ANTENNA THEORY AND TECHNIQUES

2MDC4.3

Prof. Dr. Arun Kumar Sharma

(Lecture-1)

AKS-ATT-M.Tech.Lectures

ORIGIN OF THE EM THEORY AND THE FIRST ANTENNA

600 years BC: Greek mathematician, astronomer & philosopher, Thales
of Miletus, noted that
. Amber
means elektron-hence electricity, electron & electronics.
1600 AD: William Gilbert of England,
electrostatic effects and recognized that
principles of Compass.

to study the
and

1750 Franklin: Law of conservation of charges, i.e., +ve and ve charges

existed.
De Coulomb: studied the forces among/between charges and gave
coulombs law.
Gauss German mathematician and astronomer formatted famous
divergence theorem relating a volume and surface.
1800 Volta: invented voltaic cell
1819 Oersted ( Danish Prof.) : current carrying wire influences magnetic
compass.
AKS-ATT-M.Tech.Lectures

 1831: Faraday demonstrated that changing magnetic field produces

electric current, and magnetism produces electricity.
1873: Extensive studies of Faraday's led to the science of electromagnetic
by James C. Maxwell of Cambridge University. He postulated that light
was of electromagnetic in nature and electromagnetic radiation of other
wave lengths should be possible. He unified the electromagnetic and gave
Maxwells equations.

1880: Hertz, Father of Radio, demonstrated complete radio system with

end loaded dipole as transmitting antenna and a resonant square loop
antenna as receiver. It was for 20 years Lab. Curiosity!
1901 : Marconi sent messages with his Hertzian waves.
1903: He started trans Atlantic message services between Poldhu in UK
and Nova Scotia and South Well Fleet.
Hertz used 30 m wavelengths but JC Bose used shorter wavelengths.
Rule of thumb: for range- 500 times the wavelength, i.e. for 5000 kM the
wave length would be 1000 meter.
AKS-ATT-M.Tech.Lectures

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

1-2 GHz
2-4
4-8
8-12
12-18
18-27
27-40

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30-15 cm
15-7.5
7.5-3.75
3.75-2.5
2.5-1.67
1.67-1.11
1.11cm7.5mm

L
S
C
X
Ku
K
Ka

Problem:
Find the wave length for 300 MHz radiation and what it would be in the medium if
r=2.0 ??
Plot wave length variation with relative permittivity??

AKS-ATT-M.Tech.Lectures

Fundamental Properties of Electromagnetic

Radiation
The three basic ways in which energy can be transferred include,
conduction, convection, and radiation
Energy may be conducted directly from one object to another as when a
pan is in direct physical contact with a hot burner
The Sun bathes the Earths surface with radiant energy causing the air
near the ground to increase in temperature
The less dense air rises, creating convectional currents in the
atmosphere

The transfer of energy by electromagnetic radiation is of primary interest

to remote sensing because it is the only form of energy transfer that can
take place in a vacuum such as the region between the Sun and the
Earth
AKS-ATT-M.Tech.Lectures

Fundamental Properties of Electromagnetic

Radiation

The energy can be transferred in the three basic ways:

conduction, convection, and radiation

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Wave Model of Electromagnetic Energy

The relationship between the wavelength, , and frequency, , of
electromagnetic radiation is based on the following formula,
where c is the speed of light:

Note that frequency, is inversely proportional to wavelength,

The longer the wavelength, the lower the frequency, and viceversa
AKS-ATT-M.Tech.Lectures

Wave Model of Electromagnetic Energy

AKS-ATT-M.Tech.Lectures

Wave Model of EM Energy

An electromagnetic wave is composed of electric and

magnetic vectors that are orthogonal to one another and
travel from the source at the speed of light (3 x 10 8 m s-1)
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The Wave Model of

Electromagnetic
Energy

Frequency: the number of wavelengths that pass a point

per unit time
Wavelength: the mean distance between maximums (or
minimums)
Common units: micrometers (m) or nanometers (nm)
One cycle per second is termed one hertz (1 Hz)
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Why light waves are transverse

Suppose a wave propagates in the x-direction. Then its a function
of x and t (and not y or z), so all y- and z-derivatives are zero:

z y z

In a charge-free medium,
that is,
Substituting the zero
values, we have:

0and 0

x y z
Bx B y Bz

0
x
y
z
x
y
z

Ex
x
0and
0
x
x

So the longitudinal fields (parallel to propagation direction) are at most

constant, and not waves.

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Maxwells Equations (4)

J
0
0 t

Ampres Law: the line integral of the magnetic field around a closed
loop (i.e. the curl of B) is proportional to the electric current flowing
through the loop

It states that magnetic fields can be generated by time varying electric

fields and electric currents.
AND to the rate of change of the electric field.
added by Maxwell
B = magnetic field; J = current density (current per unit area); E = electric field
The curl of a magnetic field is basically a measure of its strength
First term on RHS: in the presence of an electric current (J), there is always a magnetic
field around it; B is dependent on J (e.g., electromagnets)
Second term on RHS: a changing electric field generates a magnetic field.
Therefore, generation of a magnetic field does not require electric current, only a changing
electric field. An oscillating electric field produces a variable magnetic field (as dE/dT
changes)
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Review of the theory of electromagnetic radiation.

James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) Scottish
mathematician and physicist
Wave model of EM energy
Unified existing laws of electricity and magnetism
(Newton, Faraday, Kelvin, Ampre)
Oscillating electric field produces a magnetic field
(and vice versa) propagates an EM wave
Can be described by 4 differential equations
Derived speed of EM wave in a vacuum

i.

Electric charges, electric currents act as sources for the electric and magnetic
fields.
ii. Further, it describes how time varying electric field generates time varying
magnetic field and vice versa.

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o Gausss law and Gausss law for magnetism describes how the fields
emanates from charges.
o

The other two, how the fields circulate around respective sources.

o For the magnetic fields, there is no magnetic charge and therefore

magnetic fields lines neither begin nor end anywhere.
o Magnetic fields circulates around electric current and time varying
electric field in Amperes law with Maxwells correction,
o While the electric field circulates around time varying magnetic fields in
faradays laws.

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Electromagnetic radiation: review

Light = oscillating electric and magnetic fields
Color defined by wavelength (lambda) or frequency (nu)
Light travels at speed c: = c = 2.9979245 x 108 m/s
Visible light ~ 400 to 700 nm
UV has < 400 nm, IR has > 720 nm [corrected 9/5/07]
Suppose = 500 nm = 500 x 10-9 m = 5 x 10-7 m.
Then = (3 x 108 m/s)/(5 x 10-7 m) = 0.6 x 1016 = 6 x 1014 s-1
What does count per second? cycles. A cycle is 2 radians.
cycles/sec = Hertz unit often used for frequency
Radio stations: AM 535-1600 kHz FM: 88-108 MHz.
Microwave oven: 2.45 GHz.
Angular Frequency in radians/sec, denoted (omega), = 2 [
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Electromagnetic radiation

EM wave is:
Electric field (E) perpendicular to magnetic field (M), Travels at
velocity, c (3x108 ms-1, in a vacuum).
Plane, Cylindrical and Spherical Wave Fronts will have plane,
cylindrical and spherical wave fronts, respectively. The front is also
in equiphase.
Electric and magnetic waves are perp. To each other and perp. To
the direction of propagation (TEM).
TE and TM waves
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Maxwells Equations (1)

Gauss law for electricity: the electric flux out of any closed surface is proportional to the total charge
enclosed within the surface; i.e. a charge will radiate a measurable field of influence around it.
E = electric field, = net charge inside, 0 = electric permittivity (constant)
Recall: divergence of a vector field is a measure of its tendency to converge on or repel from a point.
Direction of an electric field is the direction of the force it would exert on a positive charge placed in the
field
If a region of space has more electrons than protons, the total charge is negative, and the direction of
the electric field is negative (inwards), and vice versa.

It is a relationship between electric field and the generating electric

charges. From +ve charge, electric field points away and ve charge,
electric fields points in. closed surfaces enclosing electric charges,
Gaussian surfaces
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Maxwells Equations (2)

0
Gauss law for magnetism: the net magnetic flux out of any closed surface is
zero (i.e. magnetic monopoles do not exist) instead magnetic field is
generated by a configuration called dipole.
B = magnetic field; magnetic flux = BA (A = area perpendicular to field B)
Recall: divergence of a vector field is a measure of its tendency to converge
on or repel from a point.
Magnetic sources are dipole sources and magnetic field lines are loops we
cannot isolate N or S monopoles (unlike electric sources or point charges
protons, electrons)
Magnetic monopoles could exist, but have never been observed.

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Maxwells Equations (3)

Faradays law states that how time varying magnetic field creates electric fields.
This aspect is electromagnetic induction and principle of generators

Faradays Law of Induction: the line integral of the electric field around a
closed loop (i.e. the curl of E) is equal to the negative of rate of change of the magnetic
flux through the area enclosed by the loop
E = electric field; B = magnetic field
Recall: curl of a vector field is a vector with magnitude equal to the maximum circulation
at each point and oriented perpendicularly
to this plane of circulation for each point.

Magnetic field weakens curl of electric field is positive and vice versa
Hence changing magnetic fields affect the curl (circulation) of the electric field basis of
electric generators (moving magnet induces current in a conducting loop)
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