Define thermodynamics.

Sol : Thermodynamics is the science that deals with the conversion of heat into mechanical energy. It is based
upon observations of common experience, which have been formulated into thermodynamic laws.
These laws govern the principles of energy conversion. The applications of the thermodynamic laws and
principles are found in all fields of energy technology, notably in steam and nuclear power plants, internal
combustion engines, gas turbines, air conditioning, refrigeration, gas dynamics, jet propulsion, compressors,
chemical process plants, and direct energy conversion devices.
Define thermal engineering.
It is a branch of engineering science, which deals with the application of thermodynamics and it Law's to work
producing and work absorbing devices in order to understand their functions and improve their performances.
Discuss the applications of thermodynamics in the field of engineering.
Sol: Thermodynamics has very wide applications as basis of thermal engineering. Almost all process and
engineering industries, agriculture, transport, commercial and domestic activities use thermal engineering. But
energy technology and power sector are fully dependent on the laws of thermodynamics.
For example:
(i) Central thermal power plants, captive power plants based on coal.
(ii) Nuclear power plants.
(iii) Gas turbine power plants.
(iv) Engines for automobiles, ships, airways, spacecrafts.
(v) Direct energy conversion devices: Fuel cells, thermoionic, thermoelectric engines.
(vi) Air conditioning, heating, cooling, ventilation plants.
(vii) Domestic, commercial and industrial lighting.
(viii) Agricultural, transport and industrial machines.
All the above engines and power consuming plants are designed using laws of thermodynamics.
Explain the macroscopic and microscopic point of view.
Sol: Thermodynamic studies are undertaken by the following two different approaches.
l. Macroscopic approach(Macro mean big or total)
2. Microscopic approach(Micro means small)
Macroscopic approach
Microscopic approach
1. In this approach a certain quantity of
1. The approach considers that the system
matter is considered without taking into
is made up of a very large number of
account the events occurring at molecular
discrete particles known as molecules.
level. In other words this approach to
These molecules have different velocities
thermodynamics is concerned with gross
and energies. The values of these energies
or overall behaviour. This is known as
are constantly changing with time. This
classical thermodynamics.
approach to thermodynamics, which is
concerned directly with the structure of
the matter, is known as statistical
thermodynamics.
2. The analysis of macroscopic system
2. The behaviour of the system is found by
requires simple mathematical formulae.
using statistical methods, as the number
of molecules is very large.
3. The values of the properties of the system
3. The properties like velocity, momentum,
are their average values. these properties like pressure impulse, kinetic energy, and instruments
and temperature can be measured very easily.
cannot easily measure force of impact etc.
that describe the molecule.
4. In order to describe a system only a few
4. Large numbers of variables are needed
properties are needed.
to describe a system.
Explain thermodynamic system, surrounding and universe. Differentiate among open system,
closed system and an isolated system. Give two suitable examples of each system.
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In thermodynamics the system is defined as the quantity of matter or region in space upon which the attention is
concentrated for the sake of analysis. These systems are also referred to as thermodynamics system.
It is bounded by an arbitrary surface called boundary. The boundary may be real or imaginary, may
be at rest or in motion and may change its size or shape.
Everything outside the boundary of the system is called surrounding or environment.

The union of the system and surrounding is termed as universe.

Universe = System + Surrounding
Types of system
The analysis of thermodynamic processes includes the study of the transfer of mass and energy across the
boundaries of the system. On the basis the system may be classified mainly into three parts.
(1) Open system (2) Closed System (3) Isolated system
(1) Open system
The system which can exchange both the mass and energy (Heat and work) with its surrounding is called as
open system. The mass within the system may not be constant. The nature of the processes occurring in such
system is flow type.

For example
1. Water Pump: Water enters at low level and pumped to a higher level, pump being driven by an electric
motor. The mass (water) and energy (electricity) cross the boundary of the system (pump and motor).
2.Scooter engine: Air arid petrol enter and burnt gases leave the engine. The engine delivers mechanical
energy to the wheels.
3. Boilers, turbines, heat exchangers. Fluid flow through them and heat or work is taken out or supplied to
them.
Most of the engineering machines and equipment are open systems.
(2) Closed System
The system, which can exchange energy in the form of heat and work with their surrounding but not the mass is
called closed system.
The quantity of matter thus remains fixed. And the system is described as control mass system. The physical
nature and chemical composition of the mass of the system may change. Water may evaporate into steam or
steam may condense into water. A chemical reaction may occur between two or more components of the closed
system.
For example

1. Car battery, Electric supply takes place from and to the battery
but there is no material transfer.
2. Tea kettle, Heat is supplied to the kettle but mass of water
remains constant.
3. Water in a tank
4. Piston cylinder assembly.
(3) Isolated System
In an Isolated system, neither energy nor mass are allowed to cross
the boundary. The system has fixed mass and energy. No such
system physically exists. Universe is the only example, which is
perfectly isolated system.
Other Special System
1. Adiabatic System: A system with adiabatic walls can only exchange work and not heat with the
surrounding. All adiabatic systems are thermally insulated from their surroundings.
Example is Thermos flask containing a liquid.
2. Homogeneous System: A system, which consists of a single phase, is termed as homogeneous system. For
example, Mixture of air and water vapour, water plus nitric acid and octane plus heptanes.
3. Heterogeneous System: A system, which consists of two or more phase, is termed as heterogeneous
system. For example, Water plus steam, Ice plus water and water plus oil.
Classified each of the following systems into an open or closed systems.
(1) Kitchen refrigerator, (2) Ceiling fan (3) Thermometer in the mouth (4) Air compressor
(5) Pressure Cooker (6) Carburetor (7) Radiator of an automobile.
(1) Kitchen refrigerator: Closed system. No mass flow. Electricity is supplied to compressor motor
and heat is lost to atmosphere.
(2) Ceiling fan: Open system. Air flows through the fan. Electricity is supplied to the fan.
(3) Thermometer in the mouth: Closed system. No mass flow. Heat is supplied from mouth to
thermometer bulb.
(4) Air compressor: Open system. Low pressure air enters and high pressure air leaves the compressor,
electrical energy is supplied to drive the compressor motor.
(5) Pressure Cooker: Closed system. There is no mass exchange (neglecting small steam leakage).
Heat is supplied to the cooker.
(6) Carburetor: Open system. Petrol and air enter and mixture of petrol and air leaves the carburetor.
There is no change of energy.
(7) Radiator of an automobile: Open system. Hot water enters and cooled water leaves the radiator.
Heat energy is extracted by air flowing over the outer surface of radiator tubes.
Define thermodynamic property and different types of properties?
Sol: For defining any system certain parameters are needed. Properties are those observable characteristics
of the system, which can be used for defining it. For example pressure, temp, volume.
Properties further divided into three parts;
i. Intensive Properties
Intensive properties are those, which have same value for any part of the system or the properties that are
independent of the mass of the system. EX; pressure, temp.
ii. Extensive Properties
Extensive properties are those, which dependent Upon the mass of the system and do not maintain the same
value for any part of the system. EX; mass, volume, energy, entropy.
iii. Specific Properties
The extensive properties when estimated on the unit mass basis result in intensive property, which is also
known as specific property. EX; sp. Heat, sp. Volume, sp. Enthalpy.
Define density and specific volume.
Sol: DENSITY ()
Density is defined as mass per unit volume;
Density = mass/ volume; = m/v, kg/m3
for Hg = 13.6 103 kg/m3
for water = 1000 kg/m3
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Specific Volume ()
It is defined as volume occupied by the unit mass of the system. Its unit is m3/kg. Specific volume is
reciprocal of density.
= v/m; m3/kg
Differentiate amongst gauge pressure, atmospheric pressure and absolute pressure. Also give
the value of atmospheric pressure in bar and mm of Hg.
Sol: While working in a system, the thermodynamic medium exerts a force on boundaries of the vessel in
which it is contained. The vessel may be a container, or an engine cylinder with a piston etc. The exerted
force F per unit area A on a surface, which is normal to the force, is called intensity of pressure or simply
pressure p. Thus
P = F/A= .g.h
It is expressed in Pascal (1 Pa = 1 N/m2), bar (1 bar = 105 Pa), standard atmosphere (1 atm =1.0132 bar),
or technical atmosphere (1 kg/cm2 or 1 atm). 1 atm means 1 atmospheric absolute.
The pressure is generally represented in following terms.
1. Atmospheric pressure
2. Gauge pressure
3. Vacuum (or vacuum pressure)
4. Absolute pressure

Atmospheric Pressure (Patm)

It is the pressure exerted by atmospheric air on any surface. It is measured by a barometer. Its standard
values are;
1 Patm = 760 mm of Hg i.e. column or height of mercury = .g.h. = 13.6 103 9.81 760/1000
= 101.325 kN/ m2 = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bar
Gauge Pressure (Pgauge)
It is the pressure of a fluid contained in a closed vessel. It is always more than atmospheric pressure. It is
measured by an instrument called pressure gauge (such as Bourdens pressure gauge). The gauge measures
pressure of the fluid (liquid and gas) flowing through a pipe or duct, boiler etc. irrespective of prevailing
atmospheric pressure.
Vacuum (Or Vacuum pressure) (Pvacc)
It is the pressure of a fluid, which is always less than atmospheric pressure. Pressure (i.e. vacuum) in a steam
condenser is one such example. It is also measured by a pressure gauge but the gauge reads on negative side of
atmospheric pressure on dial. The vacuum represents a difference between absolute and atmospheric pressures.
Absolute Pressure (Pabs)
It is that pressure of a fluid, which is measured with respect to absolute zero pressure as the reference. Absolute
zero pressure can occur only if the molecular momentum is zero, and this condition arises when there is a
perfect vacuum. Absolute pressure of a fluid may be more or less than atmospheric depending upon, whether
the gauge pressure is expressed as absolute pressure or the vacuum pressure.
Interrelation between different types of pressure representations. It is depicted in Fig. 1.6, which can be
expressed as follows.
pabs= patm + pgauge
pabs= patm pvace
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Concept of Temperature
The temperature is a thermal state of a body that describes the degree of hotness or coldness of the body.
If two bodies are brought in contact, heat will flow from hot body at a higher temperature to cold body at a
lower temperature. Temperature is the thermal potential causing the flow of heat energy. It is an intensive
thermodynamic property independent of size and mass of the system. The temperature of a body is proportional
to the stored molecular energy i.e. the average molecular kinetic energy of the molecules in a system.
Instruments for measuring ordinary temperatures are known as thermometers and those for measuring high
temperatures are known as pyrometers. The small and precise temperatures can be measured by resistant
thermometers and thermocouples.
Absolute Temperature
Whenever the value of temperature is used in equations relating to fundamental laws, then the value of
temperature, whose reference point is true zero or absolute is used. The temperature below which the
temperature of any substance cannot fall is known as absolute zero temperature.
The absolute zero temperature for all calculations is taken as -273C . The temperatures measured from this
zero are called absolute temperatures.
absolute temperature, T = 273 + t C K ( Kelvin)
Define N.T.P. AND S.T.P.
Sol: Normal Temperature and Pressure (N.T.P.):
The conditions of temperature and pressure at 0C (273K) and 760 mm of Hg (1 bar) respectively are called
normal temperature and pressure (N.T.P.).
Standard Temperature and Pressure (S.T.P.):
The temperature and pressure of any gas, under standard atmospheric conditions are taken as 15 oC(288K) and
760 mm of Hg (1 bar) respectively.
Define Enthalpy.
Sol: The enthalpy is the total energy of a gaseous system. It takes into consideration, the internal energy and
pressure, volume effect. Thus, it is defined as:
h = u + Pv
H = U + PV
Where v is sp. volume and V is total volume of m Kg gas.
h is specific enthalpy while H is total enthalpy of m kg gas
u is specific internal energy while U is total internal energy of m kg gas.
HEAT
Sol: Heat is energy transferred across the boundary of a system due to temperature difference between the
system and the surrounding. The heat can be transferred by conduction, convection and radiation. The main
characteristics of heat are:
1. Heat flows from a system at a higher temperature to a system at a lower temperature.
2. The heat exists only during transfer into or out of a system.
3. Heat is positive when it flows into the system and negative when it flows out of the system.
4. Heat is a path function.

Heat can be transferred in three different ways: conduction, convection, and radiation. All modes of heat
transfer require the existence of a temperature difference, and all modes of heat transfer are from the hightemperature medium to a lower temperature one.
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Conduction is the transfer of heat between two bodies in direct contact. Conduction can take place in solids,
liquids, or gases. In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions of the molecules during their random
motion. In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of molecules and the energy transport by free
electrons.
Convection is the mode of energy transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent liquid or gas that is in
motion, and it involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid motion. it is the transfer of heat between a
wall and a fluid system in motion.
Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic waves. heat may be transferred
between two bodies separated by empty space (vacuum) or gases by the mechanism of radiation. Solid surfaces,
gases, and liquids all emit, absorb, and transmit thermal radiation to varying degrees.
WORK
The work may be defined as follows:
Work is defined as the energy transferred (without transfer of mass) across the boundary of a system because
of an intensive property difference other than temperature that exists between the system and surrounding.
Pressure difference results in mechanical work and electrical potential difference results in electrical work.
Or
Work is said to be done by a system during a given operation if the sole effect of the system on things external
to the system (surroundings) can be reduced to the raising of a weight. The work is positive when done by the
system and negative if work is done on the system.
Compare between work and heat ?
Sol: There are many similarities between heat and work.
1. The heat and work are both transient phenomena. The systems do not possess heat or work. When
a system undergoes a change, heat transfer or work done may occur.
2. The heat and work are boundary phenomena. They are observed at the boundary of the
system.
3. The heat and work represent the energy crossing the boundary of the system.
4. The heat and work are path functions and hence they are inexact differentials.
5. Heat and work are not the properties of the system.
6. Heat transfer is the energy interaction due to temperature difference only. All other energy interactions may
be called work transfer.
7. The magnitude of heat transfer or work transfer depends upon the path followed by the system during change
of state.
What is energy? What are its different forms?
Sol: The energy is defined as the capacity of doing work. The energy possessed by a system may be of two
kinds.
1. Stored energy: such as potential energy, internal energy, kinetic energy etc.
2. Transit energy: such as heat, work, flow energy etc.
The stored energy is that which is contained within the system boundaries, but the transit energy crosses the
system boundary. The stored energy is a thermodynamic property whereas the transit energy is not a
thermodynamic property as it depends upon the path.
For example, the kinetic energy of steam issuing out from a steam nozzle and impinging upon the steam turbine
blade is an example of stored energy. Similarly, the heat energy produced in combustion chamber of a gas
turbine is transferred beyond the chamber by conduction/ convection and/or radiation, is an example of transit
energy.
Form of Energy
1. Potential energy (PE)
The energy possessed by a body or system by virtue of its position above the datum (ground) level. The
work done is due to its falling on earths surface.
Potential energy, PE = Wh = mgh Nm
Where, W = weight of body, N ; m = mass of body, kg
h = distance of fall of body, m
g = acceleration due to gravity, = 9.81 m/s2

2. Kinetic Energy (KE)

The energy possessed by a system by virtue of its motion is called kinetic energy. It means that a system
of mass m kg while moving with a velocity V1 m/s, does 1/2mV12 joules of work before coming to rest.
So in this state of motion, the system is said to have a kinetic energy given as;
1
mv 2
K.E. = 2
Nm
3. Internal Energy (U)
It is the energy stored within the substance. It is the energy possessed by a system on account of its
configurations, and motion of atoms and molecules. it is a function of temperature.
4. Total Energy
Total energy possessed by a system is the sum of all types of stored energy. Hence it will be given by
1
mv 2
Etotal = PE + KE + U = mgh + 2
+U
It is expressed in the unit of joule (1 J = 1 N m)
Power
it is defined as the rate of doing work or energy transfer. it is the work done per unit time, it is expressed in
watts
1 w = 1 J/s = Nm/s, 1kw = 103 w and 1 MW = 106 w
Explain State, point function and path function.
STATE
State is the condition of the system identified by thermodynamic properties such as pressure, volume,
temperature, etc. The number of properties required to describe a system depends upon the nature of the system.
However each property has a single value at each state. Each state can be represented by a point on a graph with
any two properties as coordinates.
Any operation in which one or more of properties of a system change is called a change of state.
Point Function
A point function is a single valued function that always possesses a single value is all states. For example
each of the thermodynamics properties has a single value in equilibrium and other states. These properties
are called point function or state function.
Or
when two properties locate a point on the graph ( coordinates axes) then those properties are called as point
function.
For example pressure, volume, temperature, entropy, enthalpy, internal energy.
Path Function
Those properties, which cannot be located on a graph by a point but are given by the area or show on the
graph.
A path function is different from a point function. It depends on the nature of the process that can follow
different paths between the same states. For example work, heat, heat transfer.
Define thermodynamic process, path, cycle.
Sol: Thermodynamic system undergoes changes due to the energy and mass interactions. Thermodynamic
state of the system changes due to these interactions.
The mode in which the change of state of a system takes place is termed as the PROCESS such as constant
pressure, constant volume process etc. In fig 1.8, process 12 & 34 is constant pressure process

while 23 & 41 is constant volume process.

Let us take gas contained in a cylinder and being heated up. The heating of gas in the cylinder shall result in
change in state of gas as its pressure, temperature etc. shall increase. However, the mode in which this change
of state in gas takes place during heating shall he constant volume mode and hence the process shall be called
constant volume heating process.
The PATH refers to the series of state changes through which the system passes during a process. Thus, path
refers to the locii of various intermediate states passed through by a system during a process.
CYCLE refers to a typical sequence of processes in such a fashion that the initial and final states are identical.
Thus, a cycle is the one in which the processes occur one after the other so as to finally, land the system at the
same state. Thermodynamic path in a cycle is in closed loop form. After the occurrence of a cyclic process,
system shall show no sign of the processes having occurred. Mathematically, it can be said that the cyclic
integral of any property in a cycle is zero.
12 & 34 = Constant volume Process
23 &41 = Constant pressure Process
12, 23, 34 & 41 = Path
12341 = Cycle
Briefly state the important features of reversible and irreversible processes.
Sol: Thermodynamic system that is capable of restoring its original state by reversing the factors responsible
for occurrence of the process is called reversible system and the thermodynamic process involved is called
reversible process.
Thus upon reversal of a process there shall be no trace of the process being occurred, i.e., state changes during
the forward direction of occurrence of a process are exactly similar to the states passed through by the system
during the reversed direction of the process. It is quite obvious that such reversibility can be realised only if the
system maintains its thermodynamic equilibrium throughout the occurrence of process.
Irreversible systems are those, which do not maintain equilibrium during the occurrence of a process.
Various factors responsible for the nonattainment of equilibrium are generally the reasons responsible for
irreversibility Presence of friction, dissipative effects etc.

Fig. Reversible and irreversible processes

What do you known by thermodynamic equilibrium.
Sol: Equilibrium is that state of a system in which the state does not undergo any change in itself with passage
of time without the aid of any external agent. Equilibrium state of a system can be examined by observing
whether the change in state of the system occurs or not. If no change in state of system occurs
then the system can be said in equilibrium.
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Generally, ensuring the mechanical, thermal, chemical and electrical equilibriums of the system may ensure
thermodynamic equilibrium of a system.
1. Mechanical Equilibrium: When there is no unbalanced force within the system and nor at its boundaries
then the system is said to be in mechanical equilibrium.
For a system to be in mechanical equilibrium there should be no pressure gradient within the system i.e.,
equality of pressure for the entire system.
2. Chemical Equilibrium: When there is no chemical reaction taking place in the system it is said to be in
chemical equilibrium.
3. Thermal equilibrium: When there is no temperature gradient within the system, the system is said to be in
thermal equilibrium.
4. Electrical Equilibrium: When there is no electrical potential gradient within a system, the system is said to
be in electrical equilibrium.
When all the conditions of mechanical, chemical thermal, electrical equilibrium are satisfied, the system is said
to be in thermodynamic equilibrium.
What do you understand by flow work? It is different from displacement work? How.
FLOW WORK
Flow work is the energy possessed by a fluid by virtue of its pressure.

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