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INTERPRETIVE RESEARCH: A NEW WAY OF VIEWING ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION


Author(s): SANDRA L. FISH
Source: Public Administration Quarterly, Vol. 14, No. 1 (SPRING, 1990), pp. 66-74
Published by: SPAEF
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COMMUNICATION
RALPH P. HUMMEL
Editor
INTRODUCTION
"[We need] a recognitionof the two-waynature of the
political-career
managementdialogue."
-Froma proposedpublicservice
modelofmanagement*
Currentcalls fordialoguein publicadministration
reflectthe
in
that
we
need
new
communication
that
insight
something
overcomesthe traditionalflowof one-waycommandsfromthe
top down.It is, however,by no means clearwhetherthose who
issue the call understandwhattheyare callingfor.If theyuse
the traditionalscientificmodel of communications-as the
exchange of already formedbits of knowledgeconceived as
"hard data"- thentheyguaranteethat no true dialogue will
come intouse.
If,on the otherhand,theyare aware ofwhatphenomenology
reveals about dialogue- that true dialogue is the two-way
ofmeaning- thenadvocatesofdialogue mustalso
construction
accept the consequence that dialogue is political.Those who
definemeaningare engaged in the fundamentalpoliticalact
thatdefinesreality.In the followingarticle,Sandra Fish helps
us questionthe receivedknowledgeof traditionalcommunicationsmodels.
PatriciaW. Ingrahamand CarolynR. Ban (1986). "Models of Public Management:
Review
Are TheyUsefulto Federal Managers in the 1980s?" Public Administration
46 (March/April):159.

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INTERPRETIVE RESEARCH: A NEW


WAY OF VIEWING ORGANIZATIONAL
COMMUNICATION
SANDRA L. FISH
Ithaca College

INTRODUCTION
In thefieldoforganizational
therehas been
communication
debateforovera decaderegarding
researchmethods
increasing
construction.
andtheory
between
Focusingon thedistinctions
and relativemeritsofthetraditional
or
"objective" positivist
approachand the alleged "subjective"approachesvariously
describedas naturalistic,
and
qualitative,
phenomenological,
mostrecently
The purposeofthisarticleis to (1)
interpretive.
describethe interpretive
fromthe
approachas distinguished
traditionalsocial scientificapproachto researchand (2)
researchin organizational
current
illustrate
interpretive
briefly
communication.
THE UNEXPLAINED
UNDERSTANDING
The traditional
scientific
as:
approachcan be characterized
1) reductionists,in reducing phenomenato operational
inthatall phenomena
arebelieved
definitions;
2) deterministic,
to havecauseswhichcan be duplicated;
in that
3) predictive,
thegoalistopredict
in that
behavior;
4) observer
independent,
theresearcher
triesnotto influence
thedata; 5) empirical,
in
thatonlyobservable
dataaretobe examined;6) repeatable,
so
thattheresearchcan be replicated
7)
by otherinvestigators;
in
that
the
should
be
in
described
quantitative,
phenomena
terms(Giorgi,1971:7).Thus,traditional
measurable
research

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PAQ SPRING 1990

examinesvariablesin orderto predict


behavior.
communication
has
Traditional
researchin organizational
examinedsuch conceptsas networkstructureand roles,
motivation
andcontrol,
communication
and
climate,
leadership,
forthepurposeoflearning
causesofproblems
conflict
primarily
in orderto developsolutions.In a state-of-the-art
review,
Goldhaberet.al. (1978:93) argue that such information
in organizations
is
regardingthe processof communication
in
useful
of
solving problems coordination,
"potentially
planning,employeerelations,and humanresourcedevelopment in on-goingorganizations"and concludewith the
totheseproblems"must
admonition
thatdeveloping
solutions
becomea centralfocus"ofsuchresearch.
Giorgi(1971:21)positsthatthe essentialquestionforthe
humansciencesis not"Howdo we measurephenomena?"
but
the
mean?"
"What
do
rather,
Consequently,
phenomena
communication
focuses
researchin organizational
interpretive
on theinter
attention
contextual
subjective
meaningsassigned
of "organizamembersin the constitution
by organizational
tionallife" withthe goal of understanding
"organizational
and producedbyits members(Deetz,
reality"as experienced
1982:132).Suchresearchseeksto answerthequestion,Howis
life accomplishedcommunicatively?
(Pacanorganizational
research
1982:122).Interpretive
owskyandO'Donnell-Trujillo,
is less a "new view" and morea "new way of viewing"
(Sanders,1982:359),one whichrecognizesthat
organizations
individuals
simultaneously
shapeandareshapedbytheirworld
and
(Fish
Dorris,1975:9).
researchis the survey
A favoritemethodfortraditional
whichis relatively
circumscribed,
quantifiable,
questionnaire
and efficient.
Surveyresultscan be usefulto managersin
problems,theircauses or origins,and possible
identifying
solutions.However,surveymethodssufferfromtwo serious
and context
flaws:1) theylackrichnessofdetailofperception
the
research
before
to
ask
what
and 2) theypresume
begins
to
and O'Donnell-Trujillo,
1982:121).In contrast
(Pacanowsky
methodswhich include in-depth
the survey,interpretive
observaandnon-participant
oraccounts,
interviews
participant
butseektogatherfull
tion,donotbeginwitha prioricategories

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PAQ SPRING 1990

(69)

detailfromthe perspectiveofthe organizationalmembers.


REVEALING THE UNSEEN
' reveal?A useful
Whatdoes this' 'newwayofviewing*
wayto
illustratesuch a process of lookingat realityis to examine
or "the use of multiple
researchwhichinvolvestriangulation
'
methodstoexaminethesame dimensionsofa researchproblem'
(Jick,1979:602). These examples will offera comparisonand
contrastof alternativeways of viewingthe same phenomenon.
because of the inclusionof qualitativeor interAdditionally,
pretivemethodsin the design, triangulatedmethodsnot only
"examine the same phenomenonfrommultipleperspectives
butalso enrichourunderstanding
byallowingfornew or deeper
dimensionsto emerge" (Ibid., 603-604).
Four instancesof research will illustratethe breadth and
depth providedby triangulation.Albrechtand Ropp (1982)
by applyinga fieldsurveyinstrument
argue fortriangulation
and on-siteobservationto the examinationofnetworkrelationinwork
shipsin a hospitalfocusingon theroleofcommunication
for
selfasked
nurses
to
A
distributed
stress. questionnaire
work
at
to
behavior
reportsregardingtheir communication
measure the pattern,volume,and strengthof social support
networks.Qualitativemethods included non-directiveinterobservationof interactions.
viewingand naturalisticstructured
traditional
that
the
conclude
surveytechnique
(Ibid., 177)
They
elicits "an overviewof the aggregatedperceptionsof links"
and respondent
whileinterviews
providecentextualinformation
explanations for the network relationships as well as
observationand analysisofthe "microrelationalpatternsgive
clues tounderstanding
howthe macropictureemergesand how
translateintobehavior."
self-accounts
respondents'
In an examinationof state employeeviewpointsregarding
performanceappraisal proceduresand issues, Faules (1982)
utilizedmulti-methods
includinga surveyquestionnaireand
storycollectionusing taped interviews.Both types of data
corroboratedthat employees questioned the relationship
betweenjob performance
and appraisal.Interestingly,
although
the storymethodwas originally
viewedas superfluousby those

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the study,in the end it elicitedthe most


commissioning
forthose responsiblefor
and usefulinformation
intriguing
the
improving appraisalsystem.
and identification
A studyoforganizational
decision-making
and
a
combined
at a state university
surveyquestionnaire
While
interviews.
scheduled
accountanalysisusingmoderately
different
the surveydata validatedthe accountinterviews,
reasons and interpretations
emerged only throughthe
the
authors
interviews,
insights
leadingto suggested
allowing
and
revisions.
Tompkins Cheney(1983:144)conclude
theory
accountanalysishas allowed
thata "philosophically
grounded
theoretical
us to researchimportant
problemsin a real-world
processesby whichthe
settingand to tap thecommunicative
and the individual
the
individual
influences
organization
influences
theorganization/'
Management
styleand its consequencesfororganizational
are thefocusforPettegrew's
communication
(1982)investigation set in an academic medical center utilizingboth
data overa four-year
and interpretive
periodof
quantitative
the
data
observation.
Interpretive provided primary
participant
ofthe
basis(validated
data)forthedisconfirmation
byempirical
an
as
revealed
of
through analysisof
style
theory management
and other
written
communication,
groupmeetings,
metaphors,
Basedonbothtypesofdata,Pettegrew
dimensions.
(1982:190)
ofmanagement
thatthetheory
concludes
stylefailsto account
ingeneraland
behavior
oforganizational
for' 'essentialfeatures
and offersan alternative
issuesin particular"
communication
which"holds
theS.O.B. TheoryofManagement
explanation,
and
service
health
human
in
thatinterestgroups non-profit
willrelatein a generally
negativemannerto top
organizations
oftheirparticular
executives
management
style."
regardless
methods
ofresearch
In all fourofthesestudies,triangulated
have revealedthatthe interpretive
approachyieldsa fuller,
members'
of
account
more
organization
richer,
explanatory
interresults
even
where
than
of
their
reality survey
perceptions
resultsconverged.Bruyn(1966:37)
pretiveand quantitative
suggeststhat the traditionalscientistand the participant
different
observer
mayresearchthesame concepts,obtaining
more
and
on
these
creating
together
concepts,
perspectives

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PAQ SPRING 1990

(71)

knowledge.
comprehensive
HEARINGTHE UNHEARD-OF
a more explanatory
accountof
In additionto offering
methods
alsoallowexamination
of
communication,
interpretive
Four
inaccessible
to
instances
positivist
scrutiny.
phenomena
ofinterpretive
research
theuniquecontributions
willillustrate
oforganizational
communication.
totheunderstanding
HarrisandCronen(1979)
Usingan interactionist
perspective,
cultureofa socialsciencedepartanalyzedtheorganizational
institution
mentof an educational
its "master
by identifying
contract"whichis organizedintotwo levels: organizational
and rules which"integratespecific
imageor self-definition
withtheorganizational
beliefsandbehaviors
image"(Ibid,15).
serve
as constitutive
and regulative,
Theserules,categorized
ofperceptions
of
thepurposesofcoorientation
("confirmation
andcoordination
thecollective
mastercontract")
("movements
which affirmor renegotiatethat
withinthe organization
individualscan be
contract")(Ibid., 19). Furthermore,
withwhichthey
evaluatedbasedon thedegreeofcompetence
and coordinate
theiractivities
withinthe
coorient
themselves
ofsome
ofthecollectively
defined
framework
rules,an approach
fororganizational
consultants.
significance
Kreps (1983;247) used an extensivestudyof the organizaandculture
tobuild
ofRCAVideodisk
tionalfolklore
Operations
to
tool"
assimilate
communication
an "employee-orientation
intotheorganizational
culture.
newemployees
Usinginterviews
the researchersattempted
to discoverthe
and observation,
logics and legends" of RCA folkloreand to
"underlying
intheform
thatfolklore
recreate
ofa videotapeorientation
tool
to increasethe chances for new membersto "behave in
withcultural
accordance
norms"(Ibid.),
Gilchrest
andBrowning
(1981)offera modelfordeveloping
communication
based on observation
and interviews.
training
tailored
Usinga grounded-theory
approach,theseresearchers
the trainingin bargainingand negotiationskills to the
ofthetrainees(statetaxenforcement
and
officers)
experiences
a
model:
observe
communication
1)
behavior;
proposed six-step

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PAQ SPRING 1990

2) identifypatternsof behavior;3) verifypropositionsagainst


relevantresearch; 4) verifyagainst expertopinion; 5) design
instructional
strategyand conductpilottrainingsessions; and 6)
conductdetailedevaluationresearch.
In an unusualand originalarticle,Pacanowsky(1983)uses the
genre of fictionto detail a police officer'sorganizationallife,
based on the researcher's160 hoursof observation.While this
method departs from the conventionalacademic form of
presentingfindings,it neverthelessreveals the richness of
ofinterpretive
detailcharacteristic
researchin an intriguing
and
innovativefashion.
There are numerousutilitiesof the interpretive
approachto
the studyof organizationalcommunication(Pacanowskyand
O'Donnell-Trujillo,1982), includingthe followingadvantages:
data can serveas pre-quantitative
1) interpretive
descriptionto
help ground quantitativedesigns; 2) interpretivedata can
providea holisticview ofthe communication
process,reducing
the problemof positionalviewpoints;and 3) interpretive
data
provide actual experience-basedaccounts of organizational
.
communication
COSTING OUT THE QUALITATIVE
Interpretivemethods are not withoutdisadvantages. The
necessaryexpenditureof time,and consequentlymoney,may
be discouraging.Obtainingthoroughdata throughinterviews
and observationrequires collectingdocuments,note taking,
audio- and/orvideo-taping,all of which necestranscribing,
sitatethe researcher'simmersionin the organization(Pacan1982:127). As a consequence of
owskyand O'Donnell-Trujillo,
such immersion,the researcherfaces anotherobstacle- the
taskofrecognizingone's ownassumptionsaboutorganizational
life which requires abandoning a "natural attitude" and
viewingthe organizational
experienceas "strange" or without
attitudes
(Fish and Dorris, 1975:13-14;
taken-for-granted
Hawes, 1977:33).
Finally,because ofthe wide use and acceptanceof surveys,
there is frequentskepticismto overcome regarding nontraditionalmethods (Faules, 1982:150-151). None of these

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PAQ SPRING 1990

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obstacles is insurmountableand the findingsof interpretive


so richand compellingas to merittheir
researchare ordinarily
Current
interpretiveresearch in organizational
acceptance.
is
communication yieldingdetailedaccountsof the communication processes of organizationallife, describinghow people
and howmyths,stories,
actuallyworktogetherin organizations,
to
norms
function
create
consensus (Deetz,
and
symbols,
1985:123).
The critical perspectivein interpretiveresearch is now
to go
emergingin the field of organizationalcommunication
to a critiqueof systembeyonddescriptionand understanding
false consensus, and more
aticallydistortedcommunication,
broadlythe social order (Deetz, 1985:126; Putnam, 183:53).
Such an analysisis an inevitabledevelopmentin the challenge
interpretiveresearch makes to the underlyingvalues of a
positivistscience.

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