Introduction of Stress Analysis

What is piping Stress analysis

1. Analytical procedure to evaluate the stress state at various points in a piping system.
2. Also known as flexibility analysis since it also helps ascertain the required flexibility in the piping
system
3. Helps determine displacements and forces / moments on the hangers, supports, restraints, guides,
stops and anchors in the piping system
Why do we Perform Pipe Stress Analysis?
1. In order to keep stresses in the pipe and fitting within allowable levels.
2. In order to keep nozzle loading on the attached equipment within allowables of manufacturers or
recognized standrads (NEMA SM23,API 610,API 617, etc)
3. In order to keep vessel stresses at piping connections within ASME Section VIII allowable levels.
4. In order to calcu;ate design load for sizing supports and restrains.
5. In order to determine piping displacements for interference checks.
6. In order to solve dynamics problems in piping. Such as those due to mechanical vibration, acoustic
vibration, fliuid hammer,pulsation,transient flow and relief valve discharge.
7. In oerder to help optimize the pipe design.
Identification of Stress Critical lines
The main factors which decide stress critical lines are as follows:
1.

Line design/operating/upset temperature

2.

Equipment connection

3.

Pipe and Equipment material

4.

Pipe condition

5.

Pipe thickness

6.

Design/Upset pressure

Mostly the critical lines for which stress analysis is to be performed by formal computer analysis consists of
the following lines:
1. All Pump (Centrifugal-API/ANSI, gear pump, Screw pump) suction and discharge piping (4 inch and
larger).
2. Centrifugal Compressor inlet and outlet piping.
3. Lines to and from steam generators.
4. Reciprocating pump and compressor suction and discharge piping.
5. Piping requiring expansion joints or other proprietary expansion devices.
6. Steam and Gas Turbine inlet and outlet piping.
7. Air Cooler inlet and outlet piping (3 inch and larger).
8. Process Heater inlet and outlet piping
9. Lines classified as category M as per ASME B31.3.
10. Piping subjected to high cyclic temperature conditions.

11. All jacketed lines.

12. Lines that require nozzle load compliance as stipulated per applicable codes or equipment Vendor
allowable (Heat exchanger, Pressure Vessel Connected systems).
13. Lines subject to dynamic loading (relief lines, line with large pressure drop at control valves, surge
pressure, slug flow, churn, two phase flow, water hammer, flashing, etc.)
14. All Fiberglass, aluminium alloy, refractory or elastomer lined piping.
15. All piping systems connected to FRP, plastic, glass lined steel or brittle equipment
16. Lines subjected to non-thermal movements (Expected differential settlement between structures,
structure-equipment, etc., process equipment growth, header growth, tower growth or other
significant displacements, etc.)
17. All lines 8 and larger operating above 150 deg. C (300 deg. F) and greater.
18. All lines 20 and larger operating above 80 deg. C (200 deg. F) and greater.
19. All lines 36 and larger.
20. All lines operating below -45 deg. C (-50 deg. F) which require special cold supports.
21. All plastic lined piping systems. Special attention shall be given to add enough additional supports to
limit the external forces and moments in the flange connections to avoid an extra risk of flange leaks
22. Lines with special design requirements
23. All Safety pressure relieving systems 4 inch and larger (not including thermal reliefs)
24. Lines judged by the lead piping engineer/stress engineer as not having sufficient inherent flexibility
25. In addition, the piping effects of other conditions such as temperature gradients that could cause
thermal bowing or where piping is connected to equipment with significant thermal growth may
warrant detailed computer analysis.
26. For thin wall piping, if the D/T ratio exceeds 100, following requirements are applicable:
a. Design and support of piping systems using this specification should be reviewed by a stress
engineer. Support and spans of thin wall piping systems are not covered by current Project
practices and therefore must be designed for each application.
b. Stub-in connections per 304.3.2 thru 304.3.4 of ASME B31.3, are not allowed for run pipe
with D/T greater than or equal to 100 and the branch diameter is greater than one half of
the header diameter.
27. Lines connected to non-ferrous equipments.
28. Underground process lines with more than 30 degree difference in between design and ambient
temperature.
29. All vertical lines connected to vertical vessels that require pipe supports or guides from that vessel.
30. All lines 4 inch and larger subject to external pressure or vacuum conditions.
31. All lines subject to vibration, as specified by Process, due to high velocity flow, high pressure drop,
water hammer or mixed phase flow.

32. All lines that are connected to equipment constructed of thermoset or thermoplastic materials or
that is glass, refractory, or elastomer lined.
33. All pressure containing non-metallic lines.
34. All flare line headers
35. Lines for which an Alternative Leak Test has been specified.

Critical Line List

Many organisations have the practice of dividing these critical lines into three groups based on their
criticality:

1.

Highly critical lines or group C1 lines: Must be reviewed thoroughly

2.

Moderately Critical lines or group C2 lines and

3.

Lower critical lines or group C3 lines

Information Required for Stress Analysis

Here are needed information.
1. Outside diameter of piping, wall thickness (or nominal diameter, schedule number)
2. Temperature, internal pressure
3. Material of piping. (Expansion coeffcient, Young's modulus, and material density will be selected for
this material.)
4. Insulation thickness and insulation material. (If not given, standard thickness for calcium silicate will
be selected.)
5. Specifc gravity of contents
6. Any wind load to be considered? If yes, the direction of application is important.
7. Any anchor initial translation. (For towers, exchangers, and so on, nozzle initial ranslation is
important.)
8. Corrosion allowance for piping
9. Flange rating, (ANSI B16.5)
10. Standard valve weight and flange weight will be used. (For special valves mark the weight on pipe
stress isometric.)
11. Long radius elbows will be used. (If short radius or any other bend radius, mark on the isometric.)
For short-radius elbow, radius= diameter
12. Any allowable loading from manufacturers on pumps, turbines, compressors? (From the vendor
drawing for equipment.)
13. Any preference to use expansion loops, expansion joints, and so on, if needed?
14. Mark type of intersection (reinforced fabricated tee, etc.)
15. Mark support locations (available steel crossing, and so on) on the isometric
16. Is hydraulic testing load condition to be considered to get structural support loads?

17. Pipe stress isometrics (x-, y-, z-axis) piping plans, and sections are necessary.

Piping Loads Primary, Secondary, Sustained Loads, Occasional Loads, Static

Primary Load
These are typically steady or sustained types of loads such as internal fluid pressure, external
pressure, gravitational forces acting on the pipe such as weight of pipe and fluid, forces due to relief
or blow down, pressure waves generated due to water/steam hammer effects.
Sustained Loads:
1.

Internal/External Pressure : A pipe used for transporting fluid would be under internal pressure load.
A pipe such as a jacketed pipe core or tubes in a Shell & Tube ex-changer etc. may be under net
external pressure. Internal or external pressure induces stresses in the axial as well as
circumferential (Hoop Stress) directions. The pressure also induces stresses in the radial direction,
but these are often neglected. The internal pressure exerts an axial force equal to pressure times
the internal cross section of the pipe. F =P[d^2/4]. If outer diameter is used for calculating
approximate metalcross-section as Pressure well as pipe cross-section, the axial stress can often be
approximated as follows : S =Pd /(4t)

2.

Dead Weight : It is the self weight of pipe including fluid, weight of fittings & other inline
components (say valve, insulation etc.). This type of loads act throughout the life cycle of pipe.
These Loads cause bending and the bending moment is related to normal and shear stresses. Pipe
bending is caused mainly due to two reasons : distributed weight load (e.g. fluid weight) and
concentrated weight load (e.g. valve weight).

Occasional Loads:
1.

Wind Load : Piping which are located outdoors and thus exposed to wind will be designed to
withstand the maximum wind velocity expected during the plant operating life. Wind force is
modeled as a uniform load acting upon the projected length of the pipe perpendicular to the
direction of the wind. Wind pressure for various elevations will be used to calculate wind force using
the following formula. Fw = Pw x S x A, where Fw = The total wind force, Pw = The equivalent wind
pressure, S = Wind shape factor, A = Pipe exposed area.

2.

Seismic Load : Seismic load is one of the basic concepts of earthquake engineering which means
application of an earthquake-generated agitation to a structure. It happens at contact surfaces of a
structure either with the ground, or with adjacent structures, or with gravity waves from tsunami.

3.

Water Hammer : Water hammer (or more generally, fluid hammer) is a pressure surge or wave
caused when a fluid (usually a liquid but sometimes also a gas) in motion is forced to stop or change
direction suddenly (momentum change). Water hammer commonly occurs when a valve closes
suddenly at an end of a pipeline system, and a pressure wave propagates in the pipe. It's also called
hydraulic shock.

4.

Steam hammer : Steam hammer, the pressure surge generated by transient flow of super-heated
or saturated steam in a steam-line due to sudden stop valve closures is considered as an occasional
load. Through the flow is transient, for the purpose of piping stress analysis, only the unbalanced
force along the pipe segment tending to induce piping vibration is calculated and applied on the
piping model as static equivalent force.

5.

Safety Valve Discharge : Reaction forces from relief valve discharge is considered as an occasional
load. The reaction force due to steady state flow following the opening of safety relief valve in an
open discharge installation can be calculated in accordance with ASME B31.1 Appendix II and
applied on the piping model as static equivalent force.

Secondary Load
Just as the primary loads have their origin in some force, secondary loads are caused by displacement of
some kind. For example, the pipe connected to a storage tank may be under load if the tank nozzle to which
it is connected moves down due to tank settlement. Similarly, pipe connected to a vessel is pulled upwards
because the vessel nozzle moves up due to vessel expansion. Also, a pipe may vibrate due to vibrations in
the rotating equipment it is attached to.
Displacement Loads:
1.

Load due to Thermal Expansion of pipe

2.

Load due to Thermal movement of Equipment

A pipe may experience expansion or contraction once it is subjected to temperatures higher or lower
respectively as compared to temperature at which it was assembled. The secondary loads are often cyclic
but not always.For example load due to tank settlement is not cyclic. The load due to vessel nozzle
movement during operation is cyclic because the displacement is withdrawn during shut-down and
resurfaces again after fresh start-up. A pipe subjected to a cycle of hot and cold fluid similarly undergoes
cyclic loads and deformation.

Piping Stresses- Primary, Secondary

1. Primary stress (membrane and bending)
This is the stress due to external loading of the pipe like weight,point load, wind, earthquake
If this exceeds the allowable stress it will cause failure of the pipe through continuous yielding
2.

Secondary stress

This stress is not caused by any external loading but by such physical tendencies as thermal expansion
This stress is self-limiting in nature. It relieves itself upon yielding.
It is due to this fundamental difference in behavior between primary and secondary stress that these two
stress categories are treated very differently. These stresses are never added up and have different
allowable values
3.

Peak stress

Peak stresses are cyclical stresses which cause fatigue failure in pipes

Piping Component Stress Intensification Factor

Stress intensification factors - SIF
Elbows, branch connections and reducers will have a higher level of stress when compared to a
straight pipe for the same amount of bending moment.
2. The factor by which the stress in the pipe component exceeds that of the straight pipe is called SIF
(stress intensification factor).
3. SIF of a component depends upon its geometry and is calculated using empirical formulae available
in piping codes.
1.

4.

For special components like Y-piece where no empirical relations are available, SIF will have to be
determined through a analytical procedure like FEM.

Relation between Elbow geometry and SIF

1.
2.
3.

Elbow / bend radius - Has inverse relation to SIF

Elbow diameter - Has direct relation to SIF
Elbow thickness - Has inverse relation to SIF

Relation between Branch geometry and SIF

1.
2.
3.
4.

Header diameter - Has direct relation to header & branch SIFs

Header thickness - Has inverse relation to header & branch SIFs
Branch diameter - Has direct relation to branch SIF. Has no bearing on header SIF
Branch thickness - Has direct relation to branch SIF. Has no bearing on header SIFStress in piping
components

Relation between Branch type and SIF

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

The various branch types are listed with their SIF in the increasing order
Welding Tee
Integrally reinforced fitting as per MSS SP 97
Reinforced fabricated Tee
Unreinforced fabricated Tee

Theories of Failure
The analysis of piping under pressure, weight and thermal expansion is complex. This complexity can
be understood by knovledge of Principal Axis System.
Stress is considered as the ratio of Force to Area. To find the stress in the small element, say cube of
a piece of pipe, construct a three-dimensional, mutually perpendicular principal axis system with
each axis perpendicular to the face of the cube it intersects.
Each force, acting on the cube can be resolved into force components, acting along each of the axis.
Each force, acting on the face of the cube divided by area of the cube face is called the principal
stress.
The principal stress acting along the centerline of the pipe is called Longitudinal principal stress. This
stress is caused by longitudinal bending, axial force loading or pressure.
Radial principal stress acts on a line from a radial line from center of pipe through the pipe wall. This
stress is compressive stress acting on pipe inside diameter caused by internal pressure or a tensile
stress caused by vacuum pressure.
Circumferential principal stress, some times called
Hoop or tangential stress, acts along the
circumference of the pipe. This stress tends to openup the pipe wall and is caused by internal pressure.
When two or more principal stresses act at a point
on a pipe, a shear stress will be generated.
Longitudinal Principal stress, LPS = PD/4T
Circumferential Principal stress, CPS (Hoop) = PD/2T
Radial Principal stress, RPS = P

Failure Theories
1. The Code presents equations for determining the stress levels in a piping system & provides stress
limits for comparison. These theories are maximum principal stress failure theory & maximum shear
stress failure theory.
2. The maximum principal stress failure theory states that when anyone of the three mutually
perpendicular principal stresses exceed the yield strength of the material at temperature, failure will
occur.
3. The maximum shear failure theory states that when the maximum shear stress (arithmetic average
of largest minus smallest principal stresses) exceeds one-half the yield strength of the material at
temperature, failure will occur.

Stress Types
The B31.3 Code provides design guidance for primary & secondary stresses. The basic characteristic
of a primary stress is that it is not self-limiting as long as the load is applied, the stress will be
present & will not diminish with time or as deformation takes place. The failure mode of a primary
stress is gross deformation progressing to rupture. Examples of a primary stress are circumferential
stresses due to internal pressure & longitudinal bending stresses due to gravity.
The basic characteristic of a secondary stress is that it is self- limiting. The stress will diminish with
time and strain. The failure mode of a secondary stress is small crack leading to leakage. Secondary
stresses are due to cyclic thermal expansion and contraction.
Pipe Span Calculations

Span limitations based on Stress, Deflection

Pipe Supporting
The objective during the pipe supports design phase is to prevent the following:
1. overstress of piping
2. leakage at joints
3. overstress of supports
4. excessive forces on equipment
5. excessive interference with thermal expansion
6. excessive pipe sag (especially for piping requiring drain)
7. excessive heat flow, exposing support to temperature outside their limits, Etc.
1. The purpose of pipe supports is to control the weight effects of the piping system, as well as loads
caused by pressure thrust, vibration, wind, earthquake, shock, and thermal displacement. The
weight effects to be considered shall be the greater of operating or hydro-test loads.
2. The B3 1.3 guidance for pipe support types and materials of construction is presented in the B31 .3
TABLE 326.1 LISTED STANDARD, MSS SP-58.
3. The material selection for clamps and bolts, for example, is of particular importance in elevated
temperature service. SP-58 assistance would be in the selection of a clamp material for example
4. in 750F (400C) service.
5. A review of the tables in SP-58 reveal that Carbon Steel clamp material would not be suitable, nor
would the common type bolting, ASTM A307 used in clamps.
6. The designer would be guided to use an alloy steel for the clamp such as ASTM A240 and ASTM
A193-Grade B7 bolts.
1. Pipe Support Span, based on deflection

Pipe support span is a decision that faces the designer in most pipe supporting jobs. As a guide to
the selection of support spacing, the following equation based on permissible mid span deflection is
offered.
The permissible mid-span deflection, y, concept is one technique commonly selected for support
spacing. This technique is based on a specified mid-span, y deflection of the supported pipe
considering the pipe, contents, and insulation weights. The equation is:
L= [y.E.I / 22.5.W]
where:
L = pipe support spacing, feet,
y = permissible mid-span deflection, inches
E = modulus of elasticity at design temperature, lb/in (TABLE C-6)
I = moment of inertia of pipe.
W = weight of supported pipe, including pipe, contents, insulation, lb/ft
2. Pipe Support Span, based on stress
As a guide to the selection of support spacing, the following equation based on permissible stress is
offered.
The permissible mid-span deflection, y, concept is one technique commonly selected for support
spacing. This technique is based on stress of supported pipe material considering the pipe, contents,
and insulation weights. The equation is:
L= [0.33.Z.Sh / W]1/2
where:
L = pipe support spacing, feet,
Z = section modulus, in3
Sh = Allowable tensile stress for pipe materialat design temp., psi
W = weight of supported pipe, including pipe, contents, insulation, lb/ft.

3. Suggested Pipe Support Spacing

See the next page

Flexibility Analysis Expansion Loops & Expansion Joints

Concept of Thermal Expansion

Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change in volume in response to a change in
temperature,through heat transfer.
Temperature is a monotonic function of the average molecular kinetic energy of a substance.
When a substance is heated, the kinetic energy of its molecules increases. Thus, the molecules
begin moving more and usually maintain a greater average separation. Materials which contract
with increasing temperature are unusual; this effect is limited in size, and only occurs within limited
temperature ranges (see examples below). The degree of expansion divided by the change in
temperature is called the material's coefficient of thermal expansion and generally varies with
temperature.

Providing Flexibility in Piping

As per B31.1- Power piping systems shall be designed to have suffi-cient flexibility to prevent piping
displacements from causing failure from overstress of the piping compo-nents, overloading of anchors
and other supports, leak-age at joints, or detrimental distortion of connected equipment. Flexibility
shall be provided by changes in direction in the piping through the use of fittings, bends,loops, and
offsets. When piping bends, loops, and offsets are not able to provide adequate flexibility, provisions
may be made to absorb piping displacements by utiliz-ing expansion, swivel, or ball joints, or flexible
metal hose assemblies.
Minimum Leg required to absorb Thermal Expansion
Guided cantilever Method-The method can be explained using the L-bend given in below figure as an
example. When the system is not constrained the point B and C will move to B and C respectively due

to thermal expansion. The end point C moves dx and dy respectively in X- and Y- directions, but no
internal force or stress will be generated. However, in the actualcase the ends of the piping are always
constrained as shown in fig(b). This is equivalent in moving the free expanded end C back to the
original point C forcing the point b to move B. the dx is the expansion from leg AB and dy from lehCB.
The deformation of each leg can be assumed to follow the guided cantilever shape. This is
conservative because the end rotation is ignored. The force and stress of each leg can now be
estimated by guided cantilever formula. The leg AB is a guided cantilever subject to dy displacement
and leg CB a guided cantilever subject to dx displacement respectively.
From the basic beam theory, the moment and displacement relation of a guided cantilever is
(1)

For thin wall pipes, the above equation can be further reduced. By using I=
r3 t and S=M/(
r2 t), the
above equation (1) becomes
(2)

Where,

S= thermal expansion stress , psi

E= modulus of elasticity, psi
r= mean radius of the pipe, in
= total expansion to be absorbed, in
L= length of the leg perpendicular to, in
= length in feet unit, ft
D= outside diameter of the pipe, in
The above equation(2) is a convinent formula for the quick estimation of the expansion stress. By presetting E=29.0x10 psi and S=20000 psi, the above equation (3) used in finding the leg length required
for steel pipes.
The other can be used for the quick check is the one given in ANSI B31 Piping Codes. The code uses
Equation (3) a measure of adequate flexibility, subjects to other requirements of the Code
(3)
Where,

D= outside diameter of the pipe, in

Y= resultant of total displacement to be absorbed, in
L= developed length of piping between anchors, ft
U= straight line distance between anchors, ft
Equation (3) has to be used with great care, because the same extra length of pipe can have very
different effects depending on the ways the pipe is laid out. Normally more flexibility will be acheved
if the pipe is placed farther away from the elastical or geometrical center.

Types of Expansion Loops

1.
Full loop
This is simply one complete turn of the pipe and, on steam pipework, should preferably be fitted in a
horizontal rather than a vertical position to prevent condensate accumulating on the upstream side.
The downstream side passes below the upstream side and great care must be taken that it is not fitted
the wrong way round, as condensate can accumulate in the bottom. When full loops are to be fitted in
a confined space, care must be taken to specify that wrong-handed loops are not supplied.
The full loop does not produce a force in opposition to the expanding pipework as in some other

types, but with steam pressure inside the loop, there is a slight tendency to unwind, which puts an
additional stress on the flanges.

Fig. 1 Full loop

This design is used rarely today due to the space taken up by the pipework, and proprietary expansion
bellows are now more readily available. However large steam users such as power stations or
establishments with large outside distribution systems still tend to use full loop type expansion
devices, as space is usually available and the cost is relatively low.
1.

Horseshoe or lyre loop

When space is available this type is sometimes used. It is best fitted horizontally so that the loop and
the main are on the same plane. Pressure does not tend to blow the ends of the loop apart, but there
is a very slight straightening out effect. This is due to the design but causes no misalignment of the
flanges.
If any of these arrangements are fitted with the loop vertically above the pipe then a drain point must
be provided on the upstream side as depicted in Figure 10.4.8.

Fig. 10.4.8 Horseshoe or lyre loop

2.

Expansion loops

Fig. 10.4.9 Expansion loop

The expansion loop can be fabricated from lengths of straight pipes and elbows welded at the joints
(Figure 10.4.9). An indication of the expansion of pipe that can be accommodated by these assemblies
is shown in Figure 10.4.10.

It can be seen from Figure 10.4.9 that the depth of the loop should be twice the width, and the width
is determined from Figure 10.4.10, knowing the total amount of expansion expected from the pipes
either side of the loop.

Expansion Loop Sizing for Hot Piping

Nozzle Thermal Growth Calculations Pumps, Vessels, Heat Exchangers.

Heat expansion doesn't depend on the shape of the item. Shape comes into picture if the expansion is
restricted. Bend the wire as shown and heat it up in free air. It expands between end points same as if you had
piece of pipe from one point to the other.
We can provide thermal growth by two way at Nozzle
Model a rigid element

By calculating displacement values

Thermal Growth at Nozzle= Coefficient of thermal X Temperature Difference X Distance from reference point
With above formula thermal growth calculated along each axis.

Cold Spring
Power piping is pften installed with cold spring to control the initial hot reaction and to protect the connected
equipment. However , cold springing of a restrained or a branched system is a very sophisticated procedure
which can lead to an unpredictable result if it is not done properly.
Cold spring , prespring and cold pull are all referring to the process which stresses the piping at the installed or
cold condition in order to reduce the stress at the operating or hot condition. The process involves laying out
the piping somewhat shorter than the installing space. This creats a gap at final weld location when system is
erected. The system pulled or pushed according to a predetermined procedure to close the gap and to finish
the final weld. The gap is sized depending on the cold spring factor desired. A 100% cold sprung system will
have the gap size equal to the amount of the system expansion minus the differential anchor movements. A
100% cold sprung system, if installed properly, will have the expansion stress reduced to zero when system
reaches the operating temperature. It will be free of any thermal expansion stress under the hot operating
condition.
Cold spring is often applied to a piping system to
1) reduce the hot stress to mitigate the creep damage,
2) reduce the initial hot reaction force on the connecting equipment, and
3) control the movement space.
Cold Springing like Expansion Joints should be a last resort. Cold Springing is difficult to accurately achieve in
the field. If used the Cold Spring should be carefully inspected during installation to insure the design has been
accurately implemented otherwise it is usless

Flexibility Analysis using ASME B 31.1/31.3 Code Equations

Thermal Expansion Stress (Se), Code Allowable Thermal Displacement Stress Range (Sa)
Code and Regulation
The stress engineer's first charge is to ensure the compliance with all applicable code regulations, both
national and local, apart from satisfying other conditions required. For a particular, contract, the piping
specification/design specification will state. which code is to be used for the purpose of design and in case of
anomaly, which document is to take precedence. Code sets forth engineering requirements deemed necessary
for safe design and construction of pressure piping. While safety is the basic consideration, this factor alone
will not necessarily govern the final specification for any piping system. Code is not a design hand book. It does
not do away with the need of designer or for competent engineering judgement.
The code requirements for design are stated in terms of basic design principles and formulas. These are
supplemented as necessary with specific requirements to assure uniform application of principles and to guide
selection and application of piping elements. The code prohibits design and pratices known to be unsafe and
contains warnings where caution, but not prohibition, is warranted.
Some codes and standards in present use are:
American National Code for Pressure Piping ANSI B 31.
On global basis this is tne most widely used code and compliance with its requirements will almost certainly be
accepted as dem Qnstrating the structural integrity of a piping system. It has its origins in a document issued
in 1935 as An American Tentative Standard Code for Pressure Piping. In order to keep the code abreast of
current developments in the various fields of Engineering and Technology, several revisions and supplements
and new editions were published since the first Americal Standard Code for Pressure piping ASA B31.1appeared in 1942. -In order to deal with specia1ised requirements with different categories of-piping,
following Codes are presently used.
B 3.1 - Power piping
B 31.3 - Petroleum refinery piping
B 31.4 - Oil transportation piping
B 31.5 - Refigeration piping
B 31.8 - Gas transmission and distribution piping
B 31.9 - Building services piping
B 31.11 - Shirry transportation piping systems
Code Requirements

(A) Design Pressure:

The design pressure of each component in a piping system shall not be less than the pressure at the most
severe condition of coincident internal or external pressure and temperature (minimum or maximum),
expected during service. The most severe condition is that which results in the greatest required component
thickness and the highest component rating.

(B) Design Temperature

The design pressure of each component in a piping system is the temperature at which, under coincident
pressure, the greatest thickness or highest component rating is required.
(i) Uninsulated Metallic Components:
- For fluid temperatures below 100F (38 C), the component temperature shall be taken as the fluid
temperature.
- For fluid temperature 100 F (38 C) and above, unless a lower average wall temperature is indicated by test or
heat transfer calculations, the temperature for uninsulated component shall be no less than following.
(a) Valves, pipe, lapped end welding fittings and other components having wall thickness comparable to that
of pipe: 95 % of fluid temperature
(b) Flanges~ (except lap joint) including those on fittings and valves: 90% of fluid temperature
(c) Lap joint flanges :85% of fluid temperature (d)B~lting:80t of fluid temperature.
(ii) Externalli Insulated Piping:
The component design temperature shall be fluid temperature unless calculations, tests or services experience
based on measurement supports use of another temperature. When the piping system is heated or cooled by
tracing or jacketing, this effect shall be considered in establishing component design temperature.
(iii) Internally Insulated Piping:
The component design temperature shall be based on heat transfer calculations.
Scope of Code Rules
Let us consider various aspects of design of piping system which must be dealt with by any code worthy of
such a description and which are of importance to stress engineer in exercise of his duties. Every such piping
code will contain recommendations, or mandatory requirements on the following design topics.
(a) The thickness of pipe -to withstand internal pressure
(b) The thickness of pipe to withstand external pressure
(c) Reinforcement requirement of branch connection
(d) Minimum flexibility requirements for external expansion
(e) Allowable stresses for various piping materials
It is the matter of stress analysist demonstrating compliance with the requirement coming under heading of
(c), (6) and (e). We shall now consider the above three topics in turn to see how these affect the piping
system.
(c) Reinforcement requirement of branch connection
When a pipe which is subjected to an internal pressure has a hole cutin it for branch connecti6ns, a disc of
material which would normally be carrying tensile stresses in the _hoop direction is removed and some
alternative path must be - provided for loads which were originally carried via: the disc. Most of the code for
design of piping system adopts the area replacement or compensation approach whereby with~n a specified
distance from the edge of the hole, an additional area of material is provided equal to the area of
material removed.
The replaced material may take a form of a doubler pad or of one of the proprietar y forged fittings (e.g.
weldolet etc.) depending on service requirements. The notion is illustrated in the sketches of fig. 1 for the case
of simple pipe replacement.

Occasionally, reinforcement has to branch intersections which is to cater for which arise from thermal
expansion effects. the stress engineer shall specify the same if by piping specification for pressure purpose.
In various codes, the sketches of fig. 1 appear as single drawing at section AA, showing the cross section of the
material to be replaced and boundary within which the replacement material must be located. Where the wall
of the pipe is thicker than the minimum required for internal pressure, credit may be taken for excess material
when calculating replacement material but always within boundary sets in fig. 2. The fig. 2 is essentially fig.
304.3.3. of

Th, Tb -> Nominal thickness of header and branch

th, tb -> Thickness of pipe required for pressure design

L4 -> Height of reinforcing zone outside of run pipe = 2.5(Th - C)
Or 2.5(Tb - c) + Tr whichever is less
T -> Minimum thickness of reinforcement ring or saddle
Th To -> Minimum thickness of header and branch
(Nominal thickness - mill tolerance)
d2 =d1, or (Tb - C)+(Th - C)+ d1,/2 whichever is greater
The required reinforcement area
The reinforcement area A required for a branch connection under internal pressure is
A1 = t d (2 - sin )
For branch connection under external pressure, area Aa is one and half of the area required for internal
pressure.
Available area
The area available for reinforcement
A2 + A3 + A4- A1
All the above area are within reinforcing zone.
In the above expression,
A2 is the area resulting from excess thickness of header pipe
A2 = (2d2 - d1) (Tb - th - c)
A3 is the area resulting from excess thickness of branch pipe.
A3 = 2L4(Tb - tb - c)
Example
A 10" nom. dia. pipe has design condition of 65~F and 400 psig., It is made from seamless material to
specification. A53GRB Sch20. The corrosion allowance is 0.03. inch. It has a 4" nom. branch, sch40 of same
material. What are suitable dimension of reinforcement to be made from material of equal quality to that of
pipe material.
The minimum thickness required for both 10" and 4" header from the basic equation:
The minimum thickness required for both 10" and 4" header from the basic
equation:

The nominal thickness: Th, = 0.219 Tb = 0.207

The thickness in excess = 0.219 - 0.1418 - 0.03
(For header) = 0.0472 inch
The thickness in excess = 0.207 - 0.0593 - 0.03

(For branch) = 0.1177 inch

d1 = 4.5 - 2 (0.207 - 0.03 - 0.0593) = 4.2646 inches
d2 = d1 = 4.2646 inches
L4 is min.of 2.5(Th - c) or 2.5(Tb - c) + tr
i.e. 2.5 ( 0.22) or 2.5 x 0.207 + 0.2 5 (say)
Hence L = 0.55 inch
The required area for replacement = th x d1
A1 = 0.1418 x 4.2646
A1 = 0.6047 inch2
The compensation area available in header
A2 = (2 d2 - d1) x excess thickness
= 4.2646 x 0.0472
= 0.2012 inch
The compensation area available in branch
A3 = 2 L4 x excess thickness
= 2 x 0.55 x 0.1177 inch
= 0.1294 inch
Total area for compensation area available
A2 + A3 = 0.2012 + 0.1294 inch
= 0.3306 inch
Hench cross section area of pad
A = A1 - (A2 + A3)
= 0.6047 - 0.3306
= 0.2740 inch
Hence the width of ring section of 1/4" thick

Here the cross section of fillet weld is neglected. For more conservative calculation, this area also may be
considered.
Minimum Flexibility Requirements
A pipe is erected at ambient temperature, say between 4ff F - 800 F, in different climates . (700F (210 C), - is
normally used~ The same pipe when in operation in a modern petrochemical plant could well be at a
temperature in excess of 10000 F if it were reactor piping system or it could be down near -200~F if itwere
associated with an Ethylene refrigeration system.
If pipe is made of carbon steel or low alloy steel, it will expand with a rate of 3/4"-1" for each l000 F
temperature rise. This means the pipe running between two equipment 100 ft. apart may well expand by 3 to
4 or more inches as it heats up,- but as ends are not free to-move, this increase in length can only
beaccommodated by straining the pipe.
This straining produces a stress in pipe. However, when the pipe is next taken out of service, it cools down to
ambient temperature, the expansion returns to zero and hence the stress. Every time that the pipe is put into
or taken out of service, the same cycle of event occurs. The pipe starts from stress free condition when dold
and has stresses imposed which reach a maximum at operating condition and reduce to zero when the pipe is
taken out of service.
The type of straining described, if repeated often enough will cause the pipe to crack. The cracking will start at
a point or points where the stresses is maximum. This is what is called fatigue failure.

The various codes and standards covering the design of piping system puts a limit to maximum stresses which
the system can be subjected when put to use. This limit is called the allowable stress range for expansion
and generally denoted by SA.
1. Internal Pressure/External Pressure Stress:
As you have already learnt, the stresses due to internal pressure is considered safe when the thickness
including reinforcement are adequate (using the value SH the allowable stress at the operating temperature).
2. Longitudinal Stresses (SL):
The sum of longitudinal stresses due to pressure, weight and other sustained loading shall not exceed the
basic allowable stress (SH). Pipe thickness for calculation of SL must be reduced by allowance such
ascorrosion, erosions, manufacturing tolerance and grove depth. (1.33 times in case of occasional loads such
as wind/earth quake)
3. Allowable displacement stress is-given by
SA = f (1. 25 Sc + O. 25 Sf-{)
Sc - Basic allowable stress at min. temp. SH - Basic allowable stress at max. temp.
f - stress range reduction factor for cyclic condition for total number of full temperature cycles over expected
life

Stress range reduction factor

When SW-is greater than the calculated value of SL the difference between them may be added to the term
0.25 SH in the above equation. In that case, the revised formula becomes;
S = f [ 1.25 (SC + SM) - SL ]
Analysis of Metallic Piping
No formal analysis of adequate flexibility is required for a piping system if;
(a) it duplicates or replaces without significant change, a system with a successful service record,
(b) it can be readly judged adequate by comparison with previously analyzed system,
(c) it is of uniform size, has no more than two point of fixation, no intermediate restrains and falls within
limitation set by the equation;

D - outside diameter of pipe in rnm.

Y - resultant total displacement strains in mm to be absorbed by the system
L - developed length of piping system in metre
U - anchor distance, straight line between anchors, metre
The above equation is always conservative but care shall be taken for abnormal condition such as unequal leg,
U bends, to large diameter thin wall pipe (where the stress intensification factor is 5 or more) or to condition

where the extraneous motions other than the direction connected to anchor point constitutes a large
proportion of expansion duty.
User must be aware of the other fact that above equation does not ensure that the terminal reaction will be
satisfactory. The weight effect is also not considered in the equation.
In Plane and Out Plane Bending Moment
As per code ANSI B3l.3, code defines ir.-?lane and out-plane bending moments which are shown in figure 2.3.

Figure 2.3
After application of the in-plane bending moments Ml, the bend or branch remains in the original plane. But
when out-plane bending moment Mo is applied, the bend or branch connection goes out of original plane. The
torsional moment about axis of pipe is denoted by Mt.
Flexibility (Guided Cantilever Method)
Suppose we have 2 vessels T-l and T-2, say 50 ft. apart and that we have to run pipe between 2 Nozzles at
same elevation. Obviously the most economical way of doing is as shown in figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4
Now further suppose that every thing is carbon steel and the vessel T-l has its temperature raised to 350 F.
when the valve is opened, there will be an expansion between centres of T-l and T-2 and that will be;

To absorb the above expansion, one of the following tow things may happen.
(1) Pipe will dent the vessel at two nozzles as shown in figure 2.5
(2) The pipe may buckle as shown in figure 2.6

It is possible to calculate the stresses in pi?e and vessel and even if these stresses are within allowable limits,
still this will not be cor.sic~red as good engineering practice.
Hence, for the similar connection, the plot has to be laid differently and provided in two sections
perpendicular to each other as shown.

With the above configuration for the piping, as point B moves by out to B1, it is able to bend the leg BC into
new position BIC. The onger leg is easier to bend use to the expansion of BC.
We will calculate the minimum length 1 required forBC to absorb the expansiond. As per the elastic theory
(Guided cantiliver method);

Now if the stress range is 16000 psi and considering Youngs modulus of elasticity at ambient temperature
value of carbon steel,

So when locating the equipment T-2, be minimum of 16.5 ft. The above method can be applied for the
location of guides in L shape configuration.

Flexibility in Tortion
Let us now consider the deflection of a
beam when it is
subjected to bending and tortion. In
case of a beam subjected to moments
as .shown in figure, the angle (The
change in slope) is given by;

- Angle in radians Homent, 1b inch

M - Moment, 1b inch
I - Moment of inertia, inch4
L - Length in inches
If the same length of pipe is subjected to torsion, the rotation of one end
relative to other is given by,

- Angle of twist in radians

T - Tortion moment, lb/inch
L - Length in inch
G - Modulus of rigidity, Ib/inch2

J- poler moment of inertia, inch4

This result in very important consideraing 3-D layouts. It shows that a given length of pipe will given 30% more
rotation if moment from adjacent leg produces torsion instead of bending. Tortion deflection alone is rare as
means of obtaining flexibility, but the fact demonstrated above may influence the stress engineer in choice of
alternative routes for a pipe.
Piping Auxiliaries
Those elements other than straight pipe which go to make up a complete piping system are described as
piping Auxiliaries. These are important to know to the extent of knowing their individual effects on the
flexibility of piping system and the stresses in it, before going for a analysis of complicated piping system. The
common auxiliaries used are bends, tees, reducer flanges, etc.
Elbows
These are used when change in direction of pipe is required, .they can be of the type short radius, long radius,
or pipe bends. Now let us consider bending of elbows.
We know in case of a straight pipe the deflection is given by;

and the maximum bending stress

The earlier analysis of piping systems

containing elbows and results of experiment
showed deviations. The practical piping system was found far more flexible than what the theory predicted
and the discrepancy was shown to lie in the flexibility of the elbows.
The first theoretical analysis of the behaviour of pipe bends when subject to a bending moment was made by
Theodore Von Karman, who showed that when curved pipe is subjected to a bending moment in its own
plane, the circular cross section undergoes changes and is flattened and this results in increased flexibility. The

ratio of the flexibility of a bend to that of a straight pipe havirig the same length and cross section is known as
flexibility factor and usually denoted by letter "K".
Now let us examine how this flattening of elbow ox chanqe in cross section occurs. Let us consider a elbow
with AB as neutral axis is subjected to a bending moment of M (see figure 10). The outer fibre of elbows shall
be subjected to tensile stress and the inside surface to a compressive stress. Let us take a thin cross section
and study in detail. The resultant tensile load on outer fibre results in inward radial load in the element.
Similarly, the compressive load C on inside fibre also produces a resultant inward radial load on the element.
If we now take a slice as a cross section of pipe and draw the loading diagram for the ring which is in effect, we
arrive at view (a) in Fig. 10 (iv). Under the loading, the ring flattens into an ellipse with its major axis
horizontal. If we now reverse the sign of bending moment the cross section w i l l e l o n g a t e instead of
flattening.
If we now consider the element in more detail, we see that the flattening produces bending moments in the
ring which are maximum at the end of the horizontal diameter. These moments produce a stress which varies
from tension to compression through the thickness of pipe wall. and which is circumferential in direction. If we
consider the half of the ring (Fig. 10 (v, we can illustrate the same in a simplified way.
The circumferential stress in pipe wall due to moment M can be many times the value calculated as (My/I) as
per ordinary bending theory for structural members. The factor by which the circumferential stresses exceed
the longitudinal stresses in bend is called the Stress intensification factor often denoted as S.l.F.
One of the practical manifestations of the existance of these circumferential stresses is that when an elbow is
subjected to repeated in-plane bending, it ultimately develops a fatigue crack along its sides. When we take
into account the elbows of a piping system, we are therefore able to claim additional flexibility due to this
flattening, but at the same time we must also take into account the induced circumferential stresses by
multiplying the stresses at the bends due to overall bending moment in the piping system by appropriate
stress intensification factor.
The expression for calculating both factor and stress intensification factor given oodes such as B3l.3 etc. are as
follows.
The flexibility characteristic

stress intensification factor

Effect of Pressure on Stress Intensificaition Factor and Flexibility Factor

Some of the piping codes give fomulas for correcting the values of SIF and flexibility factor for elbows and
bends. When the pressure effects are considered, SIF values are lower thus actually reducing the value of
thermal stress. However, the terminal forces increase because of reduced flexibility at elbows. Pressure can
affect significantly the rnagnitude of flexibility factor and SIF in case of large diameter and thin wall elbows.
The correction factor CKF for flexibility factor due to preseue on elbows is given by,

The correction factor CFI for SIF

where,
T - Nominal wall thickness of the fittings for elbows and miter bends, inches
r2 - Mean radius of matching pipe, inches
R1 - Bend radius, inches
P - Gauge pressure in psi
EC - Cold modulus of elasticity, psi
Stresses in a Piping System
The equation for expansion stress S is given by equation using as installed modulus of elasticity Ea;

(1)
The equation for resulting bending stress is given by

(2)
And the torsional stress

For branch connections, the resultant bending stress requires a bit more attention as the section modulus Z
for header and branch is slightly different.
The pipe wall thickness has no significant effect on bending stress due to thermal expansion but it affects the
end reactions in direct ratio. So overstress cannot be remedied by adding thickness; on the-contrary, this
tends to make matter worse by increasing the end reactions.
The values of S calculated shall not exceed the values calculated by equation
SE = f ( 1.25 SC - 0.25 SH)
or
SE = f [1.25 SC - 1.25 (SH - SL)]
Refer to the in-plane and out-plane bending moment sketch for elbows.
FOR Elbows

where,
ii - In plane intensification factor
io - Out plane intensification factor
Mi - In plane bending moment
Mo - Out plane bending moment
z - Section modulus of pipe
ze - Effective section modulus
for branch = r2

2TS
r2 - Mean branch cross section area
Ts - Effective branch wall thickness
(lesser of tb and (io) Tb)
Tb - Thickness of branch pipe
Cold Spring
A piping system may be cold spring or prestressed to reduce anchor forces and moments. Cold spring may be
cut short for hot piping and cut long for cryogenic piping. The CDt short is accomplished by shortening overall
length of pipe by desired amount but not exceeding the calculated expansion. Cut long is done by inserting a
length (making a length longer than required).
The amount of cold spring is expressed as percentage of thermal expansion. Credit for cold spring is no.t
allowed for stress calculation. Different codes state the same.
Code
- Sets forth the engineering requirements deemed necessary for safe design and construction of pressure
piping
- Safety is the main consideration
- The above alone will not govern the final specification for any piping installation.
- Code is not a designs hand book.
- It does not do away with the need of designer or competent engineering judgment.
basic design principles
formulas
supplemented by specific requirements to assure uniform
application of principles and guide selection of piping materials code prohibits designs and practices known as
unsafe and contains warnings where caution, but not prohibition is warented.
Code Section Includes
(a) Reference to acceptable material spec. and compo. std including dimensional std 8 pr./ temp rating.
(b) Requirement of or design of component, assemplies, supports
(c) Requirement and data for evaluation and limitation of stresses, reactions and movements. Dug to pressure
changes, temp. changes and other forces.
(d) Guidance and limitation on selection of materials
(e) Req. of fabrication, assemblies, and erection of piping
(f) Requirement for examination, inspection and testing. of piping.
ASME B 31 Code for Pressure Piping
B-31.1

Power piping.

(1998)

Electric power generation station.

 Geothermal heating systems

Central district heating systems.
B-31.2 -

Process piping

(1999) -

petroleum refineries

chemical
pharmaceutical
textile
paper
cryogenic plants
B-31.4 -

pipeline transportation system for liq.

(1998)

hydro car-bons and other liquids

B-31.5 -

Refrigeration piping for refrigerants and scondey coolants

(1992)
B-31.8 -

Gas transportation and distribution piping.

B-31.9 -

Building services piping

(1996) -

industrial

institutional / commercial
public buildings
B-31.11 -

Slurry transportation piping system

(R1998) -

aqueous slurries

1926 -

American standards association initiated project

March B.31 at req. of a.s.m.e.

1935 -

American tentative standard code for pressure piping

To accommodate current development in piping design, welding, stress computation new dimensional
standards and specification, and increase in the severity of service condition, revisions, supplements and new
edition of code was published as
1942 -

ASA-B-31.1

1955
1952 -

A new section of code for gas transmission and distribution

1955 -

Decision was taken to develop and publish separate code sections for other industries

1959 -

To supersede section 3 of B-31.1

ASA B-31.3 was published Revisions in 1962 1966

1967-1969 - American standard association became united states of America standards institute then
American standards institute. And code became. American national standard code for pressure piping.
1973 -

ANSI B-31.3 adenda through 1975.

1974 -

code for chemical plant piping (B-36.6) was ready for approval.

1976 -

B-31.3 was published to combine req. of B-36.6 and published as chemical plant and petroleum

refinery piping.
Addenda upto 1980.
Dec 1978 - American national standards committee
B-31 was reorganized as asme code for pressure piping, B-31 committee. All addenda and new addition was
developed as ANSI / ASME B-31
1980 -

New edition ANSI / ASME B-31.3

Published
1981 -

Code for cryogenic piping (B-36.10) was ready approved. Addenda of B-31.3 1980 was published to

cater for B-36.10

1984 -

Chapter for cryogenic piping added.

1987 -

New edition B-31.3

26th October 1990 ANSI/ASME was adopted.

Design Pressure
Shall not be less than the pressure at most severe condition of coincident internal / External and temperature
min / max expected during service.
Design Temperature
The coincident temp. at severe condition.
Consider
- fluid temp.
- ambient temp
- heating or, cooling medium.
Design Minimum Temperature
Lowest component temp during service.
Design Temperature of Uninsulated Piping
(a) fluid temp. below 100o F (38OC) component. Temp. as fluid temp.
(b) fluid temp. above 100OF (38OC)

unless lower temp. is determined by test or heat transfer calculation.

(a) values pipes, B N fitting - 95% of fluid temp.
(b) flanges (except lap joint) - 90% of fluid temp.
(c) L.T. flanges - 85%
(d) Bolting - 80%
Externally Insulated Piping
Fluid temperature
Internally Insulated Piping
To be determined by heat transfer calculation limitation of calculated stresses due to sustained load and
displacement strains.
(a) Internal pressure stresses:
The selected pipe thickness T
The mill tolerance 12.5%
Min. thickness = T mill tol. > t + C
C - Sum of mechanical allowance (thread) + corrosion allowance.
t- Pressure design thickness.

where,
P - Internal design pressure gage.
D - Outside diameter
S - Stress value for material. From table A-1
E - Quality factor table A-1A / A-1B
Seamless pipe E = 1.0
ERW E = 0.85
Furness butt welded E = 0.6
Electric fusion welded E = 0.95
(double butt.)
100% radio graphed E = 1.0
Y - Coefficient from table 304.1.1 t < D/6
tD/6d

inside dia. (max.)

function of material and design temperature 0.4 to 0.7

Thickness Cal.
Pipe Bends

And at side wall on bend center line I = 1.0

The thickness req is at the midspan.
Miter Bends
Angular offset more than 3 deg are req. to be checked

Branch Reinforcement

Figure 2.14
L4

min of

2.5 (Thk of pipe Mill tol. Corr.AL) for header

Or
2.5 (Thk of pipe Mill tol. Corr.AL)branch + Tr

d1 = OD of branch excess thk in branch.

Required Reinforcement Area

A1 = th d1 (2 sin )
d1 = Effective length removed
= [Db 2 (Tb C)]/ sin
th/tb thickness req. for external pressure.
Available Area
A2 Area resulting excess thick ness on run pipe (header)
= (2d2-d1) (Th - th- C)
d2- half width of reinforcement zone
= d1 or (th-C) + (th-C) + d1/2 which ever is greater but no case
more than Dn
A3- Area resulting from excess thickness on branch
= 2 L4 (Ta-tb-C)/ sin
Tr. bs min thick of branch reinforcement
L4- 2.5 (Th-c) or 2.5(Th-C) + Tr
A4 Area of rein forcement

Appendix D
Flexibility and Stress Intensification Factors

Longitudinal Stresses (SL)

Due to pressure, weight and other sustained loading, sl, shall not exceed sn for calculation of sl. Will
be based on nominal thickness mechanical, corrosion and erosion allowance.
Allowable Displacement Stress Sh
SA = (1.25 Sc + 0.25 Sh)
When SH > SL
SA = {(1.25 sc + 1.25 sn) SL}
f. Stress Range Reduction Factor

Flexibility in Tortion
Inbending

Guided cantilever method


1.

Causes of Pipe Stress, Wind analysis,Sesmic analysis

Causes of Pipe Stress
Pressure & Bending Stress & Combination Application:
The code confines the stress examination to the most significant stresses created by the diversity of loading
to which a piping system is subjected. They are:
i) Stress due to the thermal expansion of the line.
ii) The longitudinal stresses due to internal or external pressure.
iii) The bending stress created by the weight of the pipe and its insulation, the internal fluid, fittings, valves
and external loading such as wind, earthquake etc.
Stresses due to the thermal expansion of the line:
Temperature change in restrained piping cause bending stresses in single plane systems, and bending and
torsional stresses in three-dimensional system. The maximum stress due to thermal, changes solely is called
expansion stress SE. This stress must be within the allowable stress range SA.

SE = Sb2 + 4St2
Sb = I (Mb / Z) = resulting bending stress
Mt = (Mt //2Z) = torsional stress
Mb = resulting bending movement
Mt / = torsional movement
Z = section modules of pipe
i = stress intensification factor
Longitudinal stress due to internal or external pressure:
The longitudinal stress due to internal/external pressure shall be expressed as P (Ai / Am)
Where Ai is inside cross sectional area of pipe, Am is the metal area, P is the pressure.
Weight Stress:
The stress induced, self weight of pipe, fluid, fittings etc. as given by SW = M/Z, Where M is bending moment
created by the pipe and other fittings, Z is the section modules of the pipe.
The stresses due to internal pressure and weight of the piping are permanently sustained. They do not
participate in stress reductions due to relaxation and are excluded from the comparison of which as the latter
has been adjusted to allow for them with the following provision.

Wind analysis
Wind analysis is performed based on Client/ITB requirement. Wind load is an occasional load which normally
occurs less than 20% of plant operating time. There are two methods for wind analysis-Static and Dynamic. In
this article I will try to explain the static method of wind analysis using Caesar II of COADE Inc following
Pressure Vs Elevation Profile.
Criteria for selection of lines for Wind Analysis:
Criteria should be mentioned in ITB document. As a guideline the following can be followed after verification
from client:
I.
II.
III.
IV.

Lines with outside diameter 10 and larger (including insulation) running on 10 m and above.
Steam / Flare header on the pipe rack.
Other lines considered important as per stress engineers decision.
However if lines are covered by some shelter or other structures then wind analysis can be ignored for
those lines.

Data Required for Wind Analysis:

For wind analysis you must have following data from the client.
Wind shape factor: Normally for pipe elements the data varies from 0.6-0.8. Check in ITB what value it says to
use.
Pressure Vs Elevation Profile: Sometimes client provides this profile directly and sometimes provides equation
and data to calculate the profile. A typical wind profile will be shown in diagram while explaining the steps
required while analyzing using Caesar II.

Elevation of the line under analysis. If HPP elevation is other than 0 you have to reduce HPP from line global
elevation to get actual elevation.
The normal Operating Temperature shall be used when analyzing for Occasional loads.
Wind shape factor shall be considered as 0.7. Wind loads shall be considered as acting along the horizontal
axes (both in the +ve and in the ve directions, that is, along North, South, East and West directions), but not
acting simultaneously.
Wind pressure for the different Elevations shall be specific to the Project as per the Project Civil/Structural
design basis. The same shall be considered for wind data input in piping analysis.
What to check:
As per code B 31.3 we have to check code compliance of the calculated stress (Sustained +Wind). The
allowable stress for wind analysis is 1.33 times Sh values. However sometimes client requires to check the
nozzle loading in Operating+ Wind cases (W+T+P+Win) for static equipment. Normally client does not require
wind load checking for rotating equipment.
Extensive Restraint Types
Classification of Pipe Supports
Broadly the pipe supports are classified in three groups as per following details / functions:
General details
Construction details
Functions ie. Purpose
These are described below in brief.
1. Pipe Supports Classification as per General Details:
A pipe line needs to be supported from a foundation or a structure. The piping loads will be acting on these
foundations / structures. Since these foundations / structures are built on ground, they will exert an equal and
opposite reaction, while supporting the pipe.
In a pipe support, there will be some parts of support arrangement which is directly attached to the pipeline
and there will be some other parts which shall be directly attached to the foundation / structure supporting
the pipe.
As per this general detail the support is classified as:
1.1

Primary Supports:

It is the parts of support assembly which is directly connected to the pipe.

1.2

Secondary Supports:

It is the parts of support assembly which is directly connected to the foundation / structure and is supporting
the primary support attached to the pipe line.
2. Pipe Supports Classification as per Construction:
Based on construction details, pipe supports are broadly classified in three types, as

 RIGID SUPPORTS
ELASTIC SUPPORTS
ADJUSTABLE SUPPORTS
These are described below in brief.
2.1

Rigid Supports:

This type of support arrangement is generally very simple and has maximum use in piping. It does not have
adjustability to the erection tolerances. It will directly rest on foundation or structure which is supporting the
pipe. Common type of RIGID SUPPORTS are shoe type (welded), shoe type (with clamp) Trunnion type, valve
holder type, support brackets (Secondary Support). These are described under the topic Supports Generally
used.
2.2

Elastic Supports:

This type of support is commonly used for supporting hot piping. It shall be able to support pipes even when
the pipe is moving up or down at support point.
Common types of elastic supports are variable type spring supports, constant type spring supports. These are
described under the topic Supports generally used .
2.3

Adjustable Supports:

This type of support is Rigid type in construction but is has few nuts and bolts arrangements for adjusting the
supports with respect to the actual erected condition of pipe. The support can be adjusted for the erection
tolerances in the piping. These are required for a better supporting need at critical locations of pipe supports.
Mostly all type of rigid supports can be modified by using certain type of nuts and bolts arrangement, to make
it as an Adjustable support.
Only a typical type of adjustable support is described under the topic Supports Generally used.
3. Pipe Supports Classification as per Function (i.e. Purpose)
Pipe support classification as per function.
This may change based on project.
Pipe supports classified as per functions are summarized in the Table at FIG.7. These are shown along with its
basic construction, the symbols generally used and type of restraints it offers to the piping system.
The supports classified as per function are further described as follows:
3.1

Loose Support:

This is most commonly used support meant for supporting only the pipe weight vertically. It allows pipe to
move in axial as well as transverse direction but restricts only the vertical downward movement.
3.2

Longitudinal Guide:

This type of support is used to restrict the movement of pipe in transverse direction i.e. perpendicular to
length of pipe but allow movement in longitudinal direction. This is also a commonly used type of support.
Generally it is used along with Loose support.

3.3

Transverse Guide:

This type of support is used to restrict the movement of pipe in longitudinal (axial) direction but allows the
pipe to move in transverse direction. This is also referred as AXIAL STOP. This type is less used as compared
to above two types. Generally it is used along with Loose support.

3.4

Fixed point/Anchor:

FIX POINT type of support is used to restrict movements in all three directions. ANCHOR type of support is
used to restrict movement in all three directions and rotation also in these three directions.
Non-Welded Type (Fix Point):
This can be considered as a combination of longitudinal and transverse guide. This type resists only the linear
movements in all directions but not the rotational movements. This avoids heavy loading of support as well as
pipe. Therefore this type of support is preferred over welded type.
Welded Type (Anchor)
This type of support prevents total movements i.e. linear as well as rotational. This type of support is used
when it is absolutely essential to prevent any moment/force being transferred further. It causes heavy loading
on support as well as pipe.
3.5

Limit Stop:

As name itself indicates it allows pipe movement freely upto a certain limit and restricts any further
movement. This is useful when total stops causes excessive loading on piping and support or nozzle.
This type of support should be used selectively, because of stringent and complicated requirements of design,
erection and operation.
3.6

Special Supports:

When we need a pipe support whose construction or functional details are different from the available details,
then a special support detail sketch is prepared. The functions of this support can be any combination of
above functions.