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composite substances, such as salt water tasting salty, while compounds possess new
properties different from its composite elements. Mixture can have a variable
composition while compounds have the same ratio of elements in any size (in essence,
mixtures can be both homogeneous and heterogeneous, but compounds are only ever
the former.)
Identify that the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere contain
examples of mixtures of elements and compounds.
The biosphere is the sphere wherein life exists. It is the collection of all life on earth.
Life exists in the form of multiple mixtures, including basically every liquid in every
organism like blood. Compounds in living organisms are all based on the element
carbon. Compounds also exist in life, being in the form of carbon dioxide, or water,
which exists within us.
The lithosphere is the sphere of the crust, rocks and soil. It is made up of
mixtures (ore) of compounds (minerals). Minerals are effectively naturally
occurring solid elements or compounds with a range of compositions.
Examples of mixtures in the lithosphere include feldspars, as well as any rock.
Compounds in the lithosphere include silicon dioxide (the most common in the
earth's crust), and metal ores, such as bauxite.
The hydrosphere is the sphere of water bodies. Anywhere where water exists
can be considered part of the hydrosphere. Its major constituent is water, with
small quantities of random compounds, such as salt. The main compound in
the hydrosphere is water, and elements, such as chlorine, sulfur and bromine
exist in small quantities.
The atmosphere is the mixture of light gases which exist around us. It is
largely made up of uncombined light elements such as nitrogen and oxygen.
Compounds such as carbon dioxide and methane also exist, but in small
quantities.
Identify and describe procedures that can be used to separate naturally occurring
mixtures of:
Solids of different sizes
Solids and liquids
Dissolved solid and liquids
Liquids
Gases
Assess separation techniques for their suitability in separating examples of earth
materials, identifying the differences in properties which enable these separations.
Sieving Solids of different sizes can be separated using a sieve. The sieve is simply
Kevin Liang 11CH1
a grater with specially sized holes so only one of the solids can fall through. The
physical property used in this process is the size of particles. This method is especially
effective with powders with different sized particles, or a mixture of soil, pebbles and
rocks.
Filtration An insoluble solid suspended in a liquid can be separated by filtration.
Filter paper is used so that the liquid is able to pass through a funnel while the solids
remain. The physical property used in this process is the different states of the
compounds in mixture. This is useful in situations such as filtering water of
impurities.
Evaporation Solids and liquids can be separated through evaporation, or
vaporisation, where liquids in the mixture are heated so they evaporate into the
atmosphere, leaving the solid behind. This is preferred when the liquid(s) have a low
boiling point, so the energy required to evaporate is low. This is effective on both
soluble and insoluble solids. The physical property used in this process is different
boiling points.
Crystallisation The mixture of compounds is dissolved in a hot solvent such as hot
water. Higher temperatures allow the solution to become saturated. The solution is
then cooled down, and the less soluble of the compounds in the mixture crystallises
out of the solution, thus allowing it to be separated from the mixture. The physical
property used in this process is in the difference solubility of the compounds in a
solvent.
Decanting Insoluble solids and liquids can also be separated by decanting. If the
solid is denser than the liquid, the solids settle out, allowing the liquid to be decanted
or poured out while leaving the solids behind. Decanting is generally not preferred,
due to the amount of human error, as well as its inherent inaccuracy. Another version
of sedimentation is centrifugation, which is when the mixture is spun around rapidly,
as to force the more dense solids (or indeed, even liquids) to the bottom through
centripetal force and inertia. The physical property used in this process is density.
Distillation Liquids and gases can be separated by distillation. The temperature of
the mixture is raised until the more volatile (lower boiling point) liquid evaporates off
as a distillate. This distillate rises up and is directed into a condenser and condenses
back into a liquid. Distillation is only suitable to separate liquids/gases with distinct
boiling points. To distill liquids/gases with similar boiling points, fractional
distillation is used. This is distillation with the addition of a fractionating column,
which causes the vapour to condense and vapourise repeatedly in order to further
separate the two substances. The physical property used in this process is different
boiling points.
Separating immiscible liquids Miscible liquids form homogenous solutions in all
proportions, while immiscible liquids do not. For instance, oil and water are
immiscible, and so separate. Mixtures of immiscible liquids can be separated by a
separating funnel, in which the more dense liquid is slowly removed. The physical
laboratory.
Covalent substances The element closer to the bottom-left of the Periodic Table is
written first. The second element's suffix is changed to ide. When an element exists
in multiples in a compound, an appropriate prefix for the number is added to that
element. For instance, dinitrogen tetroxide (N2O4) and silicon dioxide (Si2O).
Ionic substances The cation (left side of the Periodic Table) is named first, and
then the anion. For instance, sodium chloride (NaCl). In the case of transition metals,
always include their valence (Iron (III) oxide).
Hydrates In lattices containing water of crystallisation, "Xhydrate" is added to the
end of the compound name, where X is the appropriate prefix for the number of water
molecules. For example, CuSO4.5H2O is called copper sulfate pentahydrate.
Identify IUPAC names for carbon compounds as they are encountered.
For basic carbon compounds, simple names we learned in year 10, such as butane or
ethene,are fine.
These compounds are named based on a prefix-suffix system. The prefix is based on
the longest chain of carbons that can be obtained. The suffix is based on the bonds
between the carbons.
Meth - 1
Eth - 2
Prop - 3
But - 4
Pent - 5
ane - All single bonds
ene - One double bond
yne - One triple bond
When naming carbon compounds with double and triple bonds, we use a number in
the name to signify where the bond is in the chain. For example, a butene molecule
with a double bond in its second link is called but-2-ene. Similarly, a butene molecule
with the double bond in its third slot is called but-3-ene.
Students:
Gather and present information from first-hand or secondary sources to write
equations to represent all chemical reactions encountered in the Preliminary
course.
Refer to prac book
risk of fires, and to prevent reagents from chemical reactions with the
atmosphere. Oxygen is used in gas welding, the smelting of metals such as
copper, medical and life support machinery, bleaching paper in pulp and paper
industry, ensure full combustion during the incineration of waste materials, and
chemical manufacturing. Argon is used as a shielding gas in welding
processes, protecting the products from gases that may react such as oxygen
and nitrogen, and in incandescent light bulbs to prevent the filament from
oxidising.
Waste material Less than 0.1% of air collected is waste, but buildup of
these gases over a long period of time require consideration. Hydrocarbons are
explosive and need to be disposed responsibly. Much of the equipment used
becomes waste, such as absorbent molecular sieves that become clogged with
waste gases. Cooling of air would lead to thermal pollution that could raise the
temperatures of streams and rivers near air plants and thus disrupt aquatic
ecosystems.
2. Although most elements are found in combinations on Earth, some elements are
found uncombined.
Students learn to:
Explain the relationship between the reactivity of an element and the likelihood of
its existing as an uncombined element.
The more reactive an element is, the more likely it is to have reacted with its
surrounding elements, meaning that they are rarer in their uncombined forms. For
example, sodium, a highly reactive metal, is never found in its uncombined state.
Compare this to gold, which has a very low reactivity, can be found in almost a pure
form.
Any metal discovered in its uncombined state is called a native metal.
Classify elements as metals, non-metals and semi-metals according to their physical
properties.
Metals, non-metals and semi-metals are grouped based on a number of key physical
properties. Note that semi-metals have mixed properties, and are named semi-metals
due to their inability to be classified.
Boiling and Melting Point Boiling and melting points are a measure of
when the element changes state. The elements with the lowest MP and BPs are
the non-metals which form small, individual molecules. Examples include
hydrogen and oxygen. Above them in MP and BP are the metals. Most metals
are solid at room temperature, with the exception of mercury. Above them still
are the non-metals and semi-metals which form themselves into lattice like
structures. Examples include carbon (most of its allotropes) and silicon
(although silicon is a semi-metal).
Hardness Hardness is a measure of how much force a material can take
without deformation. Hardness is measured on the Brinell scale. As can be
expected, the non-metals which are gaseous at room temperature are not on
this list. Metals are usually quite hard, although a range does exist. For
example, a metal like tungsten is extremely hard, whereas gold is not.
However, there are several non-metals which are harder than most metals:
those which form themselves into a covalent lattice structure, most
prominently carbon, whose allotropes include diamond, the hardest naturally
occurring substance.
Electrical/Thermal Conductivity Thermal and electrical conductivity are
both based on one thing: electrons, and electron flow. Heat is conducted as
electrons in the element gain energy, and transfers that energy between the
electrons, causing them to transfer the energy through the material. Similarly,
electricity is conducted through the use of mobile charge carriers, which can
charge between locations. Typically, non-metals have poor thermal and
electrical conductivity, by virtue of their few free electrons. Thus, they
typically serve as insulators. Metals, on the other hand, with their sea of
delocalised electrons, are highly efficient thermal and electrical conductors.
Density Density is a measure how much mass an object has per unit of
volume. Generally speaking, metals are high to moderate density while nonmetals are moderate to low.
Lustre Lustre is how shiny an object is, or how much light it reflects.
Metals are lustrous, and non-metals are not. This is because lustre is based on
electrons, and materials reflect light by having their electrons being excited,
and then rereleasing the energy as light.
Ductility/Malleability Ductility is a measure of how well a substance can
be drawn into a wire, and malleability is a measure of how well a substance
can be beaten into a sheet. Metals are ductile and malleable, while non-metals
are not (they are brittle, meaning they shatter into powder.)
Account for the uses of metals and non-metals in terms of their physical properties.
Metals
The malleability and ductility of metals have allowed it to be worked
into many different forms suitable for a huge variety of uses. For
instance, aluminium is used in roofing, aircraft structures, aluminium
foil, utensils such as forks and the common soda can, all due to the
Kevin Liang 11CH1
Process information from secondary sources and use a Periodic Table to present
information about the classification of elements as:
Metals, non-metals and semi-metals.
Solids, liquids and gases at 25C and normal atmospheric pressure.
Going down the Periodic Table and to the left, elements move from non-metals to
semi-metals to metals. In general, non-metals form anions and metals form cations.
Hydrogen is the exception if you classify it as a non-metal, both being on the
left of the Periodic Table and able to form cations. Because of this, hydrogen is
sometimes unclassified as an exception.
The semi-metals form a diagonal strip across the right part of the Periodic Table,
separating the non-metals on the right from the metals on the left.
Eleven elements exist as gases at room temperature hydrogen, helium, oxygen,
nitrogen, fluorine, neon, chlorine, radon, xenon, krypton, argon.
Two elements exist as liquids at room temperature bromine and mercury.
All other elements exist as solids.
3. Elements in Earth materials are present mostly as compounds because of interactions
at the atomic level.
Different shells exist at discrete energy levels, decreasing with each new shell.
Electrons in an atom cannot exist at intermediate energy levels and require specific
energy gain or loss to move between shells.
The smaller, inner shells exist at a lower energy level than the larger shells. Hence,
electrons emit energy when they drop from a higher energy level to a lower one
(called emission), and absorb energy, such as that from a photon, when reaching a
higher energy level (called excitation.)
Describe atoms in terms of mass number and atomic number.
The atomic number of an atom describes the number of protons in the nucleus. The
atomic number determines the specific element the atom is and its properties.
The mass number of an atom is the total number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus. The mass number is not to be confused with the relative atomic mass, which
is the average of the different isotopes of the element in a sample. The mass number
of a known element can be used to determine how many neutrons, and thus what
isotope, a specific atom is.
Describe the formation of ions in terms of atoms gaining or losing electrons.
An ion is a particle that has a number of electrons different to its number of protons,
thus giving it a charge. An ion is not an atom, which is a particle with the same
number of electrons to the number of protons.
Octet rule Atoms naturally seek to possess a full valence shell of electrons, either
by removing electrons from the outermost valence shell to erase it and cause the next
shell down to become the valence shell, or by adding electrons to its valence shell in
order to fill it up. Valence shells are filled when there are eight electrons (the
exception is the first shell, which applies for hydrogen, helium, lithium, beryllium and
boron.) As a side effect of this, atoms often become ions due to a changed number of
electrons. A filled valence shell possesses a stability that is clear in the noble gases,
which naturally have full valence shells without needing to become ions and thus have
high ionisation energy and exist as monatomic molecules.
A positive ion (or an atom that has lost electrons) is called a cation. Only metals form
cations (the exception is hydrogen.) When an atom becomes a cation, it is called an
oxidation reaction.
A negative ion (or an atom that has gained electrons) is called an anion. Only nonmetals form anions (the exception is hydrogen.) When an atom becomes an anion, it is
called a reduction reaction.
For one atom to become a cation, another atom must accept the electrons that it loses
and become an anion. Hence oxidation and reduction reactions always occur
simultaneously, and are collectively known as redox reaction.
Kevin Liang 11CH1
Apply the Periodic Table to predict the ions formed by atoms of metals and nonmetals.
The left side of the Periodic Table (metals) forms cations, while the right side
(non-metals) forms anions.
The specific Group of the Periodic Table details what charge the ion will have.
For instance, Group I elements form ions with a charge 1+.
The elements in the middle of the Periodic Table - the transition metals cannot have their ions predicted simply with the Periodic Table. In general, they form
2+ ions.
because ionic compounds do not exist as discrete molecules but a repeating lattice.
For instance, the formula for sodium chloride is NaCl, implying that in any given
quantity of sodium chloride, there will be one sodium ion for every chloride ion
present.
The ratio of an ionic compound rests with the charge of each ion, such that there is a
larger quantity of a small charge ion so that overall the net charge on an ionic
compound is neutral. For instance, sodium ions possess a charge of 1+, while chloride
ions possess a charge of 1-, so they are of the same magnitude and leads to the 1:1
ratio within sodium chloride. On the other hand, in calcium chloride (CaCl2), the
charge on a calcium cation is 2+, hence being large in magnitude than chloride and
occurring in a smaller quantity within the lattice.
Describe molecules as particles which can move independently of each other.
A molecule is the smallest particle of an element or compound capable of independent
movement. For example, an oxygen molecule is O2, because a single oxygen atom is
not capable of its own movement and existence due to chemically instability.
Molecules can be monatomic (made up of only one atom) in the case of noble gases,
but is in general diatomic (two atoms) or greater. The atoms within a molecule are
held together by strong covalent intramolecular chemical bonds.
Molecules only possess weak intermolecular bonds with other molecules and
compounds. These bonds can be easily broken given enough energy (heat), and so
molecules are capable of moving independently of each other when these bonds are
broken.
Eleven elements exist as gases at room temperature the six noble gases (helium,
neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon), hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine and
chlorine. Notice that these last five all form diatomic molecules.
Distinguish between molecules containing one atom (the noble gases) and
molecules with more than one atom.
The atoms of noble gases already possess chemical stability (see: the Octet rule), so
they are able to exist freely in molecules consisting of only one atom, or monatomic
molecules.
The atoms of other non-metal elements, such as oxygen, reach chemical stability
when they react with other atoms, including other atoms of the same element. Hence
as pure elements, they exist bonded together in molecules consisting of multiple
atoms. Hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine all exist as
molecules consisting of two atoms, and are called diatomic molecules.
Describe the formation of covalent molecules in terms of sharing of electrons.
Kevin Liang 11CH1
Atoms bonded covalently share electrons in order to achieve a stable valence shell and
a noble gas configuration. An electron that is shared between two atoms possesses
electrostatic attraction to the positive nucleus of both atoms and so contributes to the
valence shell of both atoms.
Many pure substances, such as hydrogen and oxygen, exist as covalently bonded
molecules consisting of a number of atoms because it is the most stable configuration.
For instance, oxygen molecules (O2) are more stable than oxygen atoms due to the
desire to reach a noble gas configuration.
A single bond involves the sharing of one pair of electrons. A double bond involves
the sharing of two pairs of electrons, two from each atom. A triple bond involves the
sharing of three pairs of electrons.
An atom's valence describes the number of covalent bonds that it can form (imagining
that double-bonds are two and triple-bonds are three.) For instance, the valence of
oxygen (2) means that it can form two bonds, either two single bonds or one double
bond. Each bond adds one electron to its valence shell, and the valence describes the
number of electrons required for a noble gas configuration.
Covalent bonds are called directional, meaning that covalent compounds and bonds
prefer specific orientations, giving molecules such as water definitive shapes.
Coordinate covalent bonds Also known as dative covalent bonds, a coordinate
covalent bond is a single bond between two particles in which one supplies both
electrons for the pair. For instance, when a hydrogen cation (or a proton) forms a
covalent bond with any other particle, the other particle must supply all electrons.
After the bond is formed, there are no differences in properties between a coordinate
covalent bond and a normal one. In diagrams of compounds with coordinate covalent
bonds, the coordinate bond is often depicted as an arrow from the atom donating the
two electrons to the one taking. For instance, in ammonium (NH4 1+) or ozone (O3)
C + O2 CO2
Students:
Analyse information by constructing or using models showing the structure of
metals, ionic compounds and covalent compounds.
Construct ionic equations showing metals and non-metal atoms forming ions.
Ionic equations describes electrolytes, or any substance containing free ions, in terms
of the disassociated ions. All other substances, including weak electrolytes that do not
contain a sufficient concentration of free ions, are written in their neutral, molecular
forms.
Ionic equations are used mostly to describe precipitation reactions, when free ions in
solution form an insoluble product. In such reactions, the ionic equation writes the
reagent compounds (such as silver nitrate and sodium hydroxide) in the form of free
ions (silver ions, nitrate ions, etc.) and the insoluble product as a neutral compounds
(silver hydroxide) because it is not an electrolyte.
Ionic equations are also used in reactions involving acids and bases, such as
neutralisation (acid/base) reactions and acid reacting with a carbonate to form carbon
dioxide.
Metal + Non-metal Salt
Eg. Na+ + Cl- NaCl
In physical changes, no new substances are formed and the particles existing
substances are only rearranged. Intermolecular bonds are often broken or new bonds
formed in physical changes. Physical changes are reversible through physical means,
such as dissolving salt and then evaporating it out. All forms of mixture separation are
physical changes.
Summarise the differences between the boiling and electrolysis of water as an
example of the differences between physical and chemical change.
The boiling of water is a physical change for two main reasons:
The change is easily reversible and with little energy changes; you simply
lower the temperature and the steam returns to being water.
No new substances were formed. The steam you produce is simply gaseous
water.
Kevin Liang 11CH1
because the bonds between atoms or ions, such as ionic bonds or covalent bonds, are
strong and require energy input in order to break them.
The measure of a covalent bond's strength is its bond energy, or the amount of energy
(usually in kilojoules) required to break that bond in one mole of the molecule and
form its constituent particles. For instance, the bond energy the OH bond in water is
the amount of energy required to break one mole of water into hydrogen and
hydroxide.
Conversely, the bond energy is the amount of energy released when the bond is
formed in one mole of the substance. For instance, the bond energy of water
describes the amount of energy produced when one mole of hydrogen ions
reacts with one mole of hydroxide ions to form water (in this case, the bond
energy is written as negative to describe the reaction as exothermic.)
The measure of an ionic bond's strength is its lattice energy, or the amount of energy
(usually in kilojoules) required to break the ionic bonds between ions and decompose
one mole of the ionic compound into its gaseous free ions.
Conversely, the lattice energy is the amount of energy released when one mole
of a salt is formed from the gaseous ions.
Students:
Plan and safely perform a first-hand investigation to show the decomposition of a
carbonate by heat, using appropriate tests to identify carbon dioxide and the oxide
as the products of the reaction.
Refer to prac book
charges due to the delocalised electrons. Metals are highly dense because the metal
ions are able to pack tightly together without repulsion, again thanks to the sea of
electrons. This delocalised sea is also responsible for a metal's high electrical
conductivity (due to the presence of mobile charge carriers) and thermal
conductivity (electrons absorb energy and begin moving more rapidly, quickly
spreading the heat from the heat source throughout the metal.) Finally, the strong
attractions between metal ions and electrons lead to high boiling and melting points.
Describe ionic compounds in terms of repeating three-dimensional lattices of ions.
Ionic compounds are formed by the electrostatic attraction between positive and
negative ions, or in other words ionic bonds between cations and anions. In many
ionic compounds, each cation is surrounded on six sides by six anions to which it is
ionic ally bonded. Each anion is similarly bonded to six cations. This forms a threedimensional lattice akin to a cube.
The reason for this particular lattice structure is because the ions attempt to
form as many ionic bonds with ions of the opposite charge as possible, as each
one releases energy and so allows the system to exist at a lower energy level,
and six is the maximum possible before ions of similar charges begin to repel
one another.
Other types of lattices do exist, such as caesium chloride.
Explain why the formula for an ionic compound is an empirical formula.
Ionic compounds do not exist as discrete entities but instead as a repeating lattice of
anions and cations that hypothetically could go on forever. Hence the ionic compound
is not defined by the number of atoms in a molecule, as it does not exist as molecules,
but as the ratio of anions to cations in any given sample of the substance.
Identify common elements that exist as molecules or as covalent lattices.
Metallic
Crystal
Ionic Crystal
Covalent
network
Covalent
molecular
Chemical
bonding
Melting point
Electrical
conductivity
Other
properties
Examples
crystal
Covalent
crystal
Covalent
Metallic
Ionic
High
Solid: high
Liquid: high
Malleable
Ductile
Lustrous
Copper
Aluminium
High
Solid: nil
Liquid: high
Hard
Brittle
Very high
-
Low
-
Very hard
Soft
Brittle
Sodium
chloride
Zinc oxide
Students:
Perform a first-hand investigation to compare the properties of some common
elements in their elemental state with the properties of the compound(s) of these
elements (e.g. magnesium and oxygen).
8.3 Metals
1. Metals have been extracted and used for many thousands of years
Students learn to:
Outline and examine some uses of different metals through history, including
contemporary uses, as uncombined metals or as alloys
Copper First metal used during the Copper Age (50003000BC), which itself is
the first half of the larger Bronze Age (50001000BC.) They were extracted from
copper ore such as malachite (CuCO3.Cu(OH)2) using moderately hot fires and
carbon in the form of charcoal. Copper was used for ornaments, weapons, cooking
implements due to copper's high thermal conductivity, and copper pipes for water
due to copper's resistance to erosion. Contemporary uses of copper include hot water
pipes and tanks due to copper's resistance to erosion in high temperatures, copper
wiring due to its extremely high electrical conducitivty (second only to silver.) and
air condition units due to its ability to dissipate heat. Copper also forms a large
variety of alloys, allowing it to remain relevant today. One of the disadvantages of
copper is that it is fairly soft, producing weak weapons.
Bronze An alloy of copper and tin that led to the second half of the Bronze Age
(30001000BC.) The addition of tin to copper produced the harder alloy bronze.
Bronze had several advantages to copper: it had a lower melting point so was easier
to work with and cast; it was harder, making better weapons and armor; cutting tools
made of bronze, such as axes, maintained their edge well and were easily
resharpened; and bronze is very durable.
Iron The first traces of iron came from meteorites, but the extraction and prolific
use of iron did not come about until higher temperature furnaces were made with
bellows. This happened around 1000BC, marking the beginning of the Iron Age (1000
1BC.) The ore hematite (Fe2O3) was mixed with charcoals and heated to reduce
the ore into iron. This was then repeatedly heated to red and hammered to expel the
impurities in the metal, leaving wrought iron. At around 500BC, the Chinese
constructed more powerful furnaces that could produce molten iron that could be used
to produce cast iron.
Aluminium Most abundant metal in the earth's crust but also extremely difficult to
extract from its ore bauxite, which contains the mineral gibbsite (Al(OH)3).
Aluminium only became more abundant when an appropriate electrolytic extraction
method arose in the 19th century. Aluminium's low density and resistance to
corrosion (due to the buildup of a layer of aluminium oxide) means that it is used in
many applications such as roofing, window frames and aircraft construction.
Aluminium's high thermal and electrical conductivity also makes it good for frying
pans, and its malleability makes it suitable for uses such as utensils, drink cans and
cake tins.
Describe the use of common alloys including steel, brass and solder
and explain how these relate to their properties
Steel: Iron containing other elements. Carbon, most prominently. However, other
elements such as nickel, tin and chromium are also used, such as in stainless steel (10
25% chromium, 422% nickel). Steel is used in building construction and car
manufacture, due to their high tensile strength. Steels such as stainless steel are used
in cutlery and sinks due to their strength and resistance to corrosion.
Brass: Brass is the combination of zinc and copper, occasionally with other trace
elements thrown in. Brass is used as it is quite strong (stronger than both zinc and
copper), and quite beautiful, due to its lustre and resistance to corrosion. It is
primarily used in decorations.
Solder: Solder is a combination of tin and lead. Solder is used for one reason only: it
has a low melting point. This makes it an ideal choice for the cheap yet easy joining
of metals, particularly electrical wiring.
Explain why energy input is necessary to extract a metal from its ore
Almost all metals exist naturally in ores as minerals (chemical compounds) and not as
native metals. Hence they exist bonded to other elements such as sulfur and oxygen.
In order to extract the metal, these bonds with other elements must be broken. Hence
energy input is required.
Ores exist in the ground, often very deep, and so energy is required to mine them and
then transport them away from the mine to an extraction plant where the metal may
then be extracted.
Ores often exist with very low concentration of the mineral, such as copper ore
possessing only 0.6% copper. Hence energy is required to order to purify and
concentrate the ore.
Metals that are extracted using smelting processes, such as copper, often need to be
further purified.
Identify why there are more metals available for people to use now than there were
200 years ago
The development of technology has allowed for better extraction and purification of
elements. For example, aluminium is a reactive metal and other methods of separating
it from its ore, such as reduction with carbon, are not possible. Instead, electrolysis (a
process which was only just discovered in 1800 and which was only developed for
use with aluminium in 1886) is used. This process was not available 200 years ago.
The increase in the number of discovered and useful metals, as well as increases in
Kevin Liang 11CH1
alloying technology, has allowed a wide variety of alloys to be created and used.
Cheaper means of extracting metals makes it more affordable and thus economically
feasible for metals such as aluminium to find wider uses.
Students:
Gather, process, analyse and present information from secondary sources on the
range of alloys produced and the reasons for the production and use of these alloys
Alloying allows the properties of metals to be modified for specific needs, such as
stainless steel to prevent rusting. Alloying in general will make pure metals such as
aluminium, copper and iron much harder due to the introduction of irregularities to
the metal lattice, preventing ions from easily slipping over one another. Alloying can
also be used to reduce the cost of materials by introducing cheaper metals to fill up
the bulk: for instance, US coins are made up of 97% zinc and a copper coating.
Analyse information to relate the chronology of the Bronze Age, the Iron Age and
the modern era and possible future developments
Bronze Age (50001000BC) The Bronze Age collectively describes the Copper
Age (50003000BC) and the subsequent Bronze Age (30001000BC).
Chronologically, the Bronze Age stands between the Stone Age, before the use of
metals became commonplace, and the Iron Age. This is because copper was the first
to be extracted and recognised, due to its low temperatures required to extract the
metal from its ore.
Iron Age (10001BC) The Iron Age describes the period of time directly before
the Modern Age. While iron working emerged in the centuries before the Iron Age,
the Iron Age marks the wider knowledge of iron working and extraction across the
globe.
Modern Age (1CE onwards) While the Iron Age is remarked to have ended at
1BC, iron and steel continued to be the dominant metals and there were no dramatic
changes in the way we used metals until the 19th century. Discoveries of metals in the
19th century led to the development of alloying and more alloy metals being produced
and used.
Describe observable changes when metals react with dilute acid, water and oxygen
Acids Most metals will react with cold dilute acids to form a salt and hydrogen gas.
Thus the metal is oxidised to an ion while the hydrogen ion is reduced to gas. Less
reactive metals will react less with acids; lead reacts only with warm dilute acids, while
metals that are less reactive (copper, silver, gold, mercury) will not react at all.
Metal + Acid Salt + Water
E.g. Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
The ionic equation Zn + 2H + Zn 2+ (aq) + H2 (g)
Water Only the most reactive metals such as sodium and calcium will react with cold
water to produce a hydroxide salt and hydrogen gas. Travelling down the activity series,
metals become less and less reactive with water; from hot water (to produce an oxide salt
and hydrogen gas) to steam (to produce an oxide salt and hydrogen gas) to no reaction at
all.
Example: Cold water 2Na (s) + 2H2O (l) 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)
Example: Hot water Mg (s) + H2O (l) MgO (s) + H2 (g)
Example: Steam Zn (s) + H2O (g) ZnO (s) + H2 (g)
Example: No reaction Au (s) Au (s)
Oxygen Most metals will react with oxygen to form oxides (except silver, gold,
platinum.) Metals such as sodium and potassium react readily with oxygen and burn
easily. Metals lower on the reactivity series can burn to form oxides if finely divided.
Some metals lower on the activity series such as copper will react slowly with oxygen
when heated but not burn.
The general equation is Metal + Oxygen Metal Oxide
Describe and justify the criteria used to place metals into an order of activity based on
their ease of reaction with oxygen, water and dilute acids
In all cases above, certain metals are less reactive with acids, oxygen and water than other
metals, often requiring external energy in the form of heat in order for an reaction to occur.
In analysing the order of reactivity, an overall scale of the reactivity of metals can be
formed.
For example, the reactivity series in general will describe metals from easily oxidised to
no reaction with oxygen at all.
Another criteria of the order of the activity series is the tendency for one metal to displace
another in solution.
Identify the reaction of metals with acids as requiring the transfer of electrons
Outline examples of the selection of metals for different purposes based on their
reactivity, with a particular emphasis on current developments in the use of metals
A lack of reactivity in metals such as gold and silver allows them to retain their lustre to
make jewellery.
The lack of reactivity and excellent electrical conductivity of gold allows for very useful
applications in electronic circuits and computers.
The intense light produced in the burning of magnesium due to its high reactivity with
oxygen is used in photographic flashbulbs and fireworks.
Calcium's high reactivity allows it to be used in removing oxygen, sulfur and
phosphorus from steels and in vacuums.
The reactivity of zinc makes it suitable for use in batteries such as dry cells.
Less reactive metals such as tin are often used as coating on more reactive metals such
as iron to protect it from corrosion and reacting with chemicals such as the food being
stored in cans.
Copper's lack of reactivity with water and resistance to corrosion means that it has been
used in the plumbing industry for hot water pipes.
Outline the relationship between the relative activities of metals and their positions on the
Periodic Table
The most reactive metals exist on the left; Group 1 is more reactive than Group 2.
This is because there are fewer electrons in the valence shell, therefore; less energy is
required for the element to lose its electrons in chemical reactions.
Metals become more reactive moving down the group; caesium is more reactive than
rubidium. This is because each element down a group has one more valence shell. As the
atomic radius increases, the further the valence electrons are from its nucleus, hence; the
nuclear attraction between the electrons and the nucleus become weaker, requiring less
energy to remove a valence electron.
Identify the importance of first ionisation energy in determining the relative reactivity of
metals
The first ionisation energy of an element is the minimum amount of energy required to
remove the first electron from one mole of the element as a gas. It is given as kilojoules
per mole (kJ/mol). In essence the first ionisation energy of an element determines how
easily it is for the element to lose electrons.
The reactivity of metals is largely determined by the tendency for metals to be oxidised
into cations through the loss of electrons; thus the ease with which the metal loses
electrons directly affects its reactivity.
Students:
Water Some metals react with either liquid water to form hydroxides and hydrogen gas
or steam to form oxides and hydrogen gas. It can be argued that in the former, the metal is
displacing the hydrogen from solution.
2Na (s) + 2H2O (l) 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)
Oxygen Some metals react with oxygen to form oxides.
2Mg (s) + O2 (g) 2MgO (s)
Oxidation reaction: Mg (s) -> Mg2+ (aq) + 2e Reduction reaction: 2H+ (aq) + 2e- -> H2 (g)
Studentslearnto:
Explain the relationship between the position of elements in the Periodic Table, and:
Electrical conductivity
Ionisation energy
Atomic radius
Melting point
Boiling point
Combining power (valency)
Electronegativity
Reactivity
Electrical conductivity Decreases from left to right.
Ionisation energy Decreases from top to bottom due to more electron shells, thus a
greater distance between the nucleus and the valence shell and hence weaker electrostatic
attraction between them. Decreases from left to right due to a greater number of protons in
the nucleus, thus causing the valence shell to hold on more strongly to its electrons.
Atomic radius Increases from top to bottom due to more electron shells. Decreases
from left to right due to a greater number of protons in the nucleus, thus increasing the
electrostatic forces between the nucleus and the electrons and causing the valence shell to
contract.
Melting point Increases from top to bottom due to a greater number of electrons, thus
increasing the strength of dispersion forces between molecules. Additionally, melting point
increases due to an increase in metallic character. Increased from left to right up to Group
IV, then decreases. Periodic minima (lowest point) corresponding to the noble gases.
Boiling point Increases from top to bottom due to a greater number of electrons, thus
increasing the strength of dispersion forces between molecules. Additionally, melting point
increases due to an increase in metallic character. Increases from left to right up to Group
IV, then decreases. Periodic minima (lowest point) corresponding to the noble gases.
Combining power (valency) Increases from left to right up to Group IV, then
decreases.
Electronegativity Decreases from top to bottom due to increased atomic radius.
Increases from left to right due to decreasing atomic radius.
Reactivity Increases from top to bottom. Decreases from left to right up to Group IV,
then increases.
Students:
Process information from secondary sources to develop a
When a metal reacts with oxygen to form an oxide, a new substance is formed that
contains all of the metal as well as a certain amount of oxygen. Thus the metal oxide
would weigh more, because it would weigh exactly as much as the metal that we
began with in addition to the oxygen.
For example, suppose we begin with 10g of magnesium and burn it. The magnesium
oxide that resulted would weigh 16.6g. Therefore, the mass of the oxygen used is
6.6g.
Gay-Lussac's Law states that ratio of gases between the reactants and products of a
reaction can be expressed as simple whole numbers.
Because we understand that moles react in simple whole number ratios, one can
conclude that equal volumes of gases contain the same number of molecules.
Avogadro's Law states that gases of the same volume under the same temperature
and pressure have the same number of particles.
Thus equal volumes of gases will possess the same number of moles. Because the
ratio of moles is crucial to chemical reactions, this connection means that volume is
also important.
At 0C and 100kPa, the volume is 22.71K. At 25C and 100kPa, the volume is
24.79L.
Empirical formula is one that describes the simplest ratio of elements. Molecular
formula, on the other hand, is the actual composition of the compound. For example,
N2O4 is a compound, whose molecular formula is N2O4. On the other hand, its
empirical formula is NO2.
Different compounds can have the same empirical formula but different molecular
formulas - for instance, acetylene (C2H2) and benzene (C6H6).
Students:
Process information from secondary sources to interpret balanced chemical
equations in terms of mole ratios.
The coefficients of a balanced chemical equation can be seen as a
representation of the moles involved in the reaction. For instance, in the
diagram below, the coefficients 2:1:2 can be used to describe the ratio of moles
of magnesium, oxygen gas and magnesium oxide that is involved in the
reaction (note that we are considering moles of oxygen gas, O2, not oxygen
atoms.)
2Mg (s) + O2 (g) 2MgO (s)
Perform a first-hand investigation to measure and identify the mass ratios of metal
to non-metal(s) in a common compound and calculate its empirical formula.
Refer to prac book
Solve problems and analyse information from secondary
Refer to worksheets
A mineral is a pure crystalline compound that occurs naturally in the earths crust.
An ore is a compound or mixture of compounds from which it is economic (or
commercially profitable) to extract a desired substance such as a metal
Minerals can share names with ores. For example, iron (III) oxide (Fe2O3), or
hematite, is a mineral and also a common ore of iron, usually with impurities in it,
making it a mixture.
Describe the relationship between the commercial prices of common metals, their
actual abundances and relative costs of production.
As the abundance increases, the supply increases. Similarly, if the relative costs of
production increase, less metals are being extracted for the same cost of extraction
The abundance of metals in the earth's crust, and the number of ore deposits mined
affects the availability and price.
For instance, iron exists as 5% of the earth's crust - highly abundant.
Copper exists at 0.05% of the earth's crust, but is concentrated in ore such as
chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) and malachite
The cost of mining and extraction. For instance, aluminium extraction requires a lot of
energy and thus is highly expensive.
The useful properties of metals. For instance, titanium has many important
applications due to its biocompatibility, low density and high strength, and so is more
expensive.
Smelting, Pt. 3: Blister Copper The copper matte react to form copper
metal. This produces blister copper, the appearance of blisters due to escaping sulfur
dioxide, which is roughly 98% pure in copper. Remaining impurities include inert
metals such as gold and silver.
made the anode. The copper is oxidised at the anode to form free copper ions that are
then reduced and deposit at the copper cathode.
Recycling requires less of an energy input (5% of extraction in the case of aluminium,
800MJ as opposed to 65 000MJ per tonne).
It is 100% recyclable
Waste products of extraction are reduced for instance, carbon dioxide is produced
in the electrolysis of alumina.
Less metal goes to waste dumps and so reduces the rate at which countries accumulate
waste that needs to be stored.
Recycling of aluminium:
Aluminium waste is sorted according to the alloy type, and then melted at
temperatures of around 660C, or the melting point of aluminium.
The composition of the molten aluminium is analysed and adjusted as
necessary to produce the correct alloy required. They are then cast into ingots.
Energy concerns:
8.4 Water
1. Water is distributed on Earth as a solid, liquid and gas
Students learn to:
Water is called the "universal solvent." This is because more substances dissolve in
water than any other liquid on Earth, including acids.
Water's ability to dissolve a large range of compounds means that it is extremely
important in many biological and physical processes.
Water is used in all aspects of living organisms to facilitate biological
processes in aqueous solutions. This includes diluting waste and transporting
nutrients and waste through the body. This occurs by a number of processes.
Diffusion is the process by which the random movement of dissolved particles
in solution causes them to eventually move along their concentration gradient
from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration, thus
transporting them. This can be seen in the transportation of glucose from the
plants to the other parts of the organism.
Aqueous solutions relying on water's ability to dissolve compounds is used in
many areas of life, including household cleaning agents and acids used in
industry.
A constituent of cells and its role as both a solvent and a raw material in
metabolism
Biological functions of water Water makes up about 70% of all living bodies. In
the human body in particular, but indicative of functions in many organisms, water:
Photosynthesis Water is a reactant in the production of glucose.
Hydrolysis Water breaks down large molecules into smaller sub-molecules,
such as starch into individual glucose molecules.
Dilution of waste products in the human body, such as urea.
A transport system for both waste products and nutrients, such as urea or
oxygen. Blood is basically water.
Hydrostatic skeleton As a means of supporting biological structures in a
way similar to how our skeletons hold us up. In human bodies, this is also
apparent in structures such as the eyeball.
Heat distribution and regulation through sweat.
Osmosis that shifts the concentration of solutions such as those in cell
membranes.
Fundamental for enzymes to function.
Habitats The high heat capacity of water means that bodies of water such as the
sea or lakes have far narrow temperature bands than other geological areas. This
means that bodies of water are usually warmer than the surroundings in winter and
cooler in the summer. These marginal shifts in temperature also provide a stable
environment for aquatic organisms to live.
Geological process Water contributes heavily to the shaping of the landscape. This
occurs in two ways: weathering and erosion. Weathering is the process by which
rocks are broken down, and erosion is the movement of rocks and soil across the
landscape.
Weathering
Chemical weathering water reactions with compounds in the
ground over long periods of time to form new compounds.
Water containing suspended impurities acts like sandpaper over rocks.
Glaciers scrape over rocks and gradually wear them away.
Water seeps into the cracks of rocks and then freezes, expanding and
widening cracks and eventually causing them to break.
Erosion Moving bodies of water such as rivers and rainfall downhill causes
loose minerals and soil to move, usually downhill. It is interesting to note that
erosion of salts into the ocean is what caused the ocean to become salt-water.
A natural resource Other than for drinking and washing, water has many
functions in society:
Leisure swimming, beaches, water sports, ice-skating.
Industry as a reactant or product, or for cooling machinery.
Agriculture irrigating crops and watering livestock.
Electrical power generation through hydroelectricity or tidal power.
Transport Ships and barges, allowing goods in the past to be moved down
river for trade.
Students:
Refertopracbook
In ice, there are more hydrogen bonds between water molecules. As hydrogen bonds
are directional, meaning that they prefer specific orientations, the water molecules are
pushed apart and so there are less water molecules per unit volume in ice than in
liquid water.
In the lattice of ice, each oxygen atom in the water molecule is bonded to four
hydrogen atoms two covalently (the atoms in its molecule), and two by hydrogen
bonding. This forms a tetrahedral structure with the oxygen at the center and the
hydrogens at the vertices. This array is an open-cage, reducing the density of ice.
In liquid water, the hydrogen bonding occurs almost randomly between particles of
water. Water molecules are also closer together due to less hydrogen bonds.
Water (H2O)
Ammonia (NH3)
Water(H2O)
Ammonia(NH3)
HydrogenSulfide(H2S)
Bent
TrigonalPyramidal
Bent
Typeof
Bonding
Hydrogen
Hydrogen
Dipoledipole
MeltingPoint
(oC)
0
77.73
82
BoilingPoint
(oC)
99.98
33.34
60
electronegativity between hydrogen, and either nitrogen, oxygen or fluorine (the three
most electronegative elements). The large difference in electronegativity results in an
extremely polar bond 10 times stronger than normal dipole-dipole forces and 10 times
weaker than covalent bonds.
The two O-H bonds in water are extremely polar and necessary for hydrogen bonding,
with the electrons more attracted to the oxygen than the hydrogen.
The two bonds are at angles to each other (104.5) and so the two dipoles do not
cancel out and there is an overall net charge; negative on the oxygen and positive on
the side of the hydrogens. Thus water is a polar molecule.
Polar molecules are those that have permanent dipoles, or possess either dipoledipole forces or hydrogen bonding. A molecule is only polar if it possess polar
bonding (that is, bonding between two atoms that differ in electronegative, such that
the electrons in the bond will be spend more time with the more electronegative atom
and make it more negative.) as well as a structure by the VSEPR model in which the
dipoles created by these polar bonds do not cancel out. For instance, chlorine (C2) is
non-polar because it possesses no polar bonds, while beryllium fluoride (BeF2) is
non-polar due to its linear structure, wherein the polar BeF bonds cancel one
another out and the overall molecule has no dipoles.
Dipole-dipole forces are the normal kind of polar bond present in polar molecules.
Hydrogen bonding is a kind of dipole-dipole force that occurs in molecules possessing
the extremely polar OH, NH or FH bonds and are ten times stronger than
normal dipole-dipole forces. In substances with such intermolecular forces, the
molecules will orient themselves so that the negative end of one molecule will be
closer to the positive end of another, leading to lower potential energy in the
substance.
Surface tension
Viscosity
Surface tension Water molecules are normally pulled on all sides by hydrogen
bonds. However, on the surface, there are no water molecules above it to pull it
upwards, so the water molecule experiences a force downwards that creates a tension
of the surface. The strength of surface tension of a liquid is thus proportional to the
strength of the intermolecular bond.
Viscosity is the property of how easily a fluid flows. Viscosity also affects how easily
it is to move through the fluid. The viscosity of a liquid is determined by the strength
of its intermolecular bonds, as well as the size and shape of the molecules for
instance, long chain molecules get tangled up and so its viscosity would be high.
Increased temperature also decreases viscosity due to the increased movement of the
particles in the liquid.
Boiling points and melting points are the temperatures in which water boils and
melts at. The boiling and melting point of water is dependent upon the intermolecular
forces it forms with other water molecules. Water exhibits hydrogen bonding, which
gives it relatively high boiling and melting points (more heat energy required to break
the intermolecular forces) compared to other polar molecules such as hydrogen
sulfide (H2S). Water also has two lone electron pairs, allowing it to hydrogen bond
with two other molecules, thus; increasing its boiling and melting points.
Students:
Foreffectsofforces,refertoabove
Surface tension
Viscosity
Explain changes, if any, to particles and account for those changes when the
following types
of chemicals interact with water:
it with the negative oxygen end of the molecule closer to the cation, and for anions,
the same thing occurs with the hydrogen end closer to the anion. This process is called
dissociation, and occurs due to the strong dipoles in a water molecule that are
attracted to the charged ion. Ionic compounds only dissolve when the strength of the
water-ion bonding is greater than that of the ionic lattice. The polar molecules of
water are not stronger than the electrostatic attraction in an ionic lattice, but due to the
large amount of water present; the water-ion bonding is strong enough to overcome
the electrostatic attraction. A dissolved ion is called hydrated.
A soluble molecular compound such as sucrose:
Most covalent molecules do not dissolve in water. However, some do, such as
sucrose, which have a hydroxyl (OH) function. This ability to dissolve relies on their
ability to form hydrogen bonds with the water, which are able to overcome the
hydrogen bonds between water molecules and sugar molecules.
A soluble or partially soluble molecular element or compound such as iodine,
oxygen or hydrogen chloride:
Many covalent molecules possess only dispersion forces or dipole-dipole forces.
These molecules are only able to form dispersion or dipole-dipole forces with water,
which are much weaker than hydrogen bonding. Hence, the intermolecular forces
between the solute and water are much weaker than the intermolecular forces between
water.
A covalent network structure substance such as silicon dioxide:
Covalent bonds between silicon and oxygen are 10 times stronger than hydrogen
bonding. Therefore, the polar water molecules are not strong enough to break the
covalent bonds.
A substance with large molecules, such as cellulose or polyethylene:
Although cellulose and polyethylene are polar molecules, displaying a hydroxyl (OH)
function, they are too large to dissolve in water. They cannot dissolve in water, as they
exhibit hydrogen bonding extensively throughout their molecules. Hence, the water
molecules are not strong enough to break the hydrogen bonding between large
molecules.
Analyse the relationship between the solubility of substances in water and the polar
nature of the water molecule
Like dissolves like This is because polar substances form stronger bonds with other
polar substances than with nonpolar substances, and similarly non-polar substances
form stronger bonds with other nonpolar substances. Thus, the bonding between
solvent particles and between solute particles do not break and bonds cannot form
between solute and solvent particles.
Students:
Seeworkbookforproblemsrelatingtosolubility
Barium sulfate
Silver chloride
Lead sulfide
When two solutions of ionic substances are mixed together, an insoluble precipitate
will form in a precipitation reaction if any of the cationanion combinations
constitutes an insoluble substance. This is because free ions in both substances
constant move and interact with other ions, and when a cation meets an anion for
which it is insoluble, they will form bonds and settle out of solution.
For instance, in the mixing of silver nitrate and barium hydroxide, a precipitate
will form if either silver hydroxide or barium nitrate is insoluble.
The ionic equation: Ag+(aq) + OH-(aq) AgOH(s)
A reversible reaction is one that can be easily reversed; for instance, the evaporation
of water from liquid to gas is reversible as steam can regress to form liquid water.
Reversible reactions are made up of the forward reaction and the reverse reaction. In
systems wherein both the forward and reverse reaction occurs at the same rate, then
there are overall no net observable changes and the system is said to be at chemical
equilibrium. This equilibrium is dynamic.
Molarity (M), or moles per litre (mol/L), is the main form of measurement used to
determine the concentration of a solution. It describes the number of moles of a
substance that exists in solution in one litre of the solution. Since solutions are
homogeneous, this means that taking a half of a given solution will give you half the
moles, and in general, molarity will stay the same given any volume of a solution with
fixed concentration. Molarity can also be written as M, or molar.
If n is used to describe the number of moles in solution, and V is used to describe the
volume of solution present, the concentration C will be given by C = n/V.
Students:
Refertopracbook
Whatisthemolarityofasolutioncontaining9.478gramsofRuCl3inenoughwater
tomake1.00Lofsolution?
n=9.478/101.07+35.45*3=0.04569
C=0.04569/1=0.04569M
SpecificHeatCapacity(J/K/g)
0.14
2.44
4.18
Find the change in enthalpy of the solution when 5g of sodium hydroxide is dissolved
in 100mL of water (given the density of water = 1g/mL) and temperature changes by
12K.
H = 5266.8 J
The mass of the substance, specific heat capacity of water and the change in
temperature is required to measure the energy changes in a chemical reaction. Waters
ability to absorb is significant to determine energy changes, as it allows the initial
temperature and final temperature to be measured. Using the values of m, C and T,
the change in enthalpy can be measured in chemical reactions.
Anexothermicreactioniswhenthedissolutionofasubstancelosesorreleasesheatenergy.
Eg.Neutralisationbetweenacidsandbases,combustionreactions,respiration,freezingofice.
Anendothermicreactioniswhenthedissolutionofasubstancegainsorabsorbsheatenergy.
Eg.Electrolysis,photosynthesis,meltingofice.
Explain why waters ability to absorb heat is important to aquatic organisms and to
life on earth generally
Waters high specific heat capacity allows it to absorb large amounts of heat energy without a
significant change in temperature.
Water acts as an insulator in cells and bodies to protect living organisms from drastic
temperature changes.
Explain what is meant by thermal pollution and discuss the implications for life if a
Thermal pollution is the degradation of water quality by any process that changes ambient
water temperature. It is the discharge of large quantities of hot water into a river or lake
sufficient to cause a significant increase in water temperature (2-5 oC)
Water is used as a coolant for many industrial processes, such as electricity generation. The
cooling water is pumped from a water body, used in the industrial process, and then it is
discharge back to the environment having absorbed a substantial amount of heat.
Fish eggs do not develop properly or hatch due to high temperatures or sudden
changes in temperatures
Students:
ThecommoncalorimeterusedinmolarheatexperimentsisaStyrofoamcup.This
presentsavarietycauseoferrors.
ThesourceoferroroftheStyrofoamcupisthatheatenergyislosttothe
surroundings.
Heatcanbelosttothesurroundingair,thecup,thelidetc.
Anendothermicprocessmayabsorbheatfromtheenvironment,notjustfrom
thewater
Toreducethesourceoferror:2Styrofoamcupsandalidcanimproveinsulation,and
touseanadequatevolumeofwaterforthesolutetodissolveinyetstillbeableto
measurethechangesintemperature.
8.5 Energy
1. Living organisms make compounds which are important sources of energy
Students learn to:
In plants, some glucose is used immediately for basic processes, but most is made into
polysaccharides such as starch for storage or cellulose for plant cell walls.
In most animals, the energy in glucose is stored in the form of the polysaccharide
glycogen or as fats.
Identify the photosynthetic origins of the chemical energy in coal, petroleum and
natural gas
Fossil fuels are mixtures containing hydrocarbons and other compounds formed by
the interrupted decomposition of plants and animals over millions of years. Organisms
naturally decompose into carbon dioxide and water by the actions of bacteria, but
when this decomposition is interrupted and the material is subjected under heat and
pressure, such as by layers of sediment settling above it over millions of years, the
organisms chemically change into energy-rich compounds. Fossil fuels possess high
amounts of chemical potential energy that can be liberated when combusted. Fossil
fuels are finite and non-renewable.
Coal A type of rock mostly made up of carbon formed from plant matter about 300
million years ago. Coal is formed when plant matter is prevented from decomposition
by oxidation, and over time sinks beneath layers of sediment to reach conditions of
increasing pressure and heat, slowing transitioning into coal.
Petroleum Also called crude oil. A complex mixture of various carbohydrates that
appears as a viscous black liquid with highly variable composition. In order to be
used, petroleum is separated into its constituent hydrocarbons by fractional
distillation. Both petroleum and natural gas originate from micro-organisms in the
oceans, which died and settled out on the ocean floor. Layers of sediment fell on them
and the heat and pressure eventually converted them into hydrocarbons in the form of
natural gas and petroleum. When this occurs, the petroleum and natural gas naturally
migrate through pores in the sediment upward, either reaching the surface or
becoming trapped by impenetrable clay and forming oil deposits. In such oil deposits,
the gas forms at the top and the petroleum oil forms on the water, separating the three
into distinct layers. There are oil basins in Western Australia, such as the Carnarvon
Basin.
Natural gas A mixture of hydrocarbon gases mostly made up of methane but
containing other impurities like carbon dioxide. The formation of natural gas is
described above with petroleum, as well as oil deposits.
Students:
Coal
Black rock-like substance formed from decayed plant matter over million of years
Stage
Type of Coal
Carbon (%)
Description
Peat
50-60
60-75
Black Coal
(Bituminous Coal)
80-95
Anthracite (Coke)
90-95
Identify the position of carbon in the Periodic Table and describe its electron
configuration
Carbon's atomic number is 6. It exists on the Periodic Table in the second period and
the fourth group. It also has six electrons, arranged with two electrons in its k-shell
and four in its valence shell.
Describe the structure of the diamond and graphite allotropes and account for their
physical properties in terms of bonding
In covalent bonds, when only one electron is shared with another atom, the bond
contains two electrons and is called a single bond and is drawn with a single line (C
C). When two electrons from each atom are shared, this is a double bond and is
drawn with two lines (C=C). When three electrons from each atom are shared, this is
Explain the relationship between carbons combining power and ability to form a
variety of bonds and the existence of a large number of carbon compounds
Carbon'ssmallsizeanditsabilitytoformsingle,doubleandtriplebonds,aswellas
itscapacitytoformfourbonds,meansthatcarboniscapableofformingavarietyof
carboncompounds.
Students:
Refertopracbookandorangeworkbook
Doneinclass
carbon compounds. The specific composition of crude oil differs depending on the
basin it was extracted from.
Distillation is the process by which a mixture of liquids is separated based on their
different boiling points. The mixture is heated and the more volatile, or compound
with a lower boiling point, vaporises first and separates from the mixture. When the
boiling points of substances are close together in a mixture, such as in crude oil,
fractional distillation is used.
In the industrial separation of crude oil, fractional distillation is used, where the
fractionating column is a steel tower up to 40m high. Due to the large variety of
substances in crude oil, fractional distillation cannot separate them into their pure
compounds, but instead into fractions through the length of the fractionating column,
each made up of a certain section of hydrocarbons. Since the boiling point and the
volatility of a hydrocarbon is based on its size (due to the dispersion forces increasing
in strength with increasing molecular weight), the fractions at the bottom will contain
the largest hydrocarbons and the fractions at the top will contain the smallest.
Gases C1C4, so volatile that they do not condense and are collected as gases.
Boiling point below 30C. Uses include as fuel in the form of liquefied petroleum gas
(LPG).
Petrol, gasoline C5C12, boiling point between 30C and 200C. Uses include
motor fuel and solvents.
Kerosene C11C15, boiling point between 175C and 275C. Uses include aviation
fuel, domestic heating and a materials for production of smaller hydrocarbons by the
"cracking" process.
Diesel and gas oils C15C18, boiling point between 275C and 350C. Uses
include diesel fuel, and more material for cracking process.
Lubricating oils C16C20, boiling point greater than 350C. Uses include
lubricating oil and more material for cracking process.
Paraffin waxes C20C40, boiling point greater than 350C. Uses include candles
and wax paper.
Bitumen/asphalt Greater than C40, does not vapourise during the distillation
process. Used but roofing tar and asphalt.
Astraightchainedhydrocarbonisonethatisasinglelongchainwithnobranches.
Theyarethesimplestkindofhydrocarbon.
Identifythefunctionalgroupthisisthepartofthemoleculethatdefinesits
characteristics.Thisdeterminesthesuffixofthecompound.Ifitonlypossessessingle
bonds,itisanalkaneandhasthesuffix"ane".Ifthereexistsadoublebond,itis
alkeneandhasthesuffix"ene".
Meth 1.
Eth 2.
Prop 3.
But 4.
Pent 5.
Hex 6.
Hept 7.
Oct 8.
Inalkenes,thepositionofthedoublebondmustbespecified
Thedoublebondhasthelowestnumber
Positionisthebehindthecarbonbeforeit
Multipledoublebonds:indicatelocationsandaddprefixes(eg.Di,tri)to
indicatetheamountofdoublesbonds
Amount of dispersion forces increases with molecular weight and chain length
Alkanes are highly flammable and so must be kept away from open flames such as
cigarettes. Alkanes can also be highly toxic.
The ignition temperature of a substance is the temperature at which the substance
produces enough vapors to ignite on contact with a flame or heat source. For some
more volatile liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons, such as petrol (C4C12) and natural
gas, their ignition temperatures are below room temperature, so they naturally
evaporate to form a potentially explosive vapour/air mixture.
Safety precautions include:
Students:
Refertoorangeworkbook
Refertodotpointabove.