Where

INTRODUCTION TO SEMICONDUCTORS
1. Band Theory of solids

In a crystalline solid, the possible energy states for electrons are arranged in
bands. Within each band the levels are very close together, but between the
bands there may be forbidden energy gaps.

Conductors materials that easily conducts current. It is characterized by the

highest occupied band (conduction band) being only partially full, so there are
many accessible states available to electrons to move about and accelerate
when voltage is applied.

It is found that the conductivity of a certain semiconductor increases when light of

wavelength
strikes it, suggesting that electrons are being promoted from the
valence band to the conduction band. What is the energy gap,
, for this
semiconductor?

Best conductors: atoms with only one valence electron such as

copper, silver, gold and aluminum.

Insulator material that does not conduct electrical current under normal
conditions. Its highest occupied energy band (valence band) is completely full,
and there is a large energy gap ( to
) to the next highest band, the
conduction band.

Example 1: Calculating the energy gap.

Good insulators: compounds. Valence electrons are tightly bound to

the atoms; therefore there are very few free electrons in an insulator.

Semiconductor material that is between conductors and insulators in its ability

to conduct electrical current. The gap between the valence and conduction
bands is much smaller, on the order
, so a few electrons can make the
transition from the essentially full valence band to the nearly empty conduction
band.

2. Conduction in semiconductors

An intrinsic silicon crystal at room temperature has sufficient heat (thermal

energy) for some valence electrons to jump the gap from the valence band
into the conduction band, becoming free electrons (conduction electrons).

When an electron jumps to the conduction band, a vacancy is left in the

valence band within the crystal. This vacancy is called hole.

Most common insulators: silicon, germanium and carbon. They are

characterized by atoms with four valence electrons.

Photon Energy:

Electron-hole pair - for every electron raised to the conduction band by eternal
energy, there is one hole left in the valence band

Recombination occurs when a conduction-band electron loses energy and

falls back into a hole in the valence band.

3. Doping

Electron and hole current

The conductivity of silicon and germanium can be increased by the controlled

addition of impurities to the intrinsic (pure) semiconductive material. This
process, called doping, increases the number of current carriers (holes and
current)

Two categories

N-type Semiconductor pentavalent (five valence electrons) impurity

atoms are added such as As, P, Bi, and Sb.

Each pentavalent atom forms covalent bonds with four adjacent

silicon atoms leaving one extra electron becomes conduction
electron called a donor atom. (see figure in the next page)

Since most of the current carriers are __________, silicon doped with
pentavalent atoms is an n-type semiconductor

Majority carriers: electron; minority carriers: holes

P-type Semiconductor trivalent (there valence electrons) impurity atoms

are added such as In, Ga, and B.

Each trivalent atom forms covalent bonds with four adjacent silicon atoms. All
three of the atoms valence electrons are used in the covalent bonds; and,
since four electrons are required, a hole results when each trivalent atom is
added (acceptor atom)

Since most of the current carriers are __________, silicon doped with trivalent
atoms is a p-type semiconductor

Majority carriers: holes; minority carriers: electrons

4. Semiconductor Diodes

a piece of intrinsic silicon is

doped so that part is n-type and
the other part is p-type, a pn
junction forms at the boundary
between the two regions and a
diode is created.

Separately, the two semicon is

electrically neutral

When joined, a few electrons

near the junction diffuse from the
n-type to p-type where they fill a few of the holes n-type is left with a positive

charge and p-type is left with a negative charge. Therefore, a potential

difference is established and this prevents further diffusion of electrons.

A diode conducts current when it is forward biased and blocks current when
are reverse biased

Forward biased a battery connected to a diode with the positive terminal to

the p side and the negative terminal to the n side. The externally applied
voltage opposes the internal potential difference.
*the forward biased barrier potential is typically

for a silicon diode

Reverse biased - the positive terminal to the n side and the negative terminal to
the p side.

Symbol for a diode:

current flows readily.

where the arrow represents the direction conventional (+)

Light-emitting diode (LED) when a

junction is forward biased, a current
begins to flow. Electrons cross from the n-region into the p-region and combine
with holes, and a photon can be emitted with an energy approximately equal
to the band gap energy.

Solar cells and photodiodes

junction in the reverse way. Photons are
absorbed, creating electron-hole pairs if the photon energy is greater than the
band gap energy. The created electrons and holes produce a current that,
when connected to an external circuit, becomes a source of emf and power.

A transistor can amplify a small signal into larger one.

Integrated Circuits consists of a tiny semiconductor crystal or chip on which

many transistor, diodes, resistors and other circuit elements have been
constructed using careful placement of impurities.

5. Transistors and Integrated Circuits

Transistor consists of a crystal of one type of doped semiconductor

sandwiched between two crystals of the opposite type.
*the arrow is always placed on the emitter and indicates the direction or
conventional current flow in normal operation.

*the miniaturization produces by ICs not only allows extremely complicated

circuits to be places in a small space, but also has allowed a great increase in
the speed of operation because the distances the electronic signals travel are
so tiny.
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