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Transnationalism:Diaspora-HomelandDevelopment
RubinPatterson,Universityof Toledo
Abstract
Basedon detectedcorrelationsbetweenthe strategiccollaborationof U.S.-baseddiasporas
and their respectiveancestralhomelandson the one hand and the socioeconomicand
technologicaldevelopmentof thosehomelandson the other,thispaper,whichprovidesa
conceptualfoundation of the correlation,attempts to ignite a new area of researchon
transnationalismand developmentin the global South. The conceptualfoundation
suggestingsuchan importantcorrelationis ensconcedin the theoreticalcontextsof world
rankedstatusof a nationin some
systemsand racialformationtheories.Thehierarchically
the
ranked
status
its
waysreflects hierarchically
of diasporain the UnitedStates.Strategic
collaborationand braincirculationbetweenthe diasporaand the homelandcanfavorably
affectthe statusof transnationalcommunities,both within the UnitedStatesand within
the widerglobalsystem.
Introduction
Transnationalism1
is an emergentfieldof studywitha focus on citizenswho,thoughmigrating
frompoorto richcountries,manageto constructand nurturesocialfieldsthatintimatelylink
theirrespectivehomelandsand theirnew diasporiclocations.Whencitizensof the global
South,withadvancedhumancapital,migrateto a richWesternsociety such as the United
States andthey maintainstrategicdialecticalinterplaybetweenthe old and new locations,
braincirculation
whensuchtalentedcitizensmigrateto a richsocietyand
occurs.Conversely,
are permanentlyuprootedfromthe homeland,withoutfutureinvolvementin its affairs,the
lattersuffersa braindrain.ThoseSouthernnationsandregionsthatsupportthe emigration
of
of
the
and
numbers
their
nationals
to
United
States
those
who
large
diasporans
engage in
the buildingof institutions,conductingtransactionsand generallyinfluencinglocal and
nationalevents in theirrespectivehomelands- have a huge comparativeadvantageover
those Southernnationsand regionsthatfailto send theirnationalsto the UnitedStates or
those diasporanswho failto nurture
transnational
socialfieldswiththe homeland.
Transnationalism
and braincirculation
occurwithseveralAsiannations,increasingly
with
some Latinnations,and not much at all with Sub-Saharan
Africannations.In additionto
transnationalism
andsuggesting
developinga conceptualfoundationof strategically-oriented
thatit canaccelerateandextendsocioeconomicandtechnologicaldevelopmentinthe South,
this paper exploresreasons that partiallyaccount for the relativelack of such strategic
inSub-Saharan
Africa.Potential
transnationalism
advantagesstemmingfromAfrican
emigration
to developedcountriesare so greatthat Africangovernmentsshould aid and abet such
shouldnotbe consideredagainstan idealworldwhereinallAfrican
Thisproposition
emigration.
withfellow
nationalscanfindproductive
workintheircountryof birthas theylaborcollectively
citizensto builda prosperoussociety.2Rather,
the proposition
shouldbe consideredagainstthe
to nationaland
realworld in which Africancitizensare inhibitedfrom freelycontributing
constraints.
professional
developmentdueto economicandpolitical
Directallcorrespondence
to:RubinPatterson,
&Anthropology,
Toledo,
University
ofToledo,
Sociology
Ohio43606.E-mail:rpatter@utnet.utoledo.edu.
? The Universityof NorthCarolinaPress
is anefficient
Comparative
analysespresentedinthispapersuggest thattransnationalism
means of transferringknowledge,skills and wealth from core nations to those in the
andthe periphery.
Varioustypes of evidenceexistto supportthe chiefclaimto
semiperiphery
knowledgepresentedin this paper.On an abstractlevel, a combinationof diffusionand
the
expansionof technicalknowledgeand skillshas characterized
indigenously-generated
historyof advancementin humansocieties. JaredDiamond,in Guns,Germs,and Steel:A
ShortHistoryof Everybodyforthe Last1,300 Years,notes thatagriculture,
wheels, writing,
andotherearlierwatershedtechnologicaldevelopmentsrarelyoccurredde novo.
metallurgy
One way or anotherthe technologies are diffusedor transferredto other non-inventing
societies. Knowledgeand skillshave alwaysbeen importedfromthe outside,sometimes
andothertimesaggressively,sometimeswithbroadlyfavorableoutcomesandat
grudgingly
othertimes farless so. Whilethe movementcertainlyis not linear,overalladvancementsin
complexityandefficacyof technicalknowledgeandskillshavebeen manifest.Inadditionto
this sublimeworldwidepanoramic
view of how knowledgeandskillshaveprogressedalong
with theirimpacton social groupsacross millennia,this paperreflectson moreconcrete
historicalrecordsof specific countriesoverthe past few decades. Manycountries,from
Chinato South Koreato Indiaand others, have demonstratedthat developmentof the
homelandcan be acceleratedbymakingstrategicuse of theirdiasporasin NorthAmericaand
WesternEurope.Wheresimplythe UnitedStates is used hereas a surrogate,bothsocieties
are majorengines of technical knowledge and skills of the 20thand early21t centuries. Sheffer
Transnationalism:
Diaspora-Homeland
Development * 1893
inthe nearfuture,totallyassiEmilated
whiteLatinos...,lighter-skinned
andother
multiracials...,
racialgrouporhonorary
whiteswillcomprisemost light-skinned
sub-groups;the intermediate
Latinos...,Japanese Americans,KoreanAmericans,Asian Indians,Chinese Americans,
thatthe collectiveblackgroupwill
andmost MiddleEasternAmericans;andfinally,
Filippinos,
andLaotians."
includeblacks,dark-skinned
Latinos,Vietnamese,Cambodians
(pp.932-3)
Worldsystems theorycontends that nationspossess changinglevels of upwardand
downwardmobilityin the world economy.Accordingto Wallerstein(1979), nationscan
advancefromthe peripheryto the semiperiphery
(2)accepting
by (1)seizingopportunities,
invitationsfrom core nations,or (3) devising self-reliance.Peripheryand semiperiphery
andcollectively,
face a cacophanyof constraining
nations,individually
dynamicsoperatingto
keepthemin checkandto servethe interestof core nations.As OliverC. Cox(1964)argued
inthe classicCapitalism
AsA System,"although
the socialprocessesof the capitalistsystem
of
the
imitation
of
the
may encourage
practices
leading[core]societies, the system itself
cannotaccommodateindiscriminate
advancementof peoples."(p. 171)Notwithstanding
the
constrainingforces againstperipheralpeoples in the narrowinterestsof core nations,the
nationis not immutable.Thus,allnationshave
status of a givenperipheryor semiperiphery
it
is
and
mobilized in some relative to others.
more
agency, though
developed
is one agenticstrategyof advancinga nation'sstatus fromthe periphery
Transnationalism
(Patterson2005b).
is bidirectional.
First,Southern-based
Developmentthroughstrategictransnationalism
in
white
racial-ethnic
the
United
States
that
are
of
the
status
tendto possess
honorary
groups
greaterhuman,socialand economiccapital,whichmeans they mayhavea greatermeans
of assistingthe homeland.Second,approaching
the transnational
communityfromSouthern
nationsthatareinthe semiperiphery,
they areina betterpositionto assist membersof their
ethnic kinin the UnitedStates, eitherthroughcapitaland connectionsor simplythrough
"statuscapital."Inotherwords,Americanimmigrantsare bothassimilatedintotheirracialethnicgroupandareaccordedthe generalstatusof the group.
States arecentralto the processes of racialformationand hierarchy
(Winant2000),both
in
and
the
of the 21st
However,
postmodern,Knowledge-Age
intranationally internationally.
century,states and regimesuse race-neutral
languageand policiesthat recreateracialand
nationalhierarchies
the globalpoliticoeconomic
system. Doane(2003)concludes
throughout
that"'color-blind'
ideologyplaysan importantroleinthe maintenanceof whitehegemony.As
an organizedset of claimsaboutrace,colorblindnessrests on the seeminglyunassailable
moralfoundationsof equality,whichis the basisforits politicalstrength.Whatis overlooked
- or deliberatelymasked- is the persistenceof racialstratification
andthe ongoingroleof
in reproducing
socialinstitutions
socialinequality..."
(p. 13)Withcolor-blind
policiesinAmerica
today,school and residentialsegregationand white-blackwealthgap are as greatas they
were duringthe dayswhen rawJimCrowlawsandpolicieswere conspicuouslyformulated
andexpresslyimplemented.A parallelexistsat the international
level.Wealthandtechnology
inequalitybetween the West and the Southare greatertodaythanin the early1960s,the
periodwhenoppressive,racistcolonialismwas comingto an end.Whilebeing"race-neutral,"
financialandtraderegimesthatdeterminethe globaleconomy- such as the
international
- haveserved
International
MonetaryFund,the WorldBankandthe WorldTradeOrganization
to reproducea nationalhierarchyfor the globalsystem. Due primarily
to this parallel,the
hierarchical
statusof racial-ethnic
groupsinAmericatends to correspondto the hierarchical
statusof nationsinthe globalsystem. One maynotethe elevatedstatus in past decadesof
Americansand in morerecentyearsthe statuselevationof India-Asian
SouthKorea-Korean
IndianAmericans.As Wallerstein
stablereality,
(1991)argues,peoplehoodis not"aprimordial
buta complex,clay-likehistoricalproductof the capitalistworld-economy
throughwhichthe
antagonisticforcesstrugglewitheach other."(p.85)
Transnationalism:
Diaspora-Homeland
Development * 1895
Transnationalism:
Diaspora-Homeland
Development ? 1897
collaboration
was a jumpinthe SouthKoreanmarketshareof wigs inthe
diaspora-homeland
UnitedStates,froma mere5 percentin 1965to 89 percentin 1972.KEBeven openeda U.S.
branchin LosAngelesin 1967to furtherassist withbusiness lendingto Koreanimmigrants
(Chin,YoonandSmith1996).Theimmigrants
gainedinexperienceandconfidenceinthe wig
andotherhaircareandbeautysupplybusinessesthatmadethem moreadeptat penetrating
in poorminority
communitiesandbeyond.
numerousothermarkets,particularly
to the developmentof theSouth
As Choi(2003)pointsout,"ethnicKoreanshavecontributed
Koreaneconomy by transferring
their knowledgeand skills - which they obtainedand
(p.25)The
strengthenedinthe moreadvancedcountriesof theirresidence- to theirhomeland."
a networkof directandindirectmeansof influencing
SouthKoreanstate has longmaintained
"theSouthKorean
the diaspora.Clearly,
governmenthas sponsoredprogramsforprofessional
emigrantsseekingto buildbusinessesabroad,withthe expectationof directfinancialbenefits
to Korea."(Shain1999: 170) The governmentalso providedfree languageeducationfor
professionals,such as computerscientists,who were preparingto immigrateto the United
countries.Forthose planningto starta business
States,Japanandotherhighlyindustrialized
abroad,the governmentprovidedloansupto $200,000(Weiner1995).
resideinthe diaspora,tradebetweenthatcountryand
Studiesshowthat,whereverKoreans
SouthKoreais positivelyaffected.Inotherwords,the largerthe Koreandiasporaof a given
country,ingeneral,the greaterthe tradebetweenthe "host"countryandSouthKoreatendsto
be (Choi).
within
Developmentthroughthe diasporarefersto developmentas a resultof networking
and between diasporasof the same ethnicgroupin differentpartsof the world.A classic
exampleof developmentthroughthe diasporainvolvesoverseas Chinese.Mainlandand
overseasChineseas an economicblocconstitutesthe thirdlargesteconomyinthe world.The
Chineseeconomicblocof PRC,Taiwan,SingaporeandHongKongaloneis the world'slargest
of the
exporter.Nearly80 percentof overseasChineseliveinSoutheastAsia.Theirproportion
totalpopulationin manyof these SoutheastAsiannations,however,is low.Forexample,the
Chineseshareof the populationsof Indonesia,the Philippinesand Thailandrangesfrom3
percentto 10 percent;however,overseasChinesecontrolmorethan80 percentof the business
some 80 percentof the
equityinthese countries(Cheong2003).As forSingaporeandTaiwan,
areethnicChinese,andtheyalso controlthe lion'sshareof the businessequityin
populations
these two countries.As for overseas Chinesein the UnitedStates, they have particularly
fields,and they have helpedto transfersuch
distinguishedthemselves in high-technology
technologyto PRCandTaiwan.By1998,20 percentof startuphigh-techcompaniesinSilicon
two-way
Valleywere byethnicChinese."Theregion'sChineseengineersconstructeda vibrant
(Saxenian1999:
bridgeconnectingthe technologycommunitiesinSiliconValleyandTaiwan..."
inChinesetransnational
communitiesis conspicuously
successful.
53)Thedialectical
interplay
Since Deng Xiopingopened up the countryin 1978, overseas Chinesehave been the
principalinvestorsin the PRC.Presently,Chinarankssecond behindthe UnitedStates in
recipientsof foreigndirectinvestment.In2003,totalFDIintoChinawas $57 billion(UNCTAD
2004).Thus,in 1991,LeeKuanYew,the foundingpresidentof Singapore,andDengcollectively
Convention
(WCEC)
(Cheong).Bythe sixth
presidedoverthefirstWorldChineseEntrepreneurs'
the locationof the gathering,fromsome
WCEC,ethnicChinesewere descendingon Nanjing,
77 diasporicChinesecommunitiesaroundthe world.Atthatmeeting,whereBeijinginvested
morethan$1 billionto strengthendiaspora-homeland
it was resolvedthatthe
collaboration,
willleadthe globaleconomicblocof overseasChinese(Cheong).
mainland
Thereareimportant
lessonsforAfricansandothersto gleanfromthese diaspora-homeland
collaborative
developmentexperiences.Whereasthe mainlandis encouragingsuccessful
forpurposesof ancestralhomelanddevelopment
overseasChineseto invest,if notrepatriate,
andthe pursuitof personalfortune,4
African
many
governmentsoftenlooksuspiciouslyattheir
Transnationalism:
Diaspora-Homeland
Development ? 1899
1990 Immigration
Act;it was raisedto 115,000infiscalyear 1999andto 195,000between
fiscalyears 2000 and 2002, whereuponthe cap would revertbackto 65,000, whichit did.
and
and ElectronicEngineers(IEEE-U.S.)
Unions,the U.S.branchof the Instituteof Electrical
othersfoughtthe increasewhilemanyindustryexecutivesandtradeassociations,such as
the BusinessSoftwareAlliance(BSA),Information
TechnologyAssociationof America(ITAA)
- whichrepresentcompaniesincluding
Cisco
Associationof America(EAA)
andthe Electronic
Systems, Intel,Motorola,TexasInstrumentsand Oracle,firmsthatemployH-1Bs - wanted
stillhighernumbersof H-1Bs. Herewe havea domesticpublicpolicyfightthatis fraughtwith
some thatloomparticularly
seriousforeignimplications,
largeforthe homelandsof engaged
U.S.-baseddiasporas.Countriesthat send largenumbersof theirnationalsto the United
States on H-1B visas havetheirdevelopmentagendas boundup in this debate. Organized
withtheirrespectivehomelandstates enterintothe politicalfrayin
diasporasincollaboration
BSA
of
and their member firms. Key to the diaspora-homeland
ITAA,
EAA,
support
is to aligntheirprojectwithotherdomestic
collaborative
successes of these ethnonationals
forces(e.g.,votingblocsand/orlobbyingcampaignof iconssuch as the bluechiptech firms
citedabove)and/orcommonlyexpressedAmericaninterestsandideals.
Once more,the Indiangovernment- likethatof the SouthKorean,Chinese,Taiwanese,
Singaporeanand other countries- has taken a proactive,comprehensiveand strategic
collaborative
developmenteffort,hence braincirculation.
approachto its diaspora-homeland
Notethe observationsof MyronWeiner(1990):
TheIndiangovernmenthas made a majoreffortto reachout to the
Indiancommunityin the UnitedStatesforsupport.Ithas sought to
inducenonresidentIndians(NRIs...)to deposittheirsavingsin Indian
banks,investin Indiancompanies,andstarttheirown businessesin
India.TheIndianfinanceministerhas met withthe New York-based
Fund"to help
NRIClubof NorthAmericato discusscreatingan "India
membersinvestin India,andtherehavebeen discussionsof pressing
the IRS to permit tax-shelteredIRA accounts to be used for
investmentsin India.TheIndianEmbassyhas also encouragedthe
IndianCommunityin the UnitedStates to activelysupportIndian
(p.202)
foreignpolicyobjectivesin Washington.
Affairsof the Indiangovernmenthas establisheda SpecialHigh
TheMinistryof External
LevelCommitteeon the IndianDiaspora.Thecommitteewas createdto studythe problems,
aspirationsand attitudesof the IndianDiaspora,and to study the roles that Nonresident
Indians(NRIs)andpeopleof Indianorigincouldplayinthe economic,socialandtechnological
developmentof India(TheHindu2001).Tothisend,the Indiangovernmenthas recentlytaken
two concrete,proactivesteps: (1)ruledto allowdualcitizenshipfor NRIsand(2)established
a new ministry
forthe singularpurposeof servingthe needs andelicitingthe supportof NRIs.
These two demonstrableacts show how Indiahas fullyembracedthe strategichomelanddiasporadevelopmentmodel.
Mexico
Sharpcontrastscan be drawnbetween the aboveAsiannationsand othernationsseeking
to develop.Mexicois one of those nationsthat,untilrecently,failedto aggressivelypursuea
strategic diaspora-homelandcollaborativedevelopment agenda. State officials, nongovernmentestablishmentfiguresandthe Mexicandiasporiceliteinthe UnitedStatesfailed
Transnationalism:
Development * 1901
Diaspora-Homeland
Transnationalism:
Diaspora-Homeland
Development * 1903
collaborativedevelopmentagendas.Thereare clear
diasporic-homeland
continent-general
Inhis study,Apraku(1991),forone
examplesinAfricato whichone can pointforillustration.
example,has foundevidenceof Africangovernments'effortsto luretheirrespectivetechnical
withsubsidiesfor homes, cars,andprofessionalequipmentinthe
nationalsintorepatriation
homelandcountry.Nevertheless,there is a chasm between state officialsand strategic
thinkingestablishmentfiguresinAfricansocietiesincomparisonwithothercountriesprofiled
inthisstudywhen it comes to mobilizing
its U.S.-baseddiasporas.
One of the most significantrecent U.S.foreignpolicydebates towardAfricawas the
Act(AGOA).
AGOAeffectivelysplitmembersof the
proposedAfricanGrowthandOpportunity
BlackCaucus,24 ultimately
votedinsupportand12 against(Walters
2004).The
Congressional
assentingside saw it as a feeble yet importantstartof new investmentintoAfricaand new
inAmericaforAfricanexportersbeyondprimary
marketopportunities
products.Thus,theysaw
AGOAas a belatedemulationof U.S.investmentand marketopeningsdecades earlierthat
contributed
to EastAsia'sstartingout inlowlyapparelandtextileproduction
andsubsequently
going throughrapidindustrialization.
Conversely,the dissenterssaw it as destructivefor a
continent already broken economically.In short, the dissenters largely agreed with
Jessie Jackson,Jr.'scharacterization
of itwhen he saidthatthe initiative
was
Representative
so inimical
to Africaninterestsuntilit mayas wellbe labeledas the "Africa
Recolonization
Act."
Some have thoughtof AGOAas the "African
NAFTA."
However,there was inadequate
coordination
betweenAfricancapitalsorwiththe formerOrganization
forAfricanUnity(OAU)
andblackpoliticalandAfrica-focused
leadersinthe UnitedStates.Walters(2004)notes that,
althoughgroups like the Constituencyfor Africaand the AfricanDiplomaticCorps in
Washingtondidworksome withAfricanAmericanleaders,theircollectiveeffortsat issue
framingandcollaborative
agendasettingappearnotto havebeen on the levelof the Mexican
NAFTA
effort.The Mexicangovernmentregularlybroughtlarge delegationsof Mexican
Americanleadersto MexicoCityfor consultationand coordinationto both help shape the
Suchissue framingand collaborative
draftingand passage of NAFTA.
developmentagenda
settingwere not emulatedby diasporicleadersand leadersof Africanstates, commercial
enterprisesandcivilsocietyorganizations.
Conclusion
Usingthe approachof comparativeanalysis,this paperhas investigatedthe importanceof
transnationalism
as a means of advancingpeoples, whichcomes inthe formof homeland
states workingcollaboratively
withtheirrespectivediasporasinthe UnitedStatesto benefit
the homeland.Thesignificantfindingis thatwhen science andtechnologytalentednationals
froma Southerncountryemigrateto the UnitedStates,such emigrationcan be identifiedas
-a
eithera braindrain- an adverseimpacton the homeland- or a case of braincirculation
socioeconomicandtechnologygainforthe homeland.Thefactorthat most determinesthe
outcomeis the natureof collaboration
betweenthe homelandandthe U.S.-baseddiaspora.
At one end of the spectrumthere is no substantivecoordinationbetween sanctioned
institutionsandleadersof organizations
governmentofficesorquasi-government
comprised
between
chieflyof theirdiasporans.Forthatmatter,theremayeven be a hostilerelationship
the two. Atthe otherend of the spectrumis institutionalized
between
strategiccollaboration
the two sides, resultingfroma combinationof a heightenedsense of sympathy,solidarity,
obligationand profitto be made.
Thisstudylookedat homelanddevelopmentas the outcomewithstrategiccollaborative
developmentbetweendiasporicleadersandthe homelandas the operativefactor.Homeland
as technological
andsocioeconomicdevelopment(including
developmentwas conceptualized
between
attainmentandaverageincome).Strategiccollaboration
lifeexpectancy,educational
the diasporaandthe homelandwas takenas a measureof a diasporiccommunity'sfavorable
affect on the U.S. state; technologytransfer;and financialcontributions,includingboth
remittancesandinvestments.
UnlikeIsrael,China,Indiaand South Korea,Mexico had to overcome the mutually
inthe late 1970s,
disparagingsentimentsbetweenthe two sides. Sincethe rapprochement
debate,andis
progressstartedslowly,then pickedupsteam duringthe periodof the NAFTA
now gainingmoregroundaroundissues of permanentresidency,amnestyandguest-worker
diaspora-homeland
programs.Africannations are furtherbehind in institutionalizing
collaborativedevelopmentagendas. In the past few decades, Africandiasporasand
homelandshaveworkedonlyepisodicallyto promotedevelopmentin the latter,but,again,
such collaborativedevelopment agendas in Sub-SaharanAfrica have never been
as in othernations.The challengeto institutionalizing
institutionalized
diaspora-homeland
collaborativedevelopmentis exponentiallymore difficultbecause of the multiplestates
involvedand the fact that Sub-SaharanAfricancountries would be attemptingthis
inthe early21stcenturyratherthaninthe mid-to late-20th
institutionalization
centurywhenthe
historical
momentperhaps
collaborative
and
a
states
launched
their
campaigns
single-case
moreamenableto such developmentstrategiesexisted.
Notes
see Schillerand Basch(1995);Schiller,Baschand
1. Fordiscussionson transnationalism,
Blanc-Szanton
1992;Portes1999;Kivisto2001.
2. Homingin on the nature of Africancoordinationof its diasporizedand domestic
homeland-basedpeoples aroundtechnologicaldevelopmentis not to ignorethe AIDS
pandemic,cripplingilliteracy,
grindingpoverty,rampantcorruptionand othersocial ills
across the continent.At the same time, solving those ills without promotingand
of technically-oriented
diasporizedand homeland-based
strengtheningthe collaboration
Africanswillalso likelyconfoundsocialandeconomicdevelopment.Inotherwords,this
overotherchallenges.
collaboration
paperin no way privilegesthe diaspora-homeland
Instead,this papermerelyseeks to drawattentionto andconceptuallyclarifyone huge
thatis typicallyignoredor glossed overin development
challengeas wellas opportunity
scholarship. China, Israel, South Korea and India have witnessed considerable
developmentin the past few decades; eliminatethe U.S.-baseddiaspora-homeland
collaborativedevelopment agenda and their socioeconomic and technological
developmentwouldhavebeen stymiedorworse.
3. Diaspora-homeland
developmentin the case of Israelhas been and continuesto be
uniquelycrucialto its security and sheer survival,not just to socioeconomic and
technologicaldevelopment.WithoutU.S.directandindirectsupportof economic,military
and intelligenceassistanceto Israeloverits 54-yearhistory,the nationwouldhavelong
effortsand economic
ceased to exist.Withoutthe diasporiccommunity'smobilization
to
successes, U.S.state supportandAmericanwealthwouldnot havebeenforthcoming
Israel.Moreover,no otherdiasporiccommunityin the UnitedStates is likelyto emulate
this success due in partto JewishAmericans'unrivaledbreadthand depthof influence
in positionsof powerinAmericansociety,relativeto ThirdWorlddiasporas.Nonetheless,
Jewishmodelprovidesinsightregarding
the non-emulative
projects
possiblecollaborative
forothertransnational
groups.
Transnationalism:
Development * 1905
Diaspora-Homeland
4. China,of course, also regularlysurveils and in some cases detains some ethnic Chinese,
especially those from the United States, for fear of seditious activity.Nevertheless, such
fear may be more prevalentwith Africangovernments.
5. Thereare reallimitsto this so-called politicalclout by blackpoliticalorganizationsinthe United
States. One evident illustrationof this limitationis PresidentBush's refusalto meet with the
CongressionalBlackCaucusand to address the annualmeeting of the NAACPinthe past five
years. A president's failureto providesuch an audience and address Jewish politicaland
advocacy leaders is almost unthinkable.While meetings can be construed as merely
symbolic, these meetings are nonetheless reflectionsof the gravityof the seriousness with
which issues and concerns of ethno-nationalgroups are taken by the government.
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