8.

2 The Chemical Earth

1. The living and non-living components of the Earth contains mixtures
Students learn to:
Construct word and balanced formulae equations of chemical reactions as they are
encountered.
To balance a chemical equation, begin by writing down all the elements/compounds
which are involved in the chemical reaction. When constructing a chemical equation,
place all the reactants on the left and all the products on the right, with an arrow in
between. Proceed to add phase descriptors/subscripts, (s) solid, (l) liquid, (g) gaseous,
and (aq) aqueous (dissolved in water). To balance the equation, we must count the
number of each element in the equation, and add co-efficients to either side, and on
whichever relevant element, to ensure that the amount of elements on either side is the
same. That is, we make sure we are not creating or destroying matter.
Identify the difference between elements, compounds and mixtures in terms of
particle theory
Elements are pure substances, both chemically and physically. In an element, there is
only one type of atom. A good example of an element is pure iron.
Compounds are pure substances only physically. In a compound, there are multiple
different types of atoms chemically bonded together. They are usually chemical
compounds, such as dihydrogen monoxide.
Mixtures are pure neither chemically or physically pure. They are usually an
amalgamation of compounds or elements, joined together only physically or with
intermolecular bonding. An example is salt dissolved in water.
Contrast between elements and compounds Compounds can be further
decomposed by chemical means into separate pure substances (elements), while
elements cannot.
Contrast between pure substances and mixtures Mixture can be further
separated by physical means into separate pure substances (compounds and elements),
while compounds cannot. Mixtures possess a variable composition while pure
substances do not, and because of this, mixtures possess variable properties that
change when purified while pure substances do not.
Contrast between compounds and mixture Mixture retain the properties of its

Kevin Liang 11CH1

composite substances, such as salt water tasting salty, while compounds possess new
properties different from its composite elements. Mixture can have a variable
composition while compounds have the same ratio of elements in any size (in essence,
mixtures can be both homogeneous and heterogeneous, but compounds are only ever
the former.)
Identify that the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere contain
examples of mixtures of elements and compounds.
The biosphere is the sphere wherein life exists. It is the collection of all life on earth.
Life exists in the form of multiple mixtures, including basically every liquid in every
organism like blood. Compounds in living organisms are all based on the element
carbon. Compounds also exist in life, being in the form of carbon dioxide, or water,
which exists within us.
The lithosphere is the sphere of the crust, rocks and soil. It is made up of
mixtures (ore) of compounds (minerals). Minerals are effectively naturally
occurring solid elements or compounds with a range of compositions.
Examples of mixtures in the lithosphere include feldspars, as well as any rock.
Compounds in the lithosphere include silicon dioxide (the most common in the
earth's crust), and metal ores, such as bauxite.
The hydrosphere is the sphere of water bodies. Anywhere where water exists
can be considered part of the hydrosphere. Its major constituent is water, with
small quantities of random compounds, such as salt. The main compound in
the hydrosphere is water, and elements, such as chlorine, sulfur and bromine
exist in small quantities.
The atmosphere is the mixture of light gases which exist around us. It is
largely made up of uncombined light elements such as nitrogen and oxygen.
Compounds such as carbon dioxide and methane also exist, but in small
quantities.

Identify and describe procedures that can be used to separate naturally occurring
mixtures of:
Solids of different sizes
Solids and liquids
Dissolved solid and liquids
Liquids
Gases
Assess separation techniques for their suitability in separating examples of earth
materials, identifying the differences in properties which enable these separations.
Sieving Solids of different sizes can be separated using a sieve. The sieve is simply
Kevin Liang 11CH1

a grater with specially sized holes so only one of the solids can fall through. The
physical property used in this process is the size of particles. This method is especially
effective with powders with different sized particles, or a mixture of soil, pebbles and
rocks.
Filtration An insoluble solid suspended in a liquid can be separated by filtration.
Filter paper is used so that the liquid is able to pass through a funnel while the solids
remain. The physical property used in this process is the different states of the
compounds in mixture. This is useful in situations such as filtering water of
impurities.
Evaporation Solids and liquids can be separated through evaporation, or
vaporisation, where liquids in the mixture are heated so they evaporate into the
atmosphere, leaving the solid behind. This is preferred when the liquid(s) have a low
boiling point, so the energy required to evaporate is low. This is effective on both
soluble and insoluble solids. The physical property used in this process is different
boiling points.
Crystallisation The mixture of compounds is dissolved in a hot solvent such as hot
water. Higher temperatures allow the solution to become saturated. The solution is
then cooled down, and the less soluble of the compounds in the mixture crystallises
out of the solution, thus allowing it to be separated from the mixture. The physical
property used in this process is in the difference solubility of the compounds in a
solvent.
Decanting Insoluble solids and liquids can also be separated by decanting. If the
solid is denser than the liquid, the solids settle out, allowing the liquid to be decanted
or poured out while leaving the solids behind. Decanting is generally not preferred,
due to the amount of human error, as well as its inherent inaccuracy. Another version
of sedimentation is centrifugation, which is when the mixture is spun around rapidly,
as to force the more dense solids (or indeed, even liquids) to the bottom through
centripetal force and inertia. The physical property used in this process is density.
Distillation Liquids and gases can be separated by distillation. The temperature of
the mixture is raised until the more volatile (lower boiling point) liquid evaporates off
as a distillate. This distillate rises up and is directed into a condenser and condenses
back into a liquid. Distillation is only suitable to separate liquids/gases with distinct
boiling points. To distill liquids/gases with similar boiling points, fractional
distillation is used. This is distillation with the addition of a fractionating column,
which causes the vapour to condense and vapourise repeatedly in order to further
separate the two substances. The physical property used in this process is different
boiling points.
Separating immiscible liquids Miscible liquids form homogenous solutions in all
proportions, while immiscible liquids do not. For instance, oil and water are
immiscible, and so separate. Mixtures of immiscible liquids can be separated by a
separating funnel, in which the more dense liquid is slowly removed. The physical

Kevin Liang 11CH1

property used in this process is the immiscibility between two liquids.

Chromatography The mixture is dissolved in a solvent such as water and made to
pass through a structure such as paper. The components of the mixture move at
different speeds, thus separating them. Paper chromatography occurs where the
structure is paper; the solvent, usually water, runs up the paper and draws the mixture
with it. Column chromatography involves a column packed with some material such
as alumina or silica. The mixture is placed into this column through the top, and then a
dripping funnel filled with pure solvent is made to drip into the column. The mixture
is dissolved and runs down through the alumina. Different components of the mixture
adhere to the alumina with different strengths, and so separate and drip out the bottom
of the column at different times. The physical property used in this process varies, but
can be summarised as the strength at which the compound adheres to and the rate at
which it rises up a material.
Magnetic separation Magnetic material such as iron and cobalt can be removed
from a mixture using a magnet. The physical property used in this process is the
magnetic attraction of different metals and materials.
Liquid-liquid extraction A solute can be removed from a solvent by mixing the
solvent with a second solvent that is immiscible with the solvent but with which the
solute has a greater solubility. For instance, zinc and lead are immiscible, and silver
dissolves well in zinc and poorly in lead. The solute preferentially dissolves in the
second solvent, which can then be separated from the first solvent using normal
separation techniques for immiscible liquids. Thus, zinc can be added to lead
contaminated with silver in order to remove the silver. Further separation would then
be required to remove the solute from the second solvent. (Note: the removal of silver
from lead using zinc is known as the Parkes process). The physical property used in
this process is the different solubility of the solute in different solutions, and
immiscibility between the two solvents.
Describe situations in which gravimetric analysis supplies useful data for chemists
and other scientists.
Mining Soil and mineral samples from an area are collected and gravimetrically
analysed to determine the percentage of ore in the area. This allows an area's
economic feasibility to be determined.
Determining the atomic mass of elements.
Agriculture Soil composition is measured in order to determine whether crops can
be grown in it.
Determining the composition of chemical products such as those used in food.

Determining the amount of pollution and impurities in water.

Apply systematic naming of inorganic compounds as they are introduced in the
Kevin Liang 11CH1

laboratory.
Covalent substances The element closer to the bottom-left of the Periodic Table is
written first. The second element's suffix is changed to ide. When an element exists
in multiples in a compound, an appropriate prefix for the number is added to that
element. For instance, dinitrogen tetroxide (N2O4) and silicon dioxide (Si2O).
Ionic substances The cation (left side of the Periodic Table) is named first, and
then the anion. For instance, sodium chloride (NaCl). In the case of transition metals,
always include their valence (Iron (III) oxide).
Hydrates In lattices containing water of crystallisation, "Xhydrate" is added to the
end of the compound name, where X is the appropriate prefix for the number of water
molecules. For example, CuSO4.5H2O is called copper sulfate pentahydrate.
Identify IUPAC names for carbon compounds as they are encountered.
For basic carbon compounds, simple names we learned in year 10, such as butane or
ethene,are fine.
These compounds are named based on a prefix-suffix system. The prefix is based on
the longest chain of carbons that can be obtained. The suffix is based on the bonds
between the carbons.
Meth - 1
Eth - 2
Prop - 3
But - 4
Pent - 5
ane - All single bonds
ene - One double bond
yne - One triple bond
When naming carbon compounds with double and triple bonds, we use a number in
the name to signify where the bond is in the chain. For example, a butene molecule
with a double bond in its second link is called but-2-ene. Similarly, a butene molecule
with the double bond in its third slot is called but-3-ene.
Students:
Gather and present information from first-hand or secondary sources to write
equations to represent all chemical reactions encountered in the Preliminary
course.
Refer to prac book

Identify data sources, plan, choose equipment and perform a first-hand

Kevin Liang 11CH1

investigation to separate the components of a naturally occurring or appropriate

mixture such as sand, salt and water.
Gather first-hand information by carrying out a gravimetric analysis of a mixture
to estimate its percentage composition.

Refer to prac book

Identify data sources, gather, process and analyse information from secondary
sources to identify the industrial separation processes used on a mixture obtained
from the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere or atmosphere and use the evidence
available to:
Identify the properties of the mixture used in its separation
Identify the products of the separation and their uses
Discuss issues associated with wastes from the processes used.
Separation of Air:
The atmosphere is a mixture containing 78.08% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen,
0.93% argon and 0.04% other trace gases such as carbon dioxide and water
vapour. The products of industrial separation of air are nitrogen, oxygen and
argon.
Air is collected and impurities are removed. It is filtered of dust. It is cooled to
80C in order to freeze out pollutants such as water vapour. It is also passed
over absorbents, or molecular sieves, to remove carbon dioxide and
hydrocarbons.
Properties including boiling point, melting point and adherance to
certain absorbent materials are used to separate the mixture.
Air is cooled to a liquid state. Firstly air is compressed to between 100 and 200
atmospheres (bar). This causes the air to heat up, so it is cooled further. The air
is then expanded through a throttle into a region of low pressure, which cools
it to a liquid state (200C). Any gases remaining, including noble gases, are
removed.
Care is taken to remove hydrocarbons, using silica gel, in order to
prevent explosions.
Boiling point is used to separate the mixture.
The liquid air is fractionally distilled. Nitrogen gas (BP 196C) is collected
from the top of the fractionating column, to be stored as either a liquid or a
gas. The remaining liquid mixture of oxygen and argon is then further
fractionally distilled. Argon (BP 186C) vaporises and stored as a gas.
Oxygen (BP 183C) remains as a liquid and is stored as a gas.
Boiling point is used to separate the mixture.
Liquid nitrogen used for cooling products in industrial processes, to reduce the

Kevin Liang 11CH1

risk of fires, and to prevent reagents from chemical reactions with the
atmosphere. Oxygen is used in gas welding, the smelting of metals such as
copper, medical and life support machinery, bleaching paper in pulp and paper
industry, ensure full combustion during the incineration of waste materials, and
chemical manufacturing. Argon is used as a shielding gas in welding
processes, protecting the products from gases that may react such as oxygen
and nitrogen, and in incandescent light bulbs to prevent the filament from
oxidising.
Waste material Less than 0.1% of air collected is waste, but buildup of
these gases over a long period of time require consideration. Hydrocarbons are
explosive and need to be disposed responsibly. Much of the equipment used
becomes waste, such as absorbent molecular sieves that become clogged with
waste gases. Cooling of air would lead to thermal pollution that could raise the
temperatures of streams and rivers near air plants and thus disrupt aquatic
ecosystems.
2. Although most elements are found in combinations on Earth, some elements are
found uncombined.
Students learn to:
Explain the relationship between the reactivity of an element and the likelihood of
its existing as an uncombined element.
The more reactive an element is, the more likely it is to have reacted with its
surrounding elements, meaning that they are rarer in their uncombined forms. For
example, sodium, a highly reactive metal, is never found in its uncombined state.
Compare this to gold, which has a very low reactivity, can be found in almost a pure
form.
Any metal discovered in its uncombined state is called a native metal.
Classify elements as metals, non-metals and semi-metals according to their physical
properties.
Metals, non-metals and semi-metals are grouped based on a number of key physical
properties. Note that semi-metals have mixed properties, and are named semi-metals
due to their inability to be classified.
Boiling and Melting Point Boiling and melting points are a measure of
when the element changes state. The elements with the lowest MP and BPs are
the non-metals which form small, individual molecules. Examples include
hydrogen and oxygen. Above them in MP and BP are the metals. Most metals

Kevin Liang 11CH1

are solid at room temperature, with the exception of mercury. Above them still
are the non-metals and semi-metals which form themselves into lattice like
structures. Examples include carbon (most of its allotropes) and silicon
(although silicon is a semi-metal).
Hardness Hardness is a measure of how much force a material can take
without deformation. Hardness is measured on the Brinell scale. As can be
expected, the non-metals which are gaseous at room temperature are not on
this list. Metals are usually quite hard, although a range does exist. For
example, a metal like tungsten is extremely hard, whereas gold is not.
However, there are several non-metals which are harder than most metals:
those which form themselves into a covalent lattice structure, most
prominently carbon, whose allotropes include diamond, the hardest naturally
occurring substance.
Electrical/Thermal Conductivity Thermal and electrical conductivity are
both based on one thing: electrons, and electron flow. Heat is conducted as
electrons in the element gain energy, and transfers that energy between the
electrons, causing them to transfer the energy through the material. Similarly,
electricity is conducted through the use of mobile charge carriers, which can
charge between locations. Typically, non-metals have poor thermal and
electrical conductivity, by virtue of their few free electrons. Thus, they
typically serve as insulators. Metals, on the other hand, with their sea of
delocalised electrons, are highly efficient thermal and electrical conductors.
Density Density is a measure how much mass an object has per unit of
volume. Generally speaking, metals are high to moderate density while nonmetals are moderate to low.
Lustre Lustre is how shiny an object is, or how much light it reflects.
Metals are lustrous, and non-metals are not. This is because lustre is based on
electrons, and materials reflect light by having their electrons being excited,
and then rereleasing the energy as light.
Ductility/Malleability Ductility is a measure of how well a substance can
be drawn into a wire, and malleability is a measure of how well a substance
can be beaten into a sheet. Metals are ductile and malleable, while non-metals
are not (they are brittle, meaning they shatter into powder.)

Account for the uses of metals and non-metals in terms of their physical properties.
Metals
The malleability and ductility of metals have allowed it to be worked
into many different forms suitable for a huge variety of uses. For
instance, aluminium is used in roofing, aircraft structures, aluminium
foil, utensils such as forks and the common soda can, all due to the
Kevin Liang 11CH1

ability of aluminium to take on different shapes.

The attractive lustre of metals leads to them being used as ornamental
fixtures and in jewellery. This is clear in current gold and silver
jewellery, as well as the popularity of copper during the Copper Age to
be used as ornaments.
The high electrical conductivity of metals such as silver, gold and
copper has been vital in affecting the role of electricity in history and
society, both in the transport and manipulation of electricity. For
example, copper wires transporting electricity over large distances
allowed the telegraph to be possible, and the ability of wires to direct a
current has led to the creation of the electromagnet.
The high thermal conductivity of metals such as copper and iron
means they are suitable for cooking.
The hardness of metals is the main reason it is so widely used in
supporting structures such as buildings. The hardness of metals also
contributed heavily during the Copper, Bronze and Iron Ages in the
quality of weapons, armor and shields; this was the main reason for
progressing through the different ages, and was a driving factor in one
metal displacing another in popularity.
Example: Tungsten is used in light bulbs due to its high melting point.

Non-Metals Non-metals possess a wide variety of properties that makes

them suitable for different applications. Examples of non-metals and their
usages based on physical properties include:
Graphite (carbon allotrope) A wide variety of uses, including dry
lubricant (layer structure allows layers to slid over one another) and
electrodes because it is the only non-metal to be electrically
conductive.
Diamond (carbon allotrope) Extreme hardness and high melting
point means it is used in drill tips. High refractive index and
transparency means it is used in jewellery.
Helium Low density and lack of reactivity (as compared to
hydrogen) makes it suitable for flotation devices such as blimps and
airships.
Students:
Plan and perform an investigation to examine some physical properties, including
malleability, hardness and electrical conductivity, and some uses of a range of
common elements to present information about the classification of elements as
metals, non-metals or semi-metals.

Kevin Liang 11CH1

 Refer to prac book

Analyse information from secondary sources to distinguish the physical properties
of metals and non-metals.
Metals are thermally and electrically conductive while non-metals are not (the
exception is graphite). This is because the delocalised sea of electrons in metallic
bonding allows a current to be passed through the material and also improves the
transfer of heat, while no such mobile charge carriers exist in usually-covalentlybonded non-metals.
Metals are malleable and ductile while non-metals are brittle. This is because the
delocalised sea of electrons in metallic bonding allows the individual positive metal
ions to roll over one another without repelling each other. Non-metals either exist as
covalent networks, which are not malleable or ductile due to the rigid lattice structure
made by strong covalent bonds, or covalent molecules, which exist as discrete
particles with weak intermolecular forces that are easily broken and so are also brittle.
Metals have a lustrous appearance while non-metals in general do not. This is
because the delocalised sea of electrons gathers on the surface of the metal, and
electrons become excited when hit by photons. This prevents photons from
penetrating deeply into the metal and excited electrons re-emit the light back out;
essentially, the electron reflects light effectively. This does not occur in non-metals.

Process information from secondary sources and use a Periodic Table to present
information about the classification of elements as:
Metals, non-metals and semi-metals.
Solids, liquids and gases at 25C and normal atmospheric pressure.
Going down the Periodic Table and to the left, elements move from non-metals to
semi-metals to metals. In general, non-metals form anions and metals form cations.
Hydrogen is the exception if you classify it as a non-metal, both being on the
left of the Periodic Table and able to form cations. Because of this, hydrogen is
sometimes unclassified as an exception.
The semi-metals form a diagonal strip across the right part of the Periodic Table,
separating the non-metals on the right from the metals on the left.
Eleven elements exist as gases at room temperature hydrogen, helium, oxygen,
nitrogen, fluorine, neon, chlorine, radon, xenon, krypton, argon.
Two elements exist as liquids at room temperature bromine and mercury.
All other elements exist as solids.
3. Elements in Earth materials are present mostly as compounds because of interactions
at the atomic level.

Kevin Liang 11CH1

Students learn to:

Identify that matter is made of particles that are continuously moving and
interacting.
Matter is made up of tiny particles known as atoms, which constantly vibrate and
move due to energy. This movement works against the bonds between particles, be it
molecules, ions or atoms.
The three states of matter solid, liquid and gas depend on the amount of energy,
and thus particle vibration, within a substance.
Solids are tightly packed with many strong bonds between its particles,
allowing the particles to only vibrate in place and not move freely. Hence
solids have a definite shape and are in general denser than liquids and gases.
Liquids possess with less and weaker bonds between particles, allow the
particles to move relatively freely. Hence liquids deform to take the shape of
its container.
Gases are the least dense of the states of matter. In gases, the particles are not
bonded together, and move rapidly around independent of one another. Due to
this movement, gases fill up their containers.
Stronger bonds, such as covalent or metallic bonding, require more energy for the
particles to break free of these bonds and move from solid to liquid to gas than weaker
bonds, such as the intermolecular bonding between water molecules.
Describe qualitatively the energy levels of electrons in atoms.
Electrons exist in a set of electron shells, around the nucleus, held there by
electrostatic charge between the protons in the nucleus and the electrons.
They do not orbit regularly like planets, both in terms of distance from nucleus and
direction of movement.
A certain shell can fit only a certain maximum number of electrons. Each additional
electron into a shell leads the shell to contract, due to a more positive nucleus leading
to a stronger electrostatic attraction. The first shell fits 2, the second shell fits 8, the
third shell fits 18, the fourth shell fits 32 (in general, the nth shell has a maximum
electron capacity of 2n^2.) Any electrons beyond the maximum allowed in a shell will
take up a new shell.
The outermost shell, usually incompletely filled, is called the valence shell, and
heavily affects the property of the element, including the type of ions they will form.
Electrons preferentially fill electron shells for the most stability; following rules such
as the Octet rule (hence potassium is 2, 8, 8, 1 and not 2, 8, 9 despite the space
available).
Kevin Liang 11CH1

 Different shells exist at discrete energy levels, decreasing with each new shell.
Electrons in an atom cannot exist at intermediate energy levels and require specific
energy gain or loss to move between shells.
The smaller, inner shells exist at a lower energy level than the larger shells. Hence,
electrons emit energy when they drop from a higher energy level to a lower one
(called emission), and absorb energy, such as that from a photon, when reaching a
higher energy level (called excitation.)
Describe atoms in terms of mass number and atomic number.
The atomic number of an atom describes the number of protons in the nucleus. The
atomic number determines the specific element the atom is and its properties.
The mass number of an atom is the total number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus. The mass number is not to be confused with the relative atomic mass, which
is the average of the different isotopes of the element in a sample. The mass number
of a known element can be used to determine how many neutrons, and thus what
isotope, a specific atom is.
Describe the formation of ions in terms of atoms gaining or losing electrons.
An ion is a particle that has a number of electrons different to its number of protons,
thus giving it a charge. An ion is not an atom, which is a particle with the same
number of electrons to the number of protons.
Octet rule Atoms naturally seek to possess a full valence shell of electrons, either
by removing electrons from the outermost valence shell to erase it and cause the next
shell down to become the valence shell, or by adding electrons to its valence shell in
order to fill it up. Valence shells are filled when there are eight electrons (the
exception is the first shell, which applies for hydrogen, helium, lithium, beryllium and
boron.) As a side effect of this, atoms often become ions due to a changed number of
electrons. A filled valence shell possesses a stability that is clear in the noble gases,
which naturally have full valence shells without needing to become ions and thus have
high ionisation energy and exist as monatomic molecules.
A positive ion (or an atom that has lost electrons) is called a cation. Only metals form
cations (the exception is hydrogen.) When an atom becomes a cation, it is called an
oxidation reaction.
A negative ion (or an atom that has gained electrons) is called an anion. Only nonmetals form anions (the exception is hydrogen.) When an atom becomes an anion, it is
called a reduction reaction.
For one atom to become a cation, another atom must accept the electrons that it loses
and become an anion. Hence oxidation and reduction reactions always occur
simultaneously, and are collectively known as redox reaction.
Kevin Liang 11CH1

 Apply the Periodic Table to predict the ions formed by atoms of metals and nonmetals.

The left side of the Periodic Table (metals) forms cations, while the right side
(non-metals) forms anions.

The specific Group of the Periodic Table details what charge the ion will have.
For instance, Group I elements form ions with a charge 1+.

The elements in the middle of the Periodic Table - the transition metals cannot have their ions predicted simply with the Periodic Table. In general, they form
2+ ions.

Apply Lewis electron dot structures to:

The formation of ions.
The electron sharing in some simple molecules.
Lewis electron dot structures are a means of displaying information about atoms.
Lewis dot structures, or electron dot structures, depict elements and their valence
electrons, which are the crucial factor that determines that element's ionic and
covalent bonding.
Lewis electron dot structures depict how elements form ions due to the lost or gaining
of electrons with regards to its valence shell.
Lewis electron dot structures depict how atoms form covalent bonds and the nature of
these bonds between atoms (single, double, and triple).
Lewis electron dot structures are also used to depict polyatomic ions, showing both
the covalent structure of the atoms within the ion as well as the addition/loss of
electrons that turns them into ions.
Describe the formation of ionic compounds in terms of the attraction of ions of
opposite charge.
When ions are formed, the newly formed cations and anions possess immediate
charge and become attracted to one another due to their proximity. They quickly form
ionic compounds unless they are in solution and are soluble (wherein the hydrogen
bonds formed with water molecules replace ionic bonds between cations and anions.)
Ionic compounds exist in the form of a lattice, or a repeating crystalline structure. For
instance, sodium chloride (NaCl) has one sodium ion surrounded by six chloride ions,
and each of those chloride ions surrounded by six sodium ions, forming a cubic gridlattice.
Ionic compounds are given as empirical formula, which means they only describe the
ratio of elements in the compound and not the specific number per molecule. This is

Kevin Liang 11CH1

because ionic compounds do not exist as discrete molecules but a repeating lattice.
For instance, the formula for sodium chloride is NaCl, implying that in any given
quantity of sodium chloride, there will be one sodium ion for every chloride ion
present.
The ratio of an ionic compound rests with the charge of each ion, such that there is a
larger quantity of a small charge ion so that overall the net charge on an ionic
compound is neutral. For instance, sodium ions possess a charge of 1+, while chloride
ions possess a charge of 1-, so they are of the same magnitude and leads to the 1:1
ratio within sodium chloride. On the other hand, in calcium chloride (CaCl2), the
charge on a calcium cation is 2+, hence being large in magnitude than chloride and
occurring in a smaller quantity within the lattice.
Describe molecules as particles which can move independently of each other.
A molecule is the smallest particle of an element or compound capable of independent
movement. For example, an oxygen molecule is O2, because a single oxygen atom is
not capable of its own movement and existence due to chemically instability.
Molecules can be monatomic (made up of only one atom) in the case of noble gases,
but is in general diatomic (two atoms) or greater. The atoms within a molecule are
held together by strong covalent intramolecular chemical bonds.
Molecules only possess weak intermolecular bonds with other molecules and
compounds. These bonds can be easily broken given enough energy (heat), and so
molecules are capable of moving independently of each other when these bonds are
broken.
Eleven elements exist as gases at room temperature the six noble gases (helium,
neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon), hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine and
chlorine. Notice that these last five all form diatomic molecules.
Distinguish between molecules containing one atom (the noble gases) and
molecules with more than one atom.
The atoms of noble gases already possess chemical stability (see: the Octet rule), so
they are able to exist freely in molecules consisting of only one atom, or monatomic
molecules.
The atoms of other non-metal elements, such as oxygen, reach chemical stability
when they react with other atoms, including other atoms of the same element. Hence
as pure elements, they exist bonded together in molecules consisting of multiple
atoms. Hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine all exist as
molecules consisting of two atoms, and are called diatomic molecules.
Describe the formation of covalent molecules in terms of sharing of electrons.
Kevin Liang 11CH1

 Atoms bonded covalently share electrons in order to achieve a stable valence shell and
a noble gas configuration. An electron that is shared between two atoms possesses
electrostatic attraction to the positive nucleus of both atoms and so contributes to the
valence shell of both atoms.
Many pure substances, such as hydrogen and oxygen, exist as covalently bonded
molecules consisting of a number of atoms because it is the most stable configuration.
For instance, oxygen molecules (O2) are more stable than oxygen atoms due to the
desire to reach a noble gas configuration.
A single bond involves the sharing of one pair of electrons. A double bond involves
the sharing of two pairs of electrons, two from each atom. A triple bond involves the
sharing of three pairs of electrons.
An atom's valence describes the number of covalent bonds that it can form (imagining
that double-bonds are two and triple-bonds are three.) For instance, the valence of
oxygen (2) means that it can form two bonds, either two single bonds or one double
bond. Each bond adds one electron to its valence shell, and the valence describes the
number of electrons required for a noble gas configuration.
Covalent bonds are called directional, meaning that covalent compounds and bonds
prefer specific orientations, giving molecules such as water definitive shapes.
Coordinate covalent bonds Also known as dative covalent bonds, a coordinate
covalent bond is a single bond between two particles in which one supplies both
electrons for the pair. For instance, when a hydrogen cation (or a proton) forms a
covalent bond with any other particle, the other particle must supply all electrons.
After the bond is formed, there are no differences in properties between a coordinate
covalent bond and a normal one. In diagrams of compounds with coordinate covalent
bonds, the coordinate bond is often depicted as an arrow from the atom donating the
two electrons to the one taking. For instance, in ammonium (NH4 1+) or ozone (O3)

Construct formulae for compounds formed from:

Ions.
Atoms sharing electrons.
Na + Cl- NaCl
+

C + O2 CO2
Students:
Analyse information by constructing or using models showing the structure of
metals, ionic compounds and covalent compounds.

Done in class involving hydrocarbons

Kevin Liang 11CH1

 Construct ionic equations showing metals and non-metal atoms forming ions.
Ionic equations describes electrolytes, or any substance containing free ions, in terms
of the disassociated ions. All other substances, including weak electrolytes that do not
contain a sufficient concentration of free ions, are written in their neutral, molecular
forms.
Ionic equations are used mostly to describe precipitation reactions, when free ions in
solution form an insoluble product. In such reactions, the ionic equation writes the
reagent compounds (such as silver nitrate and sodium hydroxide) in the form of free
ions (silver ions, nitrate ions, etc.) and the insoluble product as a neutral compounds
(silver hydroxide) because it is not an electrolyte.
Ionic equations are also used in reactions involving acids and bases, such as
neutralisation (acid/base) reactions and acid reacting with a carbonate to form carbon
dioxide.
Metal + Non-metal Salt
Eg. Na+ + Cl- NaCl

4. Energy is required to extract elements from their naturally occuring sources.

Students learn to:
Identify the differences between physical and chemical change in terms of
rearrangement of particles.

In physical changes, no new substances are formed and the particles existing
substances are only rearranged. Intermolecular bonds are often broken or new bonds
formed in physical changes. Physical changes are reversible through physical means,
such as dissolving salt and then evaporating it out. All forms of mixture separation are
physical changes.
Summarise the differences between the boiling and electrolysis of water as an
example of the differences between physical and chemical change.
The boiling of water is a physical change for two main reasons:
The change is easily reversible and with little energy changes; you simply
lower the temperature and the steam returns to being water.
No new substances were formed. The steam you produce is simply gaseous
water.
Kevin Liang 11CH1

 Electrolysis, however, is different. Electrolysis is a chemical change, for these

reasons.
The change is much more difficult to reverse. You must combust the hydrogen
in an oxygenated environment for them to combine.
New substances are formed in the electrolysis of water. Namely, the oxygen
and hydrogen gas which can be seen in the Hoffman Voltameter.
Identify light, heat and electricity as the common forms of energy that may be
released or absorbed during the decomposition or synthesis of substances and
identify examples of these changes occurring in everyday life.
Light, heat and electricity are simply different forms of the same thing, and they can
be switched from one to another with relative ease. As far as their role in the
decomposition or synthesis of substances. Note that many chemical reactions (which
decompose and synthesise substances) require energy to begin, and (depending on
whether they are endothermic or exothermic), require energy to continue.
Light The two most obvious examples of light being used in chemical
reactions are photosynthesis and photography.
Photosynthesis is the process which plants use to produce food, by
turning water and carbon dioxide into glucose. The reaction in
endothermic and the energy for the reaction is provided by the sun, in
the form of light.
Photography is when light is used to record images, regardless of what
that image may be. In times gone by, silver halides (which decompose
under light) were used to capture images, as different parts of the halide
would decompose at different rates, depending on their exposure to
light.
Heat Thermal decomposition is an extremely common way that compounds
decompose. Industry thermal decomposition, such as the decomposition of
aluminium hydroxide into water and alumina, is called calcinations. Thermal
decomposition is endothermic. One important thermal decomposition reaction
to remember is the strong heating of a carbonate, the general ionic equation
listed below.
CO3 2 O (2+) + CO2 (g)
Explain that the amount of energy needed to separate atoms in a compound is an
indication of the strength of the attraction, of bond, between them.
In order to chemically decompose a chemical compound into its composite
elements/atoms, energy is required, such as by strong heating or electrolysis. This is

Kevin Liang 11CH1

because the bonds between atoms or ions, such as ionic bonds or covalent bonds, are
strong and require energy input in order to break them.
The measure of a covalent bond's strength is its bond energy, or the amount of energy
(usually in kilojoules) required to break that bond in one mole of the molecule and
form its constituent particles. For instance, the bond energy the OH bond in water is
the amount of energy required to break one mole of water into hydrogen and
hydroxide.
Conversely, the bond energy is the amount of energy released when the bond is
formed in one mole of the substance. For instance, the bond energy of water
describes the amount of energy produced when one mole of hydrogen ions
reacts with one mole of hydroxide ions to form water (in this case, the bond
energy is written as negative to describe the reaction as exothermic.)
The measure of an ionic bond's strength is its lattice energy, or the amount of energy
(usually in kilojoules) required to break the ionic bonds between ions and decompose
one mole of the ionic compound into its gaseous free ions.
Conversely, the lattice energy is the amount of energy released when one mole
of a salt is formed from the gaseous ions.
Students:
Plan and safely perform a first-hand investigation to show the decomposition of a
carbonate by heat, using appropriate tests to identify carbon dioxide and the oxide
as the products of the reaction.
Refer to prac book

Gather information using first-hand or secondary sources to:

Observe the effect of light on silver salts and identify an application of the use of
this reaction.
Refer to prac book
Observe the electrolysis of water, analyse the information provided as evidence that
water is a compound and identify any application of the use of this reaction.
Refer to prac book
Analyse and present information to model the boiling of water and the electrolysis
of water tracing the movements of and changes in arrangements of molecules.
Liquid water exists as water molecules bonded together with intermolecular bonds

Kevin Liang 11CH1

known as hydrogen bonding. The water molecules themselves consist of two

hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to an oxygen atom.
In the boiling of water, intermolecular bonds are broken. Water molecules on the
surface of the water break off to form gaseous water molecules that are not bonded
with one another. The intramolecular bonding in water is unaffected because boiling is
simply a physical change. No new substances are formed.
In the electrolysis of water, the intramolecular bonding within water molecules,
between oxygen and hydrogen atoms, are broken due to the electric circuit.
2 H2O (l) 2 H2 (g) + O2 (g)
The intermolecular bonding between particles is broken due to a lack of appropriate
dipoles in the newly formed oxygen or hydrogen gas. Hence the products are gases.
5. The properties of elements and compounds are determined by their bonding and
structure.
Students learn to:
Identify differences between physical and chemical properties of elements,
compounds and mixtures.
Physical properties are aspects of a substance or mixture that can be observed
without changing the composition of the matter; for instance, the boiling point of a
compound can be determined without changing the compound chemically.
Examples of physical properties include ductility, electrical conductivity,
malleability, boiling point, melting point, thermal conductivity and mass.
Chemical properties are properties which affect its behavior in chemical reactions.
Examples of chemical properties include its valency, electronegativity, and
how it reacts with oxygen and acids.
The physical and chemical properties of compounds and its composite elements can
vary widely.
The physical properties of mixtures can widely vary depending on the composition of
the mixture.
The physical and chemical properties of a mixture can differ in different areas of the
mixture if it is heterogeneous. The physical and chemical properties of pure
substances are constant and uniform throughout the sample.
Describe the physical properties used to classify compounds as ionic or covalent
molecular or covalent network.
Covalent molecular substances have the lowest melting and boiling point of all types
of bonding, due to the weak intermolecular bonds that holds its constituent molecules
Kevin Liang 11CH1

together. Hence it can be classified using this property.

Metallic bonding is the only type of bonding that possesses free charge carriers in
solid states ie. Sea of delocalised electrons.
Ionic substances and covalent network substances can be distinguished based on the
conductivity of the substance's molten state. Ionic substances possess free moving
ions when molten, so they are conductive, while covalent network substances do not.
Distinguish between metallic, ionic and covalent bonds.
Metallic bonding occurs in lattices of positive metal ions and the delocalised sea of
electrons that permeates the structure, holding together the metal ions through
electrostatic attraction. Ionic bonding involves electrostatic attraction between cations
and anions, forming three-dimensional cubic lattices of alternating positive and
negative ions. Covalent bonding occurs between atoms that share electrons in order to
achieve noble gas configurations.
Metallic bonding and ionic bonding occurs between ions, while covalent bonding
occurs between atoms.
Substances with metallic bonding possess free charge carriers in the form of the
delocalised sea of electrons, and so are electrical conductive. Ionic bonding does not
possess free charge carriers, as ions are bonded to one another in a rigid lattice, unless
the substance is molten and some of the bonding breaks, allowing free ions to conduct
electricity. Covalent substances possess no free charge carriers and are not conductive
in any state.
Metallic bonding only occurs between metals, which form positive ions. Covalent
bonding only occurs between non-metals, which require extra electrons to take noble
gas configurations. Ionic bonding occurs between metals and non-metals.
Covalent and ionic bonds are heavily directional, meaning that they take on specific
orientation and so form rigid lattices of specific formations. This makes them brittle
substances. On the other hand, metallic bonding involves metal ions that are bonded
to one another without any particular direction, thus allow them to deform easily (they
are malleable and ductile.)
Describe metals as three-dimensional lattices of ions in a sea of electrons.
Metals form cations by giving away the electrons in its valence shell in order to take
on a noble gas configuration. In metallic bonding, a lattice of positive metal ions is
submersed in a sea of delocalised electrons, meaning that they are not bonded to any
particular ion.
Metallic bonding explains several general properties of metals. They are malleable
and ductile because metal ions are not bonded to other ions in any specific structure,
and metals ions are able to roll over one another without repulsion between the like
Kevin Liang 11CH1

charges due to the delocalised electrons. Metals are highly dense because the metal
ions are able to pack tightly together without repulsion, again thanks to the sea of
electrons. This delocalised sea is also responsible for a metal's high electrical
conductivity (due to the presence of mobile charge carriers) and thermal
conductivity (electrons absorb energy and begin moving more rapidly, quickly
spreading the heat from the heat source throughout the metal.) Finally, the strong
attractions between metal ions and electrons lead to high boiling and melting points.
Describe ionic compounds in terms of repeating three-dimensional lattices of ions.
Ionic compounds are formed by the electrostatic attraction between positive and
negative ions, or in other words ionic bonds between cations and anions. In many
ionic compounds, each cation is surrounded on six sides by six anions to which it is
ionic ally bonded. Each anion is similarly bonded to six cations. This forms a threedimensional lattice akin to a cube.
The reason for this particular lattice structure is because the ions attempt to
form as many ionic bonds with ions of the opposite charge as possible, as each
one releases energy and so allows the system to exist at a lower energy level,
and six is the maximum possible before ions of similar charges begin to repel
one another.
Other types of lattices do exist, such as caesium chloride.
Explain why the formula for an ionic compound is an empirical formula.

Ionic compounds do not exist as discrete entities but instead as a repeating lattice of
anions and cations that hypothetically could go on forever. Hence the ionic compound
is not defined by the number of atoms in a molecule, as it does not exist as molecules,
but as the ratio of anions to cations in any given sample of the substance.
Identify common elements that exist as molecules or as covalent lattices.

Eleven elements exist as gases at room temperature: hydrogen, helium, carbon,

oxygen, nitrogen, fluoride, neon, chloride, argon, xenon, krypton, and radon.

Examples of covalent lattices include diamond (an allotrope of carbon),

graphite (an allotrope of carbon) and silicon dioxide (SiO2, or sand.)
Explain the relationship between the properties of conductivity and hardness and
the structure of ionic, covalent molecular and covalent network structures.
Property

Kevin Liang 11CH1

Metallic
Crystal

Ionic Crystal

Covalent
network

Covalent
molecular

Chemical
bonding
Melting point
Electrical
conductivity
Other
properties
Examples

crystal
Covalent

crystal
Covalent

Metallic

Ionic

High
Solid: high
Liquid: high
Malleable
Ductile
Lustrous
Copper
Aluminium

High
Solid: nil
Liquid: high
Hard
Brittle

Very high
-

Low
-

Very hard

Soft
Brittle

Sodium
chloride
Zinc oxide

Silicon dioxide Ice

Silicon carbide Sucrose
Iodine

Students:
Perform a first-hand investigation to compare the properties of some common
elements in their elemental state with the properties of the compound(s) of these
elements (e.g. magnesium and oxygen).

Refer to prac book

Choose resources and process information from secondary sources to construct and
discuss the limitations of models of ionic lattices, covalent molecules and covalent

and metallic lattices.

Models can oversimplify the process and lead to a misunderstanding
They lack detail due simplicity
Unable to predict why certain materials have certain properties eg. electrical
properties
If detail were to be added, it would complicate the model. Hence, the model will lose
its purpose of conveying its intended information.
Perform an investigation to examine the physical properties of a range of common
substances in order to classify them as metallic, ionic or covalent molecular or
covalent network substances and relate their characteristics to their uses.
Refer to prac book

Kevin Liang 11CH1

8.3 Metals
1. Metals have been extracted and used for many thousands of years
Students learn to:

Outline and examine some uses of different metals through history, including
contemporary uses, as uncombined metals or as alloys

Copper First metal used during the Copper Age (50003000BC), which itself is
the first half of the larger Bronze Age (50001000BC.) They were extracted from
copper ore such as malachite (CuCO3.Cu(OH)2) using moderately hot fires and
carbon in the form of charcoal. Copper was used for ornaments, weapons, cooking
implements due to copper's high thermal conductivity, and copper pipes for water
due to copper's resistance to erosion. Contemporary uses of copper include hot water
pipes and tanks due to copper's resistance to erosion in high temperatures, copper
wiring due to its extremely high electrical conducitivty (second only to silver.) and
air condition units due to its ability to dissipate heat. Copper also forms a large
variety of alloys, allowing it to remain relevant today. One of the disadvantages of
copper is that it is fairly soft, producing weak weapons.
Bronze An alloy of copper and tin that led to the second half of the Bronze Age
(30001000BC.) The addition of tin to copper produced the harder alloy bronze.
Bronze had several advantages to copper: it had a lower melting point so was easier
to work with and cast; it was harder, making better weapons and armor; cutting tools
made of bronze, such as axes, maintained their edge well and were easily
resharpened; and bronze is very durable.
Iron The first traces of iron came from meteorites, but the extraction and prolific
use of iron did not come about until higher temperature furnaces were made with
bellows. This happened around 1000BC, marking the beginning of the Iron Age (1000
1BC.) The ore hematite (Fe2O3) was mixed with charcoals and heated to reduce
the ore into iron. This was then repeatedly heated to red and hammered to expel the
impurities in the metal, leaving wrought iron. At around 500BC, the Chinese
constructed more powerful furnaces that could produce molten iron that could be used
to produce cast iron.
Aluminium Most abundant metal in the earth's crust but also extremely difficult to
extract from its ore bauxite, which contains the mineral gibbsite (Al(OH)3).
Aluminium only became more abundant when an appropriate electrolytic extraction
method arose in the 19th century. Aluminium's low density and resistance to
corrosion (due to the buildup of a layer of aluminium oxide) means that it is used in
many applications such as roofing, window frames and aircraft construction.
Aluminium's high thermal and electrical conductivity also makes it good for frying

Kevin Liang 11CH1

pans, and its malleability makes it suitable for uses such as utensils, drink cans and
cake tins.
Describe the use of common alloys including steel, brass and solder
and explain how these relate to their properties

Steel: Iron containing other elements. Carbon, most prominently. However, other
elements such as nickel, tin and chromium are also used, such as in stainless steel (10
25% chromium, 422% nickel). Steel is used in building construction and car
manufacture, due to their high tensile strength. Steels such as stainless steel are used
in cutlery and sinks due to their strength and resistance to corrosion.
Brass: Brass is the combination of zinc and copper, occasionally with other trace
elements thrown in. Brass is used as it is quite strong (stronger than both zinc and
copper), and quite beautiful, due to its lustre and resistance to corrosion. It is
primarily used in decorations.
Solder: Solder is a combination of tin and lead. Solder is used for one reason only: it
has a low melting point. This makes it an ideal choice for the cheap yet easy joining
of metals, particularly electrical wiring.

Explain why energy input is necessary to extract a metal from its ore

Almost all metals exist naturally in ores as minerals (chemical compounds) and not as
native metals. Hence they exist bonded to other elements such as sulfur and oxygen.
In order to extract the metal, these bonds with other elements must be broken. Hence
energy input is required.
Ores exist in the ground, often very deep, and so energy is required to mine them and
then transport them away from the mine to an extraction plant where the metal may
then be extracted.
Ores often exist with very low concentration of the mineral, such as copper ore
possessing only 0.6% copper. Hence energy is required to order to purify and
concentrate the ore.
Metals that are extracted using smelting processes, such as copper, often need to be
further purified.

Identify why there are more metals available for people to use now than there were
200 years ago

The development of technology has allowed for better extraction and purification of
elements. For example, aluminium is a reactive metal and other methods of separating
it from its ore, such as reduction with carbon, are not possible. Instead, electrolysis (a
process which was only just discovered in 1800 and which was only developed for
use with aluminium in 1886) is used. This process was not available 200 years ago.
The increase in the number of discovered and useful metals, as well as increases in
Kevin Liang 11CH1

alloying technology, has allowed a wide variety of alloys to be created and used.
Cheaper means of extracting metals makes it more affordable and thus economically
feasible for metals such as aluminium to find wider uses.
Students:

Gather, process, analyse and present information from secondary sources on the
range of alloys produced and the reasons for the production and use of these alloys

Alloying allows the properties of metals to be modified for specific needs, such as
stainless steel to prevent rusting. Alloying in general will make pure metals such as
aluminium, copper and iron much harder due to the introduction of irregularities to
the metal lattice, preventing ions from easily slipping over one another. Alloying can
also be used to reduce the cost of materials by introducing cheaper metals to fill up
the bulk: for instance, US coins are made up of 97% zinc and a copper coating.

Analyse information to relate the chronology of the Bronze Age, the Iron Age and
the modern era and possible future developments

Bronze Age (50001000BC) The Bronze Age collectively describes the Copper
Age (50003000BC) and the subsequent Bronze Age (30001000BC).
Chronologically, the Bronze Age stands between the Stone Age, before the use of
metals became commonplace, and the Iron Age. This is because copper was the first
to be extracted and recognised, due to its low temperatures required to extract the
metal from its ore.

Iron Age (10001BC) The Iron Age describes the period of time directly before
the Modern Age. While iron working emerged in the centuries before the Iron Age,
the Iron Age marks the wider knowledge of iron working and extraction across the
globe.

Modern Age (1CE onwards) While the Iron Age is remarked to have ended at
1BC, iron and steel continued to be the dominant metals and there were no dramatic
changes in the way we used metals until the 19th century. Discoveries of metals in the
19th century led to the development of alloying and more alloy metals being produced
and used.

2. Metals differ in their reactivity with other chemicals and this

influences their uses
Students learn to:

Describe observable changes when metals react with dilute acid, water and oxygen

Kevin Liang 11CH1

 Acids Most metals will react with cold dilute acids to form a salt and hydrogen gas.
Thus the metal is oxidised to an ion while the hydrogen ion is reduced to gas. Less
reactive metals will react less with acids; lead reacts only with warm dilute acids, while
metals that are less reactive (copper, silver, gold, mercury) will not react at all.
Metal + Acid Salt + Water
E.g. Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
The ionic equation Zn + 2H + Zn 2+ (aq) + H2 (g)
Water Only the most reactive metals such as sodium and calcium will react with cold
water to produce a hydroxide salt and hydrogen gas. Travelling down the activity series,
metals become less and less reactive with water; from hot water (to produce an oxide salt
and hydrogen gas) to steam (to produce an oxide salt and hydrogen gas) to no reaction at
all.
Example: Cold water 2Na (s) + 2H2O (l) 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)
Example: Hot water Mg (s) + H2O (l) MgO (s) + H2 (g)
Example: Steam Zn (s) + H2O (g) ZnO (s) + H2 (g)
Example: No reaction Au (s) Au (s)
Oxygen Most metals will react with oxygen to form oxides (except silver, gold,
platinum.) Metals such as sodium and potassium react readily with oxygen and burn
easily. Metals lower on the reactivity series can burn to form oxides if finely divided.
Some metals lower on the activity series such as copper will react slowly with oxygen
when heated but not burn.
The general equation is Metal + Oxygen Metal Oxide

E.g. 2Mg (s) + O2 (g) 2MgO (s)

Describe and justify the criteria used to place metals into an order of activity based on
their ease of reaction with oxygen, water and dilute acids
In all cases above, certain metals are less reactive with acids, oxygen and water than other
metals, often requiring external energy in the form of heat in order for an reaction to occur.
In analysing the order of reactivity, an overall scale of the reactivity of metals can be
formed.
For example, the reactivity series in general will describe metals from easily oxidised to
no reaction with oxygen at all.
Another criteria of the order of the activity series is the tendency for one metal to displace
another in solution.
Identify the reaction of metals with acids as requiring the transfer of electrons

The reaction of metals with acids is referred to as a redox reaction

Kevin Liang 11CH1

Eg. Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) -> ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

o Giving the net ionic equation to be: Zn (s) + 2H+ (aq) -> Zn2+ (aq) +H2 (g)
o Where Zn is oxidised to Zn2+ (loses 2 electrons) and H+ is reduced to H2 (gains 2
electrons), hence:
o Oxidation reaction: Zn (s) -> Zn2+ (aq) + 2eo Reduction reaction: 2H+ (aq) + 2e- -> H2 (g)

Outline examples of the selection of metals for different purposes based on their
reactivity, with a particular emphasis on current developments in the use of metals
A lack of reactivity in metals such as gold and silver allows them to retain their lustre to
make jewellery.
The lack of reactivity and excellent electrical conductivity of gold allows for very useful
applications in electronic circuits and computers.
The intense light produced in the burning of magnesium due to its high reactivity with
oxygen is used in photographic flashbulbs and fireworks.
Calcium's high reactivity allows it to be used in removing oxygen, sulfur and
phosphorus from steels and in vacuums.
The reactivity of zinc makes it suitable for use in batteries such as dry cells.
Less reactive metals such as tin are often used as coating on more reactive metals such
as iron to protect it from corrosion and reacting with chemicals such as the food being
stored in cans.
Copper's lack of reactivity with water and resistance to corrosion means that it has been
used in the plumbing industry for hot water pipes.
Outline the relationship between the relative activities of metals and their positions on the
Periodic Table

The most reactive metals exist on the left; Group 1 is more reactive than Group 2.
This is because there are fewer electrons in the valence shell, therefore; less energy is
required for the element to lose its electrons in chemical reactions.

Metals become more reactive moving down the group; caesium is more reactive than
rubidium. This is because each element down a group has one more valence shell. As the
atomic radius increases, the further the valence electrons are from its nucleus, hence; the
nuclear attraction between the electrons and the nucleus become weaker, requiring less
energy to remove a valence electron.
Identify the importance of first ionisation energy in determining the relative reactivity of
metals

Kevin Liang 11CH1

 The first ionisation energy of an element is the minimum amount of energy required to
remove the first electron from one mole of the element as a gas. It is given as kilojoules
per mole (kJ/mol). In essence the first ionisation energy of an element determines how
easily it is for the element to lose electrons.
The reactivity of metals is largely determined by the tendency for metals to be oxidised
into cations through the loss of electrons; thus the ease with which the metal loses
electrons directly affects its reactivity.
Students:

Perform a first-hand investigation incorporating information

from secondary sources to determine the metal activity series
Refertopracbook.

Construct word and balanced formulae equations for the

reaction of metals with water, oxygen, dilute acid
Acids Some metals react with dilute acid to form a salt and hydrogen gas.
Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

Water Some metals react with either liquid water to form hydroxides and hydrogen gas
or steam to form oxides and hydrogen gas. It can be argued that in the former, the metal is
displacing the hydrogen from solution.
2Na (s) + 2H2O (l) 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)
Oxygen Some metals react with oxygen to form oxides.
2Mg (s) + O2 (g) 2MgO (s)

Construct half-equations to represent the electron transfer

reactions occurring when metals react with dilute hydrochloric
and dilute sulfuric acids
Hydrochloricacid:Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) -> ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Oxidation reaction: Zn (s) -> Zn2+ (aq) + 2e Reduction reaction: 2H+ (aq) + 2e- -> H2 (g)
Sulfuric acid: Mg (s) + H2SO4 (aq) -> MgSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)

Kevin Liang 11CH1

 Oxidation reaction: Mg (s) -> Mg2+ (aq) + 2e Reduction reaction: 2H+ (aq) + 2e- -> H2 (g)

3. As metals and other elements were discovered, scientists recognised

that patterns in their physical and chemical properties could be used to
organise the elements into a Periodic Table

Studentslearnto:

I dentify an appropriate model has been developed to describe atomic structure

The Rutherford-Bohr model The currently accepted model of the atom. An atom is
described as a small positive nucleus, very small even compared to the tiny size of the
entire atom, made up of protons and neutrons, and a cloud of electrons that orbit the
nucleus in discrete energy levels, or shells. These energy levels are tiered and exist at
certain distances from the nucleus; only a certain number of electrons are able to orbit in
one energy level, and when a shell is filled, the next electron takes up the shell above it.
Outline the history of the development of the Periodic Table including its origins, the
original data used to construct and the predictions made after construction
Antoine Lavoisier, 1789 Separated elements into metals and non-metals.
Johann Dobereiner, 1829 Grouped elements into triads based on similar properties,
such as chlorine, bromine and iodine (fluorine had yet to be discovered). Noticed the
linear progression of atomic masses within triads.
John Newlands, 1864 Proposed the law of octaves, wherein properties of elements
repeat periodically after seven elements (the noble gases had yet to be discovered.)
Ordered elements by atomic mass.
Lothar Meyer, 1869 Ordered elements by atomic mass. Plotted the properties of
elements as a function of their mass and so demonstrated the periodicity of elements.It is
interesting to note that Meyer's 1869 publication of his Periodic Table was a revised
version of a table he had published in 1864.
Dmitri Mendeleev, 1869 Ordered elements by atomic mass and arranged so that
elements with similiar properties existed in vertical columns. Swapped the order of some
elements in order to better align with these columns, such as tellurium and iodine. Left
gaps in his table and accurately predicted undiscovered elements and their properties, such
as germanium (he called it eka-silicon), thus increasing his credibility. In addition, Dmitri
published his Periodic Table a few months before Lothar Meyer published his revised
table.

Kevin Liang 11CH1

 Explain the relationship between the position of elements in the Periodic Table, and:
Electrical conductivity
Ionisation energy
Atomic radius
Melting point
Boiling point
Combining power (valency)
Electronegativity
Reactivity
Electrical conductivity Decreases from left to right.
Ionisation energy Decreases from top to bottom due to more electron shells, thus a
greater distance between the nucleus and the valence shell and hence weaker electrostatic
attraction between them. Decreases from left to right due to a greater number of protons in
the nucleus, thus causing the valence shell to hold on more strongly to its electrons.
Atomic radius Increases from top to bottom due to more electron shells. Decreases
from left to right due to a greater number of protons in the nucleus, thus increasing the
electrostatic forces between the nucleus and the electrons and causing the valence shell to
contract.
Melting point Increases from top to bottom due to a greater number of electrons, thus
increasing the strength of dispersion forces between molecules. Additionally, melting point
increases due to an increase in metallic character. Increased from left to right up to Group
IV, then decreases. Periodic minima (lowest point) corresponding to the noble gases.
Boiling point Increases from top to bottom due to a greater number of electrons, thus
increasing the strength of dispersion forces between molecules. Additionally, melting point
increases due to an increase in metallic character. Increases from left to right up to Group
IV, then decreases. Periodic minima (lowest point) corresponding to the noble gases.
Combining power (valency) Increases from left to right up to Group IV, then
decreases.
Electronegativity Decreases from top to bottom due to increased atomic radius.
Increases from left to right due to decreasing atomic radius.
Reactivity Increases from top to bottom. Decreases from left to right up to Group IV,
then increases.

Kevin Liang 11CH1

Students:
Process information from secondary sources to develop a

Periodic Table by recognising patterns and trends in the

properties of elements and use available evidence to predict
the characteristics of unknown elements both in groups and
across periods

Completed using the trends above

Use computer-based technologies to produce a table and a

graph of changes in one physical property across a period and
down a group

Kevin Liang 11CH1

4. For efficient resource use, industrial chemical reactions must

use measured amounts of each reactant
Students learn to

Define the mole as the number of atoms in exactly 12g of

carbon-12 (Avogadros number)

A mole of a substance describes an amount that contains an exact number of

individual items. In the case of chemical substances, this is the amount of particles
(atoms or molecules) in the substance.
This number of atoms is called Avogadro's number, and is defined to be the number
of atoms in exactly 12g of carbon-12, or carbon containing 6 neutrons, or 6.022 x
10^23.

Compare mass changes in samples of metals when they

combine with oxygen to measure and identify the mass

When a metal reacts with oxygen to form an oxide, a new substance is formed that
contains all of the metal as well as a certain amount of oxygen. Thus the metal oxide
would weigh more, because it would weigh exactly as much as the metal that we
began with in addition to the oxygen.
For example, suppose we begin with 10g of magnesium and burn it. The magnesium
oxide that resulted would weigh 16.6g. Therefore, the mass of the oxygen used is
6.6g.

Describe the contribution of Gay-Lussac to the

understanding of gaseous reactions and apply this to an
understanding of the mole concept

Gay-Lussac's Law states that ratio of gases between the reactants and products of a
reaction can be expressed as simple whole numbers.
Because we understand that moles react in simple whole number ratios, one can
conclude that equal volumes of gases contain the same number of molecules.

Recount Avogadros law and describe its importance in

developing the mole concept

Avogadro's Law states that gases of the same volume under the same temperature
and pressure have the same number of particles.

Kevin Liang 11CH1

Thus equal volumes of gases will possess the same number of moles. Because the
ratio of moles is crucial to chemical reactions, this connection means that volume is
also important.
At 0C and 100kPa, the volume is 22.71K. At 25C and 100kPa, the volume is
24.79L.

Distinguish between empirical formulae and molecular

formulae

Empirical formula is one that describes the simplest ratio of elements. Molecular
formula, on the other hand, is the actual composition of the compound. For example,
N2O4 is a compound, whose molecular formula is N2O4. On the other hand, its
empirical formula is NO2.
Different compounds can have the same empirical formula but different molecular
formulas - for instance, acetylene (C2H2) and benzene (C6H6).

Students:
Process information from secondary sources to interpret balanced chemical
equations in terms of mole ratios.
The coefficients of a balanced chemical equation can be seen as a
representation of the moles involved in the reaction. For instance, in the
diagram below, the coefficients 2:1:2 can be used to describe the ratio of moles
of magnesium, oxygen gas and magnesium oxide that is involved in the
reaction (note that we are considering moles of oxygen gas, O2, not oxygen
atoms.)
2Mg (s) + O2 (g) 2MgO (s)
Perform a first-hand investigation to measure and identify the mass ratios of metal
to non-metal(s) in a common compound and calculate its empirical formula.
Refer to prac book
Solve problems and analyse information from secondary

sources to perform calculations involving Avogadros

number and the equation for calculating the number of
moles of a substance: n=m/M

Refer to worksheets

Process information from secondary sources to investigate

the relationship between the volumes of gases involved in

Kevin Liang 11CH1

reactions involving a metal and relate this to an

understanding of the mole
Refertoworksheets

5. The relative abundance and ease of extraction of metals

influences their value and breadth of use in the community
Students learn to:
Define the terms mineral and ore with reference to

economic and non-economic deposits of natural resources

A mineral is a pure crystalline compound that occurs naturally in the earths crust.
An ore is a compound or mixture of compounds from which it is economic (or
commercially profitable) to extract a desired substance such as a metal
Minerals can share names with ores. For example, iron (III) oxide (Fe2O3), or
hematite, is a mineral and also a common ore of iron, usually with impurities in it,
making it a mixture.
Describe the relationship between the commercial prices of common metals, their
actual abundances and relative costs of production.
As the abundance increases, the supply increases. Similarly, if the relative costs of
production increase, less metals are being extracted for the same cost of extraction
The abundance of metals in the earth's crust, and the number of ore deposits mined
affects the availability and price.
For instance, iron exists as 5% of the earth's crust - highly abundant.

Copper exists at 0.05% of the earth's crust, but is concentrated in ore such as
chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) and malachite
The cost of mining and extraction. For instance, aluminium extraction requires a lot of
energy and thus is highly expensive.
The useful properties of metals. For instance, titanium has many important
applications due to its biocompatibility, low density and high strength, and so is more
expensive.

Explain why ores are non- renewable resources

The amount of metals that exist on the earth as ores is fixed, and the ore itself that can
be used to extract the metal forms at geological rates. Hence in our current timeframe
as humans, there is a limited quantity of ore available to use.

Kevin Liang 11CH1

 Describe the separation processes, chemical reactions and

energy considerations involved in the extraction of copper
from one of its ores

Mining Copper ore is mined. Copper exists mostly in the form

chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) at about 0.6% purity. Copper also exists in other sulfide
forms, such as chalcocite (Cu2S). The remaining bulk is mostly silicate and oxide
waste.

Froth flotation The copper ore is concentrated to improve the efficiency of

later smelting and so conserve energy per ton of copper produced. The copper ore is
crushed and the copper sulfide is wetted to become hydrophobic. The ore is then put
into a mixture of water and oil-detergent frothing agents known as collectors. Air is
bubbled through this mixture to create a layer of bubbles to which the hydrophobic
copper sulfides adhere and are removed. The waste, or gangue, settles out via
sedimentation and can be removed. The new mixture is about 25 - 30% rich in copper.

Roasting Chalcopyrite is roasted in air in order to turn the mineral into

copper (II) sulfide, iron(II) oxide and sulfur dioxide.

2 CuFeS2 (s) + 3 O2 (g) 2 FeO (s) + 2 CuS (s) + 2 SO2 (g)

Smelting, Pt. 1: Removing Slag The mixture produced above is heated to

temperatures of 1000+C with ground limestone (CaCO3) and sand (SiO2), which act
as flux to remove the iron(II) oxide as slag (iron silicate, FeSiO3) that floats to the
top.

CaCO3 (s) CaO (s) + CO2 (g)

CaO (s) + SiO2 (s) CaSiO3 (s)

FeO (s) + CaSiO3 (s) FeSiO3 (s) + CaO (s)

The overall equation: FeO (s) + SiO2 (s) FeSiO3 (s)

Smelting, Pt. 2: Preparing Copper The copper (II) sulfide (CuS) is

reduced to copper (I) sulfide (Cu2S) by the heat. A part of the copper (I) sulfide is
roasted in air to produce copper (I) oxide. This mixture of copper sulfide and oxide is
known as a copper matte.

2 Cu2S (s) + 3 O2 (g) 2 Cu2O (s) + 2 SO2 (g)

Smelting, Pt. 3: Blister Copper The copper matte react to form copper
metal. This produces blister copper, the appearance of blisters due to escaping sulfur
dioxide, which is roughly 98% pure in copper. Remaining impurities include inert
metals such as gold and silver.

Cu2S (s) + 2Cu2O (s) 6 Cu (s) + SO2 (g)

Purification By Electrolysis An electrolytic cell is used to further purify blister

copper. The electrolyte is copper (II) sulfate (CuSO4) acidified with about 15%
sulfuric acid. The cathode is a thin sheet of pure copper, while the blister copper is

Kevin Liang 11CH1

made the anode. The copper is oxidised at the anode to form free copper ions that are
then reduced and deposit at the copper cathode.

Recount the steps taken to recycle aluminium

Waste aluminium is collected and transported to aluminium recycling plants.
The specific compositions of individual waste items, such as cans, are
analysed and the specific alloy determined. Waste is then sorted according to
the alloy type.
Shredding the aluminium and then heating remove impurities in the waste,
such as lacquer on cans.
The metal is melted down at temperatures of 660C (the melting point of
aluminium) and then cast into ingots.
Students:

Discuss the importance of predicting yield in the identification, mining and

extraction of commercial ore deposits

The advantages of predicting the yield of a certain ore deposit includes:

Determining whether mining the land will draw profit or not

Comparisons between theoretical yield and the commodity allow problems to

be identified in the extraction process.
Identifies the longevity of a deposit and predicts whether there may be
shortages of that metal in the future.

Justify the increased recycling of metals in our society and

across the world

Recycling requires less of an energy input (5% of extraction in the case of aluminium,
800MJ as opposed to 65 000MJ per tonne).
It is 100% recyclable

Less energy also means less greenhouses gases produced.

Reduces the rate at which new areas are mined.

Conserves ore deposits and our worldwide supply of aluminium.

Waste products of extraction are reduced for instance, carbon dioxide is produced
in the electrolysis of alumina.
Less metal goes to waste dumps and so reduces the rate at which countries accumulate
waste that needs to be stored.

Kevin Liang 11CH1

Analyse information to compare the cost and energy

expenditure involved in the extraction of aluminium from its
ore and the recycling of aluminium

Recycling of aluminium:

Over 70% of aluminium cans in Australia are recycled.

Aluminium waste is sorted according to the alloy type, and then melted at
temperatures of around 660C, or the melting point of aluminium.
The composition of the molten aluminium is analysed and adjusted as
necessary to produce the correct alloy required. They are then cast into ingots.
Energy concerns:

Aluminium extraction The Bayer process requires 15 000 MJ per tonne of

aluminium produced, and the Hall Heroult process requires 50 000 MJ per
tonne of aluminium produced. This totals 65 000 MJ per tonne.
Recycling Requires only 800 MJ per tonne of aluminium produced. This is
less than 5% of the amount of energy required to extract it from bauxite. This
is the main incentive for recycling aluminium and explains its popularity.

Kevin Liang 11CH1

8.4 Water
1. Water is distributed on Earth as a solid, liquid and gas
Students learn to:

Define the terms solute, solvent and solution

A solute is the substance that dissolves into the solvent, and is in much smaller
quantity.
A solvent is the substance that the solute dissolves into, and is much greater in
quantity.
A solution is a homogenous mixture of solutes and solvents.

The solvent dissolves the solute to form a solution.

Identify the importance of water as a solvent

Water is called the "universal solvent." This is because more substances dissolve in
water than any other liquid on Earth, including acids.
Water's ability to dissolve a large range of compounds means that it is extremely
important in many biological and physical processes.
Water is used in all aspects of living organisms to facilitate biological
processes in aqueous solutions. This includes diluting waste and transporting
nutrients and waste through the body. This occurs by a number of processes.
Diffusion is the process by which the random movement of dissolved particles
in solution causes them to eventually move along their concentration gradient
from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration, thus
transporting them. This can be seen in the transportation of glucose from the
plants to the other parts of the organism.
Aqueous solutions relying on water's ability to dissolve compounds is used in
many areas of life, including household cleaning agents and acids used in
industry.

Compare the state, percentage and distribution of water in

the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere

Biosphere Water is extremely important in the structure of living organisms, such

as blood vessels and supporting cells.
Lithosphere Water exists in the lithosphere mainly as water of crystallisation in
minerals such as copper sulfate pentahydrate (CuSO4.H2O). It also exists as a liquid as

Kevin Liang 11CH1

ground water, making up less than 1%.

Hydrosphere Water exists mainly as 97% as salt water in seas and oceans, 2% in
polar icecaps and 0.7% as fresh water.
Atmosphere Water exists as a gaseous state water vapour, or steam, in the
atmosphere. The concentration of water vapour in the atmosphere can vary between 0
to 5%.

Outline the significance of the different states of water on

Earth in terms of water as:

A constituent of cells and its role as both a solvent and a raw material in
metabolism

A habitat in which temperature extremes are less than nearby terrestrial

habitats

An agent of weathering of rocks both as liquid and

solid

A natural resource for humans and other organisms

Biological functions of water Water makes up about 70% of all living bodies. In
the human body in particular, but indicative of functions in many organisms, water:
Photosynthesis Water is a reactant in the production of glucose.
Hydrolysis Water breaks down large molecules into smaller sub-molecules,
such as starch into individual glucose molecules.
Dilution of waste products in the human body, such as urea.
A transport system for both waste products and nutrients, such as urea or
oxygen. Blood is basically water.
Hydrostatic skeleton As a means of supporting biological structures in a
way similar to how our skeletons hold us up. In human bodies, this is also
apparent in structures such as the eyeball.
Heat distribution and regulation through sweat.
Osmosis that shifts the concentration of solutions such as those in cell
membranes.
Fundamental for enzymes to function.
Habitats The high heat capacity of water means that bodies of water such as the
sea or lakes have far narrow temperature bands than other geological areas. This
means that bodies of water are usually warmer than the surroundings in winter and
cooler in the summer. These marginal shifts in temperature also provide a stable
environment for aquatic organisms to live.
Geological process Water contributes heavily to the shaping of the landscape. This
occurs in two ways: weathering and erosion. Weathering is the process by which

Kevin Liang 11CH1

rocks are broken down, and erosion is the movement of rocks and soil across the
landscape.
Weathering
Chemical weathering water reactions with compounds in the
ground over long periods of time to form new compounds.
Water containing suspended impurities acts like sandpaper over rocks.
Glaciers scrape over rocks and gradually wear them away.
Water seeps into the cracks of rocks and then freezes, expanding and
widening cracks and eventually causing them to break.
Erosion Moving bodies of water such as rivers and rainfall downhill causes
loose minerals and soil to move, usually downhill. It is interesting to note that
erosion of salts into the ocean is what caused the ocean to become salt-water.
A natural resource Other than for drinking and washing, water has many
functions in society:
Leisure swimming, beaches, water sports, ice-skating.
Industry as a reactant or product, or for cooling machinery.
Agriculture irrigating crops and watering livestock.
Electrical power generation through hydroelectricity or tidal power.
Transport Ships and barges, allowing goods in the past to be moved down
river for trade.

Students:

Perform an investigation involving calculations of the

density of water as a liquid and a solid using: density =
mass/volume

Refertopracbook

Analyse information by using models to account for the

differing densities of ice and liquid water

In ice, there are more hydrogen bonds between water molecules. As hydrogen bonds
are directional, meaning that they prefer specific orientations, the water molecules are
pushed apart and so there are less water molecules per unit volume in ice than in
liquid water.
In the lattice of ice, each oxygen atom in the water molecule is bonded to four
hydrogen atoms two covalently (the atoms in its molecule), and two by hydrogen
bonding. This forms a tetrahedral structure with the oxygen at the center and the
hydrogens at the vertices. This array is an open-cage, reducing the density of ice.
In liquid water, the hydrogen bonding occurs almost randomly between particles of
water. Water molecules are also closer together due to less hydrogen bonds.

Kevin Liang 11CH1

Plan and perform an investigation to identify and describe

the effect of anti-freeze or salt on the boiling point of water

Refer to prac book

2. The wide distribution and importance of water on Earth is a

consequence of its molecular structure and hydrogen bonding
Students learn to:

Construct Lewis electron dot structures of water, ammonia

and hydrogen sulfide to identify the distribution of electrons

Water (H2O)

Ammonia (NH3)

Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S)

Compare the molecular structure of water, ammonia and

hydrogen sulfide, the differences in their molecular shapes
and in their melting and boiling points
MolecularShape

Water(H2O)
Ammonia(NH3)
HydrogenSulfide(H2S)

Bent
TrigonalPyramidal
Bent

Typeof
Bonding
Hydrogen
Hydrogen
Dipoledipole

MeltingPoint
(oC)
0
77.73
82

BoilingPoint
(oC)
99.98
33.34
60

Describe hydrogen bonding between molecules

Hydrogen bonding is an intermolecular force, which holds molecules together. They

are dipole-dipole bonds, which are extremely strong due to the high difference in

Kevin Liang 11CH1

electronegativity between hydrogen, and either nitrogen, oxygen or fluorine (the three
most electronegative elements). The large difference in electronegativity results in an
extremely polar bond 10 times stronger than normal dipole-dipole forces and 10 times
weaker than covalent bonds.

Identify the water molecule as a polar molecule

The two O-H bonds in water are extremely polar and necessary for hydrogen bonding,
with the electrons more attracted to the oxygen than the hydrogen.
The two bonds are at angles to each other (104.5) and so the two dipoles do not
cancel out and there is an overall net charge; negative on the oxygen and positive on
the side of the hydrogens. Thus water is a polar molecule.

Describe the attractive forces between polar molecules as

dipole-dipole forces

Polar molecules are those that have permanent dipoles, or possess either dipoledipole forces or hydrogen bonding. A molecule is only polar if it possess polar
bonding (that is, bonding between two atoms that differ in electronegative, such that
the electrons in the bond will be spend more time with the more electronegative atom
and make it more negative.) as well as a structure by the VSEPR model in which the
dipoles created by these polar bonds do not cancel out. For instance, chlorine (C2) is
non-polar because it possesses no polar bonds, while beryllium fluoride (BeF2) is
non-polar due to its linear structure, wherein the polar BeF bonds cancel one
another out and the overall molecule has no dipoles.

Dipole-dipole forces are the normal kind of polar bond present in polar molecules.
Hydrogen bonding is a kind of dipole-dipole force that occurs in molecules possessing
the extremely polar OH, NH or FH bonds and are ten times stronger than
normal dipole-dipole forces. In substances with such intermolecular forces, the
molecules will orient themselves so that the negative end of one molecule will be
closer to the positive end of another, leading to lower potential energy in the
substance.

Explain the following properties of water in terms of its intermolecular forces:

Surface tension

Viscosity

Boiling points and melting points

Kevin Liang 11CH1

Surface tension Water molecules are normally pulled on all sides by hydrogen
bonds. However, on the surface, there are no water molecules above it to pull it
upwards, so the water molecule experiences a force downwards that creates a tension
of the surface. The strength of surface tension of a liquid is thus proportional to the
strength of the intermolecular bond.
Viscosity is the property of how easily a fluid flows. Viscosity also affects how easily
it is to move through the fluid. The viscosity of a liquid is determined by the strength
of its intermolecular bonds, as well as the size and shape of the molecules for
instance, long chain molecules get tangled up and so its viscosity would be high.
Increased temperature also decreases viscosity due to the increased movement of the
particles in the liquid.
Boiling points and melting points are the temperatures in which water boils and
melts at. The boiling and melting point of water is dependent upon the intermolecular
forces it forms with other water molecules. Water exhibits hydrogen bonding, which
gives it relatively high boiling and melting points (more heat energy required to break
the intermolecular forces) compared to other polar molecules such as hydrogen
sulfide (H2S). Water also has two lone electron pairs, allowing it to hydrogen bond
with two other molecules, thus; increasing its boiling and melting points.

Students:

Process information from secondary sources to graph and

compare the boiling and melting points of water with other
similar sized molecules

Identify data and process information from secondary

sources to model the structure of the water molecule and
effects of forces between water molecules

Kevin Liang 11CH1

Foreffectsofforces,refertoabove

Choose equipment and perform first-hand investigations to

demonstrate the following properties of water:

Surface tension

Viscosity

Refer to prac book

3. Water is an important solvent

Students learn to:

Explain changes, if any, to particles and account for those changes when the
following types
of chemicals interact with water:

A soluble ionic compound such as sodium chloride

A soluble molecular compound such as sucrose

A soluble or partially soluble molecular element or compound such as

iodine, oxygen or hydrogen chloride

A covalent network structure substance such as silicon dioxide

A substance with large molecules, such as cellulose or polyethylene

The solubility of a particular solute in a particular solvent relies on three things

occurring: the intermolecular forces between the solvent particles being broken, the
intermolecular forces between the solute particles being broken, and intermolecular
forces forming between the solute and solvent particles. Dissolution will only occur if
all three of these things occur. Thus, a solute will only dissolve in a solvent if the
bonds between the solute and solvent are stronger than the solute-solute bonds and
solvent-solvent bonds.
A soluble ionic compound such as sodium chloride:
The ionic bonds between cations and anions are broken. The hydrogen bonding
between water molecules are broken to allow the ions to enter. Bonds are formed
between the water molecules and the ions; for cations, four water molecules surround

Kevin Liang 11CH1

it with the negative oxygen end of the molecule closer to the cation, and for anions,
the same thing occurs with the hydrogen end closer to the anion. This process is called
dissociation, and occurs due to the strong dipoles in a water molecule that are
attracted to the charged ion. Ionic compounds only dissolve when the strength of the
water-ion bonding is greater than that of the ionic lattice. The polar molecules of
water are not stronger than the electrostatic attraction in an ionic lattice, but due to the
large amount of water present; the water-ion bonding is strong enough to overcome
the electrostatic attraction. A dissolved ion is called hydrated.
A soluble molecular compound such as sucrose:
Most covalent molecules do not dissolve in water. However, some do, such as
sucrose, which have a hydroxyl (OH) function. This ability to dissolve relies on their
ability to form hydrogen bonds with the water, which are able to overcome the
hydrogen bonds between water molecules and sugar molecules.
A soluble or partially soluble molecular element or compound such as iodine,
oxygen or hydrogen chloride:
Many covalent molecules possess only dispersion forces or dipole-dipole forces.
These molecules are only able to form dispersion or dipole-dipole forces with water,
which are much weaker than hydrogen bonding. Hence, the intermolecular forces
between the solute and water are much weaker than the intermolecular forces between
water.
A covalent network structure substance such as silicon dioxide:
Covalent bonds between silicon and oxygen are 10 times stronger than hydrogen
bonding. Therefore, the polar water molecules are not strong enough to break the
covalent bonds.
A substance with large molecules, such as cellulose or polyethylene:

Although cellulose and polyethylene are polar molecules, displaying a hydroxyl (OH)
function, they are too large to dissolve in water. They cannot dissolve in water, as they
exhibit hydrogen bonding extensively throughout their molecules. Hence, the water
molecules are not strong enough to break the hydrogen bonding between large
molecules.

Analyse the relationship between the solubility of substances in water and the polar
nature of the water molecule

Like dissolves like This is because polar substances form stronger bonds with other
polar substances than with nonpolar substances, and similarly non-polar substances
form stronger bonds with other nonpolar substances. Thus, the bonding between
solvent particles and between solute particles do not break and bonds cannot form
between solute and solvent particles.
Students:

Kevin Liang 11CH1

Perform a first-hand investigation to test the solubilities in

water of a range of substances that include ionic, soluble
molecular, insoluble molecular, covalent networks and large
molecules

Refer to prac book

Process information from secondary sources to visualise the

dissolution in water of various types of substances and
solve problems by using models to show the changes that
occur in particle arrangement as dissolution occurs

Seeworkbookforproblemsrelatingtosolubility

4. The concentration of salts in water will vary according to their

solubility, and precipitation can occur when the ions of an
insoluble salt are in solution together
Studentslearnto:

Identify some combinations of solutions which will produce

precipitates, using solubility data

Barium sulfate

Silver chloride

Lead sulfide

Describe a model that traces the movement of ions when

Kevin Liang 11CH1

solution and precipitation occur

When two solutions of ionic substances are mixed together, an insoluble precipitate
will form in a precipitation reaction if any of the cationanion combinations
constitutes an insoluble substance. This is because free ions in both substances
constant move and interact with other ions, and when a cation meets an anion for
which it is insoluble, they will form bonds and settle out of solution.
For instance, in the mixing of silver nitrate and barium hydroxide, a precipitate
will form if either silver hydroxide or barium nitrate is insoluble.
The ionic equation: Ag+(aq) + OH-(aq) AgOH(s)

Identify the dynamic nature of ion movement in a saturated dissolution

Ions in a solution constantly move around throughout the solvent.

A reversible reaction is one that can be easily reversed; for instance, the evaporation
of water from liquid to gas is reversible as steam can regress to form liquid water.
Reversible reactions are made up of the forward reaction and the reverse reaction. In
systems wherein both the forward and reverse reaction occurs at the same rate, then
there are overall no net observable changes and the system is said to be at chemical
equilibrium. This equilibrium is dynamic.

Describe the molarity of a solution as the number of moles

of solute per litre of solution using: C=n/V

Molarity (M), or moles per litre (mol/L), is the main form of measurement used to
determine the concentration of a solution. It describes the number of moles of a
substance that exists in solution in one litre of the solution. Since solutions are
homogeneous, this means that taking a half of a given solution will give you half the
moles, and in general, molarity will stay the same given any volume of a solution with
fixed concentration. Molarity can also be written as M, or molar.
If n is used to describe the number of moles in solution, and V is used to describe the
volume of solution present, the concentration C will be given by C = n/V.

Explain why different measurements of concentration are

important

Different measurements of concentration are important, as different situations will

involve different information. For instance, when the solute is itself a liquid, it can be
more helpful to consider concentration in terms of litres (solute) per litre (solvent)
instead of grams per litre.
Other types of measurement of concentration:

Kevin Liang 11CH1

Grams per litre The mass of solute in each litre of solvent.

Litres per litre The volume of solute in each litre of solvent.

Parts per million A type of massmass concentration measurement. The

mass of the solute, in milligrams, in one kilogram of solution. Used when
concentrations are quite small, such as in the study of pollutants in the
atmosphere and water systems.
Percentage composition by mass The mass in grams of solute dissolved in
100 g of the entire solution (solute + solvent).

Students:

Construct ionic equations to represent the dissolution and

precipitation of ionic compounds in water

The complete ionic equation of a precipitation reaction:

Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) AgCl(s) + NO3-(aq) + Na+(aq)

The net ionic equation of a precipitation reaction:

Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) AgCl(s)

Perform a first-hand investigation, using micro-techniques,

to compare the solubility of appropriate salts in solution
through precipitation reactions

Refertopracbook

Carry out simple calculations to describe the concentration

of given solutions, given masses of solute and volumes of
solution

Whatisthemolarityofasolutioncontaining9.478gramsofRuCl3inenoughwater
tomake1.00Lofsolution?

n=9.478/101.07+35.45*3=0.04569

C=0.04569/1=0.04569M

Perform a first-hand investigation to make solutions to

specified volume-to-volume and mass-to- volume

Kevin Liang 11CH1

specifications and dilute them to specified concentrations

(cV = constant)

Refer to prac book

Calculate mass and concentration relationships in precipitation reactions as they

are encountered

Refer to orange workbook

5. Water has a higher heat capacity than many other liquids

Students learn to:

Explain what is meant by the specific heat capacity of a

substance

Specific heat capacity is the minimum amount of energy required to

change a substances temperature by 1 degree Celsius or Kelvin.

Compare the specific heat capacity of water with a range of

other solvents
Substance
Mercury
Ethanol
Water

SpecificHeatCapacity(J/K/g)
0.14
2.44
4.18

Explain and use the equation H = mCT

H = change in heat energy/enthalpy (J)

m = mass of substance (g)

C = specific heat capacity (J/K/g)

T = change in temperature (oC/K)

Find the change in enthalpy of the solution when 5g of sodium hydroxide is dissolved
in 100mL of water (given the density of water = 1g/mL) and temperature changes by
12K.

Kevin Liang 11CH1

H = 105g * 4.18J/K/g * 12K

H = 5266.8 J

Explain how waters ability to absorb heat is used to

measure energy changes in chemical reactions

The mass of the substance, specific heat capacity of water and the change in
temperature is required to measure the energy changes in a chemical reaction. Waters
ability to absorb is significant to determine energy changes, as it allows the initial
temperature and final temperature to be measured. Using the values of m, C and T,
the change in enthalpy can be measured in chemical reactions.

Describe dissolutions which release heat as exothermic and

give examples

Anexothermicreactioniswhenthedissolutionofasubstancelosesorreleasesheatenergy.

Eg.Neutralisationbetweenacidsandbases,combustionreactions,respiration,freezingofice.

Describe dissolutions which absorb heat as endothermic and

give examples

Anendothermicreactioniswhenthedissolutionofasubstancegainsorabsorbsheatenergy.

Eg.Electrolysis,photosynthesis,meltingofice.

Explain why waters ability to absorb heat is important to aquatic organisms and to
life on earth generally

Waters high specific heat capacity allows it to absorb large amounts of heat energy without a
significant change in temperature.

Marine organisms are protected from extreme temperature fluctuations.

Water acts as an insulator in cells and bodies to protect living organisms from drastic
temperature changes.

Explain what is meant by thermal pollution and discuss the implications for life if a

Kevin Liang 11CH1

body of water is affected by thermal pollution

Thermal pollution is the degradation of water quality by any process that changes ambient
water temperature. It is the discharge of large quantities of hot water into a river or lake
sufficient to cause a significant increase in water temperature (2-5 oC)

Water is used as a coolant for many industrial processes, such as electricity generation. The
cooling water is pumped from a water body, used in the industrial process, and then it is
discharge back to the environment having absorbed a substantial amount of heat.

The adverse effects of thermal pollution include:

The solubility of oxygen decreases as water temperature increases, which causes

stress to aquatic organisms

Fish eggs do not develop properly or hatch due to high temperatures or sudden
changes in temperatures

False temperature cues can affect migration times and patterns

Students:

Choose resources and perform a first-hand investigation to

measure the change in temperature when substances
dissolve in water and calculate the molar heat of solution

Refer to prac book

Process and present information from secondary sources to

assess the limitations of calorimetry experiments and
design modifications to equipment used

ThecommoncalorimeterusedinmolarheatexperimentsisaStyrofoamcup.This
presentsavarietycauseoferrors.

ThesourceoferroroftheStyrofoamcupisthatheatenergyislosttothe
surroundings.

Heatcanbelosttothesurroundingair,thecup,thelidetc.

Anendothermicprocessmayabsorbheatfromtheenvironment,notjustfrom
thewater

Toreducethesourceoferror:2Styrofoamcupsandalidcanimproveinsulation,and
touseanadequatevolumeofwaterforthesolutetodissolveinyetstillbeableto
measurethechangesintemperature.

Kevin Liang 11CH1

Kevin Liang 11CH1

8.5 Energy
1. Living organisms make compounds which are important sources of energy
Students learn to:

Outline the role of photosynthesis in transforming light energy to chemical energy

and recall the raw materials for this process

Photosynthesis is the process by which autotrophs, most commonly in plants and

algae, converts light energy into chemical energy in the form of carbohydrates that
can be stored for later use in biological processes. The light energy is usually provided
by the sun in which it is trapped by chlorophyll, a green pigment in the leaves of a
plant. Photosynthesis is an endothermic reaction wherein the reactants of carbon
dioxide and water, as well as light energy, form the products of glucose and oxygen,
seen in the equation below:

CO2(g) + H2O(l) + UV Light C6H12O6(aq) + O2(g)

Outline the role of the production of high energy

carbohydrates from carbon dioxide as the important step in
the stabilisation of the suns energy in a form that can be
used by animals as well as plants

The three main carbohydrates are monosaccharaides, disaccharides and

polysaccharide. Monosaccharaides are the simplest form of sugar, and are usually
colorless and water-soluble. Examples of monosaccharaides include glucose and
fructose (the same chemical formula as glucose but with a different structure.)
Disaccharides are carbohydrates made up of two monosaccharaides bonded together.
The simplest disaccharide is sucrose, which is one glucose and one fructose bonded
together, and is otherwise known as table sugar. Polysaccharides are long chains of
monosaccharaides, and they are used to store energy such as in the form of starch, and
for building such as cellulose, which forms the cell walls of plants and is the most
common organic material on earth.
All living things get their energy from the Sun, either as autotrophs that directly use
light energy to produce chemical energy, or heterotrophs that eat other organisms such
as plants or animals in order to acquire their energy. Light energy cannot be used
directly by organisms for energy, and so must be converted in carbohydrates such as
glucose to be utilised. Energy is liberated from carbohydrates through cellular
respiration; when this occurs with the presence of oxygen, the carbohydrate is
oxidised and this process is called aerobic respiration.

Kevin Liang 11CH1

In plants, some glucose is used immediately for basic processes, but most is made into
polysaccharides such as starch for storage or cellulose for plant cell walls.
In most animals, the energy in glucose is stored in the form of the polysaccharide
glycogen or as fats.

Identify the photosynthetic origins of the chemical energy in coal, petroleum and
natural gas

Fossil fuels are mixtures containing hydrocarbons and other compounds formed by
the interrupted decomposition of plants and animals over millions of years. Organisms
naturally decompose into carbon dioxide and water by the actions of bacteria, but
when this decomposition is interrupted and the material is subjected under heat and
pressure, such as by layers of sediment settling above it over millions of years, the
organisms chemically change into energy-rich compounds. Fossil fuels possess high
amounts of chemical potential energy that can be liberated when combusted. Fossil
fuels are finite and non-renewable.
Coal A type of rock mostly made up of carbon formed from plant matter about 300
million years ago. Coal is formed when plant matter is prevented from decomposition
by oxidation, and over time sinks beneath layers of sediment to reach conditions of
increasing pressure and heat, slowing transitioning into coal.
Petroleum Also called crude oil. A complex mixture of various carbohydrates that
appears as a viscous black liquid with highly variable composition. In order to be
used, petroleum is separated into its constituent hydrocarbons by fractional
distillation. Both petroleum and natural gas originate from micro-organisms in the
oceans, which died and settled out on the ocean floor. Layers of sediment fell on them
and the heat and pressure eventually converted them into hydrocarbons in the form of
natural gas and petroleum. When this occurs, the petroleum and natural gas naturally
migrate through pores in the sediment upward, either reaching the surface or
becoming trapped by impenetrable clay and forming oil deposits. In such oil deposits,
the gas forms at the top and the petroleum oil forms on the water, separating the three
into distinct layers. There are oil basins in Western Australia, such as the Carnarvon
Basin.
Natural gas A mixture of hydrocarbon gases mostly made up of methane but
containing other impurities like carbon dioxide. The formation of natural gas is
described above with petroleum, as well as oil deposits.

Students:

Process and present information from secondary sources on

the range of compounds found in either coal, petroleum or

Kevin Liang 11CH1

natural gas and on the location of deposits of the selected

fossil fuel in Australia

Coal

Black rock-like substance formed from decayed plant matter over million of years

Formed under anaerobic conditions

Eg. Swampy, heavily vegetated environments

Goes through a series of transformations as plant matter is compressed

over time.

Stage

Type of Coal

Carbon (%)

Description

Peat

50-60

Porous brown mass of

partially decomposed
plant matter

Brown Coal (Lignite)

60-75

Forms when peat is

further compressed

Black Coal
(Bituminous Coal)

80-95

Denser, drier coal

Anthracite (Coke)

90-95

Most dense form of

coal with lowest
moisture content,
highest energy output

Kevin Liang 11CH1

2. There is a wide variety of carbon compounds

Students learn to:

Identify the position of carbon in the Periodic Table and describe its electron
configuration

Carbon's atomic number is 6. It exists on the Periodic Table in the second period and
the fourth group. It also has six electrons, arranged with two electrons in its k-shell
and four in its valence shell.

Describe the structure of the diamond and graphite allotropes and account for their
physical properties in terms of bonding

Diamond is an allotrope of carbon that exists as an extremely strong covalent lattice.

Each carbon atom in a diamond is covalently bonded to four other atoms in a
tetrahedral structure. All bond angles are at 109.5. Due to this indefinite lattice of
covalent bonds, diamond is extremely hard and has very high melting and boiling
point. Additionally, diamond is not malleable and shatters under extreme stress.
Diamond is the hardest naturally occurring material. Uses of diamond include
jewellery and drills.

Graphite is a second allotrope of carbon that exists as a layered planar structure. In

graphite, each carbon is bonded to three other carbon atoms, leaving a fourth
delocalised electron that can move between parallel layers. Graphite layers can easily
slide over one another, allowing it to be soft and used as a lubricant. The delocalised
electrons allows for electrical conductivity in electrodes.

Identify that carbon can form single, double or triple

covalent bonds with other carbon atoms

In covalent bonds, when only one electron is shared with another atom, the bond
contains two electrons and is called a single bond and is drawn with a single line (C
C). When two electrons from each atom are shared, this is a double bond and is
drawn with two lines (C=C). When three electrons from each atom are shared, this is

Kevin Liang 11CH1

called a triple bond and is drawn with three lines (CC).

Explain the relationship between carbons combining power and ability to form a
variety of bonds and the existence of a large number of carbon compounds

Carbon'ssmallsizeanditsabilitytoformsingle,doubleandtriplebonds,aswellas
itscapacitytoformfourbonds,meansthatcarboniscapableofformingavarietyof
carboncompounds.

Students:

Perform a first-hand investigation, analyse information and

use available evidence to model the differences in atomic
arrangement of diamond, graphite and fullerenes

Refer to prac book

Process and present information from secondary sources on

the uses of diamond and graphite and relate their uses to
their physical properties

Refertopracbookandorangeworkbook

Identify data, and choose resources from secondary sources

such as molecular model kits, digital technologies or
computer simulations to model the formation of single,
double and triple bonds in simple carbon compounds

Doneinclass

3. A variety of carbon compounds are extracted from organic

sources
Students learn to:

Describe the use of fractional distillation to separate the

components of petroleum and identify the uses of each
fraction obtained

Crude oil, or petroleum, is a fossil fuel mixture mostly made up of hydrocarbons in

the C1 to C40 range, mostly alkane but also containing amounts of alkenes and other

Kevin Liang 11CH1

carbon compounds. The specific composition of crude oil differs depending on the
basin it was extracted from.
Distillation is the process by which a mixture of liquids is separated based on their
different boiling points. The mixture is heated and the more volatile, or compound
with a lower boiling point, vaporises first and separates from the mixture. When the
boiling points of substances are close together in a mixture, such as in crude oil,
fractional distillation is used.
In the industrial separation of crude oil, fractional distillation is used, where the
fractionating column is a steel tower up to 40m high. Due to the large variety of
substances in crude oil, fractional distillation cannot separate them into their pure
compounds, but instead into fractions through the length of the fractionating column,
each made up of a certain section of hydrocarbons. Since the boiling point and the
volatility of a hydrocarbon is based on its size (due to the dispersion forces increasing
in strength with increasing molecular weight), the fractions at the bottom will contain
the largest hydrocarbons and the fractions at the top will contain the smallest.
Gases C1C4, so volatile that they do not condense and are collected as gases.
Boiling point below 30C. Uses include as fuel in the form of liquefied petroleum gas
(LPG).
Petrol, gasoline C5C12, boiling point between 30C and 200C. Uses include
motor fuel and solvents.
Kerosene C11C15, boiling point between 175C and 275C. Uses include aviation
fuel, domestic heating and a materials for production of smaller hydrocarbons by the
"cracking" process.
Diesel and gas oils C15C18, boiling point between 275C and 350C. Uses
include diesel fuel, and more material for cracking process.
Lubricating oils C16C20, boiling point greater than 350C. Uses include
lubricating oil and more material for cracking process.
Paraffin waxes C20C40, boiling point greater than 350C. Uses include candles
and wax paper.
Bitumen/asphalt Greater than C40, does not vapourise during the distillation
process. Used but roofing tar and asphalt.

Identify and use the IUPAC nomenclature for describing

straight-chained alkanes and alkenes from C1 to C8

Astraightchainedhydrocarbonisonethatisasinglelongchainwithnobranches.
Theyarethesimplestkindofhydrocarbon.

Kevin Liang 11CH1

Identifythefunctionalgroupthisisthepartofthemoleculethatdefinesits
characteristics.Thisdeterminesthesuffixofthecompound.Ifitonlypossessessingle
bonds,itisanalkaneandhasthesuffix"ane".Ifthereexistsadoublebond,itis
alkeneandhasthesuffix"ene".

Meth 1.

Eth 2.

Prop 3.

But 4.

Pent 5.

Hex 6.

Hept 7.

Oct 8.

Inalkenes,thepositionofthedoublebondmustbespecified

Thedoublebondhasthelowestnumber

Positionisthebehindthecarbonbeforeit

Multipledoublebonds:indicatelocationsandaddprefixes(eg.Di,tri)to
indicatetheamountofdoublesbonds

Compare and contrast the properties of alkanes and alkenes

C1 to C8 and use the term homologous series to describe a
series with the same functional group

Amount of dispersion forces increases with molecular weight and chain length

BP/MP increases with chain length

Alkanes have higher BPs and MPs than alkenes

Homologous groups A group of compounds with similar physical and chemical

properties that can be represented by a general chemical formula (for instance, an
alkane is a compound with the general formula CnH2n+2.
Alkanes Hydrocarbons containing only single bonds, and so are saturated. The
general formula is CnH2n+2.
Alkenes Hydrocarbons containing at least one double bond, which acts as its
functional group. The general formula is CnH2n.
Alkynes Hydrocarbons containing at least one triple bond, which acts as its
functional group. The general formula is CnH2n-2.

Kevin Liang 11CH1

Explain the relationship between the melting point, boiling

point and volatility of the above hydrocarbons, and their
non-polar nature and intermolecular forces (dispersion
forces)

Hydrocarbons are non-polar molecules, hence; exhibiting only dispersion forces

between molecules. Because dispersion forces increases with molecular weight (due
to an increased number of electrons), larger hydrocarbons will have stronger
dispersion forces and so higher melting and boiling points and lower volatility.

Assess the safety issues associated with the storage of

alkanes C1 to C8 in view of their weak intermolecular forces
(dispersion forces)

Alkanes are highly flammable and so must be kept away from open flames such as
cigarettes. Alkanes can also be highly toxic.
The ignition temperature of a substance is the temperature at which the substance
produces enough vapors to ignite on contact with a flame or heat source. For some
more volatile liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons, such as petrol (C4C12) and natural
gas, their ignition temperatures are below room temperature, so they naturally
evaporate to form a potentially explosive vapour/air mixture.
Safety precautions include:

Ensuring all containment equipment such as high-pressure cylinders and

pipelines are extremely strong and do not contain leaks.
Putting foul-smelling compounds into gaseous hydrocarbons to ensure early
detection.
Store only as much alkane is immediately necessary in places such as
laboratories.
Prohibit any kind of flames from places storing large amounts of alkanes, such
as petrol stations (e.g. banning cigarettes.)
Prevent static electricity from building up in places such as underground
natural gas pipelines.
Regularly checking containment equipment such as high-pressure cylinders.

Students:

Perform a first-hand investigation and gather first-hand

information using the process of fractional distillation to
separate the components of a mixture such as ethanol and
water

Refer to prac book

Kevin Liang 11CH1

Plan, identify and gather data from secondary sources to

model the structure of alkanes and alkenes C1 to C8

Refertoorangeworkbook

Process and present information from secondary sources

and use available evidence to identify safety issues
associated with the storage of alkanes.

Refertodotpointabove.

Kevin Liang 11CH1