality camshaft is required, engine builders and
camshaft manufacturers choose to make the camshaft from steel billet. This
method is also used for low volume production. This is a much more time
consuming process, and is generally more expensive than other methods.
However the finished product is far superior. When making the
camshaft, CNC lathes, CNC milling machines and CNC camshaft grinders
will be used. Different types of steel bar can be used, one example being
EN40b. When manufacturing a camshaft from EN40b, the camshaft will
also be heat treated via gas nitriding, which changes the micro-structure of
the material. It gives a surface hardness of 55-60 HRC. These types of
camshafts can be used in high-performance engines.
Timing:-
The relationship between the rotation of the camshaft and the rotation of
the crankshaft is of critical importance. Since the valves control the flow of
air/fuel mixture intake and exhaust gases, they must be opened and closed at
the appropriate time during the stroke of the piston. For this reason, the
camshaft is connected to the crankshaft either directly, via
a gear mechanism, or indirectly via a belt or chain called a timing
belt or timing chain. Direct drive using gears is unusual because the
frequently-reversing torque caused by the slope of the cams tends to quickly
wear out gear teeth. Where gears are used, they tend to be made from
resilient fibre rather than metal. In some designs the camshaft also drives
the distributor and the oil and fuel pumps. Some General Motors vehicles
also have the power steering pump driven by the camshaft. Also on
early fuel injection systems, cams on the camshaft would operate the fuel
injectors.
An alternative used in the early days of OHC engines was to drive the
camshaft(s) via a vertical shaft with bevel gears at each end. This system
was, for example, used on the pre-WW1 Peugeot and Mercedes Grand Prix
cars. Another option was to use a triple eccentric with connecting rods; these
were used on certain W.O. Bentley-designed engines and also on
the Leyland Eight.
In a two-stroke engine that uses a camshaft, each valve is opened once for
each rotation of the crankshaft; in these engines, the camshaft rotates at the
same rate as the crankshaft. In a four-stroke engine, the valves are opened
only half as often; thus, two full rotations of the crankshaft occur for each
rotation of the camshaft.
The timing of the camshaft can be advanced to produce better low end
torque or it can be reduced to produce better high end torque.
Duration
Duration is the number of crankshaft degrees of engine rotation during
which the valve is off the seat. As a generality, greater duration results in
more horsepower. The RPM at which peak horsepower occurs is typically
increased as duration increases at the expense of lower rpm efficiency
(torque).
Duration can often be confusing because manufacturers may select any lift
point to advertise a camshaft's duration and sometimes will manipulate these
numbers. The power and idle characteristics of a camshaft rated at .006" will
be much different than one rated the same at .002".
Many performance engine builders gauge a race profile's aggressiveness by
looking at the duration at .020", .050" and .200". The .020" number
determines how responsive the motor will be and how much low
end torque the motor will make. The .050" number is used to estimate where
peak power will occur, and the .200" number gives an estimate of the power
potential.
Sometimes an over rev can cause engine failure where the valve stems
become bent as a result of colliding with the piston crowns.
Position
Depending on the location of the camshaft, the cams operate the valves
either directly or through a linkage of pushrods and rockers. Direct operation
involves a simpler mechanism and leads to fewer failures, but requires the
camshaft to be positioned at the top of the cylinders. In the past when
engines were not as reliable as today this was seen as too much bother, but in
modern gasoline engines the overhead cam system, where the camshaft is
on top of the cylinder head, is quite common.
Number of camshafts
Main articles: overhead valve and overhead cam
While today some cheaper engines rely on a single camshaft per cylinder
bank, which is known as a single overhead camshaft (SOHC),
most[quantify] modern engine designs (the overhead-valve or OHV engine being
largely obsolete on passenger vehicles), are driven by a two camshafts per
cylinder bank arrangement (one camshaft for the intake valves and another
for the exhaust valves); such camshaft arrangement is known as
a double or dual overhead cam (DOHC), thus, a V engine, which has two
separate cylinder banks, may have four camshafts (colloquially known as
a quad-cam engine.
More unusual is the modern W engine (also known as a 'VV' engine to
distinguish itself from the pre-war W engines) that has four cylinder banks
arranged in a "W" pattern with two pairs narrowly arranged with a 15 degree
separation. Even when there are four cylinder banks (that would normally
require a total of eight individual camshafts), the narrow-angle design allows
the use of just four camshafts in total. For theBugatti Veyron, which has a 16
cylinder W engine configuration, all the four camshafts are driving a total of
64 valves.
The overhead camshaft design adds more valvetrain components that
ultimately incur in more complexity and higher manufacturing costs, but this
is easily offset by many advantages over the older OHV design: multi-valve
design, higher RPM limit and design freedom to better place valves, ignition
(Spark-ignition engine) and intake/exhaust ports.
Maintenance
The rockers or cam followers sometimes incorporate a mechanism to adjust
and set the valve play through manual adjustment, but most modern auto
engines have hydraulic lifters, eliminating the need to adjust the valve lash
at regular intervals as the valvetrain wears, and in particular the valves
and valve seats in the combustion chamber.
Sliding friction between the surface of the cam and the cam follower which
rides upon it is considerable. In order to reduce wear at this point, the cam
and follower are both surface hardened, and modern lubricant motor
oils contain additives specifically to reduce sliding friction. The lobes of the
camshaft are usually slightly tapered, causing the cam followers or valve
lifters to rotate slightly with each depression, and helping to distribute wear
on the parts. The surfaces of the cam and follower are designed to "wear in"
together, and therefore when either is replaced, the other should be as well to
prevent excessive rapid wear. In some engines, the flat contact surfaces are
replaced with rollers, which eliminate the sliding friction and wear but adds
mass to the valvetrain.
Camshaft design:|
times, which is a tool the cam designer uses to fine-tune the speed and
acceleration of the lifter.
An asymmetrical lobe refers to opening and closing ramps that are not
identical. In order to maximize both valve speed and control, the lifter must
be raised in a different manner from which it is lowered. For example, in
performance applications the valve is generally opened as quickly as
possible, but the speed of the valve slows significantly as it nears maximum
lift to keep it from lofting. But on the closing side, the valve must be seated
relatively gently to keep it from bouncing. An asymmetrical lobe design
allows this.
The nose of the lobe marks the area where the valve is fully opened. The
highest point of lift is the lobe's centerline. The intake centerline is
measured as crankshaft degrees after top dead center (TDC). The exhaust
centerline is expressed as the number of degrees of the crankshaft's position
before TDC. Incidentally, a cam's position is always measured relative to the
crankshaft's position because that tells you where the piston is and which
stroke it is on (intake, compression, power, or exhaust).
Lobe lift is the amount the cam lobe raises the lifter. It isn't the same as
valve lift because the rocker arm is a lever that multiplies the amount of lobe
lift to get the final valve lift. The lobe lift is equal to the diameter of the lobe
at the centerline minus the diameter of the base circle.
exhaust lobe (maximum valve lift) and the peak of the intake lobe.
Essentially, it is half the angle in crankshaft degrees of rotation between
peak exhaust valve lift and peak intake valve lift. If the duration remains the
same, increasing the lobe separation angle decreases overlap, while
decreasing it does the opposite.
"Typically, if all other factors are kept constant, widening the lobe separation
produces a wider, flatter torque curve that holds better at higher rpm but can
sometimes cause a lazy throttle response," explains Billy Godbold, a
camshaft designer at Comp Cams. "Tightening the separation generally
produces the opposite effect-more mid-range torque and a faster revving
engine, but with a tighter power range."
There are other reasons to change lobe separation to influence engine
performance. For example, if you are running a long rod package and keep
the stroke the same, you will dwell the piston near TDC longer. To maintain
similar overlap characteristics, you may need to open up the lobe separation
and shorten the duration.
Overlap is the point in crank rotation when both the intake and exhaust
valves are open simultaneously. This happens at the end of the exhaust
stroke when the exhaust valve is closing and the intake is opening. During
the period of overlap, the intake and exhaust ports can communicate with
each other. Ideally, you want the scavenge effect from the exhaust port to
pull the air/fuel mixture from the intake port into the combustion chamber to
achieve more efficient cylinder filling. A poorly designed cam and port
combination, however, can cause reversion, where exhaust gases push their
way past the intake valve and into the intake tract.
Several factors influence how much overlap is ideal for your engine. Small
combustion chambers typically require minimal overlap, as do engines
designed to maximize low-rpm torque. Most current stock car racing engines
depend on high rpm to take advantage of better gear ratios, so more overlap
is normally helpful. When the revolutions per minute increase, the intake
valve is open for a shorter period of time. The same amount of air and fuel
must be pulled into the combustion chamber in less time, and the engine can
use all the help it can get to fill the chamber. Increasing the overlap can help
here.
Long rod/stroke packages, which are becoming increasingly popular in
circle track racing, also have an effect here just as with the lobe separation.
Because the piston dwells near TDC longer, it makes the combustion
chamber appear smaller to the incoming air/fuel charge. Because of this, less
overlap is needed to properly fill the chamber. Along with reduced vacuum
and potential reversion problems, running too much overlap in your race
engine sends unburned fuel out of the exhaust pipes, reducing fuel
efficiency. For most short track racers, this isn't a problem. But if you run
into a fuel-mileage situation to cut out pit stops, it can be helpful.
make it difficult to determine the exact moment a valve leaves the seat.
Finally, duration at 0.050 inch of lobe lift is easier to measure and makes life
easier for anyone setting the cam timing with a degree wheel. " . . . it's easier
to measure the 0.050 duration than the advertised duration because the
tappet velocity is much higher after it has had some time to accelerate,"
Godbold explains. "When using a cam degree wheel and a dial indicator,
there is far less uncertainty about where the degree wheel is oriented when
the dial indicator reads exactly 0.050 inch of lift than with lifts in the 0.004
to 0.020 range."
By using special timing sets, you can change the angle of the cam relative to
the crankshaft. Spinning the cam forward so that the valve opening events
happen sooner is called advancing the cam. Retarding the cam is just the
opposite. Most camshaft manufacturers grind in around 4 degrees of advance
into their cams so that it is automatic when you install your cam with the
zero marks on the timing set. This is very common with street cams but
varies with different race cams. Make sure you know what you have.
"Typically, engines respond better with a few degrees advance," Godbold
explains. "This is likely due to the importance of the intake closing point on
performance. Earlier intake closing leads to increased cylinder pressure and
better responsiveness." As a general rule of thumb, advancing the cam will
help low-end torque, but if your engine is dying by the flag stand, retarding
the cam a few degrees should help extend high-rpm power a bit.
The information we've provided is a lot to digest, but don't worry. Most cam
manufacturers have helpful tech departments to work you through the rough
spots. To make things just a little easier, here's a cheat sheet for cam changes
and the typical result. Remember, all engine packages are different, and your
results may vary. These are only general guidelines.
Effect Of Composition:-
single phase called austenite), will separate into platelets of the phases ferrite
and cementite. This forms a layered microstructure called pearlite.
Since pearlite is harder than iron, the amount of softness achieveable is
typically limited to that produced by the pearlite. Similarly,
the hardenability is limited by the continuous martensitic microstructure
formed when cooled very fast.
Hypoeutectoid alloys
A hypoeutectic alloy has two separate melting points. Both are above the
eutectic melting point for the system, but are below the melting points of any
constituent forming the system. Between these two melting points, the alloy
will exist as part solid and part liquid. The constituent with the lower
melting point will solidify first. When completely solidified, a hypoeutectic
alloy will often be in solid solution.
Similarly, a hypoeutectoid alloy has two critical temperatures, called
"arrests." Between these two temperatures, the alloy will exist partly as the
solution and partly as a separate crystallizing phase. These two temperatures
are called the upper (A3) and lower (A1) transformation temperatures. As the
solution cools from the upper transformation temperature toward an
insoluble state, the excess base metal will often be forced to "crystallizeout." This will occur until the remaining concentration of solutes reaches the
eutectoid level, which will then crystallize as a separate microstructure.
A hypoeutectoid steel contains less than 0.77% carbon. Upon cooling a
hypoeutectoid steel from the austenite transformation temperature, small
islands of ferrite will form. These will continue to grow until the eutectoid
concentration in the rest of the steel is reached. This eutectoid mixture will
then crystallize as a microstructure of pearlite. Since ferrite is softer than
pearlite, the two microstructures combine to increase the ductility of the
alloy. Consequently, the hardenability of the alloy is lowered.
Hypereutectoid alloys
these metals are often heated to a temperature that is just above the upper
critical temperature, in order to prevent the grains of solution from growing
too large. For instance, when steel is heated above the upper critical
temperature, small grains of austenite form. These grow larger as
temperature is increased. When cooled very quickly, during a martensite
transformation, the austenite grain size directly affects the martensitic grain
size. Larger grains have large grain-boundaries, which serve as weak spots
in the structure. The grain size is usually controlled to reduce the probability
of breakage.
The diffusion transformation is very time dependent. Cooling a metal will
usually suppress the precipitation to a much lower temperature. Austenite,
for example, usually only exists above the upper critical temperature.
However, if the austenite is cooled quickly enough, the transformation may
be suppressed for hundreds of degrees below the lower critical temperature.
Such austenite is highly unstable and, if given enough time, will precipitate
into various microstructures of ferrite and cementite. The cooling rate can be
used to control the rate of grain growth or can even be used to produce
partially martensitic microstructures. However, the martensite
transformation is time-independent. If the alloy is cooled to the martensite
transformation (Ms) temperature before other microstructures can fully form,
the transformation will usually occur at just under the speed of sound.
When austenite is cooled slow enough that a martensite transformation does
not occur, the austenite grain size will have an effect on the rate of
nucleation, but it is generally temperature and the rate of cooling that
controls the grain size and microstructure. When austenite is cooled
extremely slow, it will form large ferrite crystals filled with spherical
inclusions of cementite. This microstructure is referred to as "sphereoidite."
If cooled a little faster, then coarse pearlite will form. Even faster, and fine
pearlite will form. If cooled even faster, bainite will form. Similarly, these
microstructures will also form if cooled to a specific temperature and then
held there for a certain amount of time.
Most non-ferrous alloys are also heated in order to form a solution. Most
often, these are then cooled very quickly to produce a martensite
transformation, putting the solution into a supersaturated state. The alloy,
being in a much softer state, may then be cold worked. This cold
working increases the strength and hardness of the alloy, and the defects
caused by plastic deformation tend to speed up precipitation, increasing the
hardness beyond what is normal for the alloy. Even if not cold worked, the
solutes in these alloys will usually precipitate, although the process may take
much longer. Sometimes these metals are then heated to a temperature that is
below the lower critical (A1) temperature, preventing recrystallization, in
order to speed-up the precipitation.
Techniques:Complex heat treating schedules, or "cycles," are often devised
by metallurgists to optimize an alloy's mechanical properties. In
theaerospace industry, a superalloy may undergo five or more different heat
treating operations to develop the desired properties. This can lead to quality
problems depending on the accuracy of the furnace's temperature controls
and timer.
Annealing
Annealing is a rather generalized term. Annealing consists of heating a metal
to a specific temperature and then cooling at a rate that will produce a
refined microstructure. Annealing is most often used to soften a metal for
cold working, to improve machinability, or to enhance properties
like electrical conductivity.
In ferrous alloys, annealing is usually accomplished by heating the metal
beyond the upper critical temperature and then cooling very slowly, resulting
in the formation of pearlite. In both pure metals and many alloys that can not
be heat treated, annealing is used to remove the hardness caused by cold
working. The metal is heated to a temperature where recrystallization can
occur, thereby repairing the defects caused by plastic deformation. In these
metals, the rate of cooling will usually have little effect. Most non-ferrous
alloys that are heat-treatable are also annealed to relieve the hardness of cold
working. These may be slowly cooled to allow full precipitation of the
constituents and produce a refined microstructure.
Ferrous alloys are usually either "full annealed" or "process annealed." Full
annealing requires very slow cooling rates, in order to form coarse pearlite.
In process annealing, the cooling rate may be faster; up to, and including
normalizing. The main goal of process annealing is to produce a uniform
microstructure. Non-ferrous alloys are often subjected to a variety of
annealing techniques, including "recrystallization annealing," "partial
annealing," "full annealing," and "final annealing." Not all annealing
techniques involve recrystallization, such as stress relieving.[20].
Normalizing
Normalizing is a technique used to provide uniformity in grain size and
composition throughout an alloy. The term is often used for ferrous alloys
that have been heated above the upper critical temperature and then cooled
in open air
Stress relieving
Stress relieving is a technique to remove or reduce the internal stresses
created in a metal. These stresses may be caused in a number of ways,
ranging from cold working to non-uniform cooling. Stress relieving is
usually accomplished by heating a metal below the lower critical
temperature and then cooling uniformly.
Aging
Some metals are classified as precipitation hardening metals. When a
precipitation hardening alloy is quenched, its alloying elements will be
trapped in solution, resulting in a soft metal. Aging a "solutionized" metal
will allow the alloying elements to diffuse through the microstructure and
form intermetallic particles. These intermetallic particles will nucleate and
fall out of solution and act as a reinforcing phase, thereby increasing the
strength of the alloy. Alloys may age "naturally" meaning that the
precipitates form at room temperature, or they may age "artificially" when
precipitates only form at elevated temperatures. In some applications,
naturally aging alloys may be stored in a freezer to prevent hardening until
after further operations - assembly of rivets, for example, may be easier with
a softer part.
Examples of precipitation hardening alloys include 2000 series, 6000 series,
and 7000 series aluminium alloy, as well as some superalloys and
some stainless steels. Steels that harden by aging are typically referred to
as maraging steels, from a combination of the term "martensite aging.
Quenching
Quenching is a process of cooling a metal very quickly. This is most often
done to produce a martensite transformation. In ferrous alloys, this will often
produce a harder metal, while non-ferrous alloys will usually become softer
than normal.
To harden by quenching, a metal (usually steel or cast iron) must be heated
above the upper critical temperature and then quickly cooled. Depending on
the alloy and other considerations (such as concern for maximum hardness
vs. cracking and distortion), cooling may be done with forced air or
other gases, (such as nitrogen). Liquids may be used, due to their
better thermal conductivity, such as water, oil, a polymerdissolved in water,
or a brine. Upon being rapidly cooled, a portion of austenite (dependent on
alloy composition) will transform to martensite, a hard, brittle crystalline
structure. The quenched hardness of a metal depends on its chemical
composition and quenching method. Cooling speeds, from fastest to slowest,
go from polymer (i.e.silicon), brine, fresh water, oil, and forced air.
However, quenching a certain steel too fast can result in cracking, which is
why high-tensile steels such as AISI 4140 should be quenched in oil, tool
steels such as ISO 1.2767 or H13 hot work tool steel should be quenched in
forced air, and low alloy or medium-tensile steels such as XK1320 or AISI
1040 should be quenched in brine or water.
However, most non-ferrous metals, like alloys of copper, aluminum,
or nickel, and some high alloy steels such as austenitic stainless steel (304,
316), produce an opposite effect when these are quenched: they soften.
Austenitic stainless steels must be quenched to become fully corrosion
resistant, as they work-harden significantly.
Tempering
Untempered martensitic steel, while very hard, is too brittle to be useful for
most applications. A method for alleviating this problem is called tempering.
Most applications require that quenched parts be tempered. Tempering
consists of heating a steel below the lower critical temperature, (often from
400 to 1105 F or 205 to 595 C, depending on the desired results), to impart
some toughness. Higher tempering temperatures, (may be up to 1,300 F or
700 C, depending on the alloy and application), are sometimes used to
impart further ductility, although some yield strength is lost.
Tempering may also be performed on normalized steels. Other methods of
tempering consist of quenching to a specific temperature, which is above the
martensite start temperature, and then holding it there until pure bainite can
form or internal stresses can be relieved. These
include austempering and martempering.
Selective hardening
Many heat treating methods have been developed to alter the properties of
only a portion of an object. These tend to consist of either cooling different
areas of an alloy at different rates, by quickly heating in a localized area and
then quenching, or by thermochemical diffusion.
Differential hardening
A differentially hardened katana. The bright, wavy line, called the nioi,
separates the martensitic edge from the pearlitic back. The inset shows a
Rockwell scale
C
0.024
0.021
45N
0.018
30N
0.015
15N
"File hard"
For cases that are less than 0.015 in (0.38 mm) thick a Rockwell scale
cannot reliably be used, so file hard is specified instead. File hard is
approximately equivalent to 58 HRC.
When specifying the hardness either a range should be given or the
minimum hardness specified. If a range is specified at least 5 points should
be given.
Through hardening
Only hardness is listed for through hardening. It is usually in the form of
HRC with at least a five point range.
CHAPTER 6- ELECTROPLTING
When plating is not desired on certain areas of the substrate, stop-offs are
applied to prevent the bath from coming in contact with the substrate.
Typical stop-offs include tape, foil, lacquers, and waxes.
Strike
Initially, a special plating deposit called a "strike" or "flash" may be used to
form a very thin (typically less than 0.1 micrometer thick) plating with high
quality and good adherence to the substrate. This serves as a foundation for
subsequent plating processes. A strike uses a high current density and a bath
with a low ion concentration. The process is slow, so more efficient plating
processes are used once the desired strike thickness is obtained.
The striking method is also used in combination with the plating of different
metals. If it is desirable to plate one type of deposit onto a metal to improve
corrosion resistance but this metal has inherently poor adhesion to the
substrate, a strike can be first deposited that is compatible with both. One
example of this situation is the poor adhesion of
electrolytic nickel on zinc alloys, in which case a copper strike is used,
which has good adherence to both.
Electroless deposition
Usually an electrolytic cell (consisting of two electrodes, electrolyte, and
external source of current) is used for electrodeposition. In contrast, an
electroless deposition process uses only one electrode and no external source
of electric current. However, the solution for the electroless process needs to
contain a reducing agent so that the electrode reaction has the form:
In principle any water-based reducer can be used although the redox
potential of the reducer half-cell must be high enough to overcome the
energy barriers inherent in liquid chemistry. Electroless nickel plating uses
hypophosphite as the reducer while plating of other metals like silver, gold
and copper typically use low molecular weight aldehydes.
Effects
Electroplating changes the chemical, physical, and mechanical properties of
the workpiece. An example of a chemical change is when nickel plating
improves corrosion resistance. An example of a physical change is a change
in the outward appearance. An example of a mechanical change is a change
in tensile strength or surface hardness which is a required attribute in tooling
industry.
weak, the electrodes and connecting wires should not be handled when the
cell is operating. If a 9-V battery is used as the power source, it will become
quite hot during use; caution should be exercised.
MODIFICATIONS/SUBSTITUTIONS
1. Copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate is available from garden supply stores
as root eater.
2. Sulfuric acid is available from auto supply stores as battery acid.
Substitute 95 mL of battery acid for 25 mL of concentrated sulfuric
acid.
3. A battery charger or 9-V battery may be substituted for the power
supply. If a 9-V battery is used, it will be nearly "dead" after
completing the experiment.
4. A 16-oz plastic glass may be substituted for the beaker.
PROCEDURE
1. Pour 200 mL of the electrolyte solution into the beaker.
2. Attach connecting wires with alligator clips to the terminals of the
power supply.
3. Clean the pennies with a mixture of 3 g NaCl and 15 mL vinegar;
rinse and dry.
4. Tightly wrap one end of a 10-cm length of copper around each penny,
leaving 5-6 cm of wire free.
5. Mass each penny-copper wire assembly and record the masses.
6. Push the free end of each wire through the cardboard square and place
the square over the beaker so that the penny "electrodes" are
immersed in the electrolyte solution as illustrated below. Note: the
two electrode assemblies must not touch.
7. Attach the connecting wires to the top of the copper wire assemblies.
8. Allow the electroplating cell to operate for 30-60 minutes. Record the
exact time the cell was operating (optional).
Cu(s)
Cu2+(aq) + 2 e-
larger anode of impure copper. As the electrolytic cell operates, pure copper
is transferred to the cathode.
If an ammeter reading is not taken, students can compare the changes in
mass of the two electrodes and from the number of moles of copper plated,
calculate the number of coulombs of charge passed through the cell and the
average current through the cell.
TIPS
If power supplies or batteries are not available in sufficient supply to allow
students to do this as an experiment, it may be done as a demonstration. In
such a case, it may be desirable to carry out the electrolysis in a 1-L beaker
or large, wide-mouth jar and use small pieces of copper pipe or small copper
plumbing fittings (available from a hardware store) to make the
demonstration more visible to students.
BIBLEOGRAPHY:1) www.yamaha-motor-india.com
2) www.wikipedia.com
3) Auto Car Magazine
4) Test Drive Magazine
5) Velocity Magazine
6) www.google.com