A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is an electrical device that converts the energy of light directly

into electricityby the photovoltaic effect. It is a form of photoelectric cell, defined as a device
whose electrical characteristics, such as current, voltage, or resistance, vary when exposed to
light. Solar cells are the building blocks of photovoltaic modules, otherwise known as solar
panels.
Solar cells are described as being photovoltaic irrespective of whether the source is sunlight or
an artificial light. They are used as a photodetector (for example infrared detectors), detecting
light or other electromagnetic radiation near the visible range, or measuring light intensity.
The operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires 3 basic attributes:

The absorption of light, generating either electron-hole pairs or excitons.

The separation of charge carriers of opposite types.

The separate extraction of those carriers to an external circuit.

In contrast, a solar thermal collector supplies heat by absorbing sunlight, for the purpose of either
direct heating or indirect electrical power generation from heat. A "photoelectrolytic cell"
(photoelectrochemical cell), on the other hand, refers either to a type of photovoltaic cell (like that
developed by Edmond Becquerel and moderndye-sensitized solar cells), or to a device that splits
water directly into hydrogen and oxygen using only solar illumination.

Aplication
Assemblies of photovoltaic cells are used to make solar modules which generate electrical power
from sunlight, as distinguished from a "solar thermal module" or "solar hot water panel." The
electrical energy generated from solar modules, colloquially referred to as solar power, is an
example of solar energy.

Cells, modules, panels and systems[edit]

Main articles: Solar panel and Photovoltaic system

From a solar cell to a PV system. Diagram of the possible components of a photovoltaic system

Multiple solar cells in an integrated group, all oriented in one plane, constitute a solar
photovoltaic panel or solar photovoltaic module. Photovoltaic modules often have a sheet of

glass on the sun-facing side, allowing light to pass while protecting the semiconductor wafers.
Solar cells are usually connected in series in modules, creating an additive voltage. Connecting
cells in parallel yields a higher current; however, problems such as shadow effects can shut
down the weaker (less illuminated) parallel string (a number of series connected cells) causing
substantial power loss and possible damage because of thereverse bias applied to the
shadowed cells by their illuminated partners. Strings of series cells are usually handled
independently and not connected in parallel, though (as of 2014) individual power boxes are
often supplied for each module, and are connected in parallel. Although modules can be
interconnected to create an array with the desired peak DC voltage and loading current capacity,
using independent MPPTs (maximum power point trackers) is preferable. Otherwise,
shuntdiodes can reduce shadowing power loss in arrays with series/parallel connected cells. [citation
needed]

Adaptive cells[edit]
Adaptive cells change their absorption/reflection characteristics depending to
respond to environmental conditions. An adaptive material responds to the
intensity and angle of incident light. At the part of the cell where the light is most
intense, the cell surface changes from reflective to adaptive, allowing the light to
penetrate the cell. The other parts of the cell remain reflective increasing the
retention of the absorbed light within the cell.[60]

In 2014 a system that combined an adaptive surface with a glass substrate that
redirect the absorbed to a light absorber on the edges of the sheet. The system
also included an array of fixed lenses/mirrors to concentrate light onto the
adaptive surface. As the day continues, the concentrated light moves along the
surface of the cell. That surface switches from reflective to adaptive when the
light is most concentrated and back to reflective after the light moves alon

A material with optical properties that change to help it capture more incoming sunlight could cut
the cost of solar power in half, according to Glint Photonics, a startup recently funded by the
Advanced Research Projects Agency for Energy (ARPA-E).
Glints adaptive material greatly reduces the cost of a tracking system used in some types of
solar power. It changes its reflectivity in response to heat from concentrated sunlight in a way that
makes it possible capture light coming in at different angles throughout the day.
Its well known that focusing sunlight makes it possible to use smaller, cheaper solar cells. But
this is usually done with lenses or mirrors, which must be moved precisely as the sun advances
across the sky to ensure that concentrated sunlight remains focused on the cells. The equipment
required for that and the large amount of steel and concrete needed to keep the apparatus
steady makes the approach expensive.

Glints light concentrator has two parts. The first is an array of thin, inexpensive lenses that
concentrate sunlight. The second is a sheet of glass that serves to concentrate that light more
up to 500 timesas light gathered over its surface is concentrated at its edges.
The sheet of glass is covered with reflective materials on the front and the back that trap light
inside the glass. One of these sides features the new adaptive substance made by Glint. When a
beam of concentrated light from the array of lenses hits the material, it heats up part of it, causing
that part to stop being reflective, which in turn allows light to enter the glass sheet. The material
remains reflective everywhere else, helping to trap that light inside the glassand the light
bounces around until it reaches the thin edge of the glass, where a small solar cell is mounted to
generate electricity.
As the day goes on, the beam of light from the lenses moves and the material adapts, always
allowing light in only where the beam of light falls, and reducing the need to keep the apparatus
pointed directly at the sun.
Glints CEO Peter Kozodoy says solar power from its devices could cost four cents per kilowatthour, compared to eight cents per kilowatt-hour for the best conventional solar panels. This
month, the company received the first installments of a $2.2 million grant from ARPA-E. The
ARPA-E funding will allow the company to scale up from prototypes just 2.5 centimeters across to
make 30-centimeter modules, nearly large enough for commercial operation.
Howard Branz, a program director at ARPA-E, says the main remaining challenge is increasing
the amount of sunlight that makes it to the solar cells, something that needs to be improved over
the proof-of-concept device, in which some of the light is absorbed or reflected en route to the
solar cells.