[MAINTAINING A BALANCE] Winson Lo

Most organisms are active in a limited temperature range

1.1 Identify the role of enzymes in metabolism, describe their chemical composition and
use a simple model to describe their specificity on substrates
Metabolism: The sum of all chemical reactions occurring in the body
There are two types of metabolic reactions:
Anabolic reactions: building up larger organic compounds from simple molecules
Catabolic reactions: breaking down of complex organic compounds to simple ones
Role of enzymes: Every metabolic reaction in your body is carried out by enzymes. They
are an organic protein catalyst; their role in metabolism is to increase the rate of chemical
reactions by decreasing their activation energy.
Chemical Composition: Enzymes are proteins and are therefore made from amino acids.
They are globular proteins meaning the polypeptide chains (i.e. amino acids) are folded
into a three dimensional globular structure. Within their structure, enzymes have active
sites that are usually composed of three or four amino acids. The active sites are the
areas that substrates will bind to and catalyse chemical reactions. The substrate is the
molecule on which an enzyme acts on.
Specificity: Enzymes are specific in their action, meaning they affect only one type of
reaction.
Model:
Lock and Key - The enzyme is a lock and the substrate is a key. It explains enzyme action
by likening the enzyme to a lock and substrates to a key. Only a specific key is able to
open its matching lock. Just as the key is specific to the lock so is a substrate specific to
an enzyme. An enzyme will not work unless the substrate matches its active site. Only
then will the reaction be catalysed. This assumes that enzymes have a rigid unchanging
shape.

Induced Fit Theory - It was later discovered that the substrate enters in and binds to the
enzyme shaping the active site and properly aligning the enzyme for the reaction to take
place. A reaction will not be catalysed unless the substrates are able to properly shape
the enzyme.

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1.2 Identify pH as a way of describing the acidity of a substance

pH: Scale which measures the concentration of moles of hydrogen ions per litre of
solution.
hydrogen ions = pH / hydrogen ions= pH
Ranges from 0-14
Acidic: 0-7
Neutral: 7
Alkaline: 7-14
1.3 Explain why the maintenance of a constant internal temperature is important for
metabolic efficiency
Enzymes control all the metabolic processes in the body. They work best under optimum
conditions of temperature and pH. Any variation above or below this point reduces their
rate of activity. Large variations from this optimum level will alter or denature the
enzymes, changing their shape and blocking the active site. Once denatured, an enzyme
is permanently damaged and can no longer catalyse reactions.
Changes in temperature and pH can break bonds in the protein molecule and overall
disrupt their three-dimensional shape making them unspecific to the substrate.
Therefore, at temperatures and pHs that vary from the optimum point, enzymes fail to
function as efficiently or dont function at all and the maintenance of a constant
internal temperature is important for optimal metabolic efficiency as it maintains the
optimum level at which the enzymes can react while maintaining their specificity.

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1.4 Describe homeostasis as the process by which organisms maintain a relatively
stable internal environment
In an organism, enzymes control all the metabolic processes. Multicellular organisms
function best, and at optimum metabolic efficiency, when the internal environment
provided for their cells is maintained at a constant level. If the internal environment varies
from this point, the rate of enzyme catalysed reactions decreases. This decreased rate
could affect an entire metabolic pathway could result in fatality!
In multicellular organisms, cells need to maintain their internal balance regardless of the
external environment. External environment conditions may vary greatly but the internal
environment can be kept relatively unchanging and stable. This is because organisms
have processes that quickly act to counter any changes made to the optimum conditions
and return to the stable state. This counteracting of changes and returning the organism
to the optimum state to help maintain a relatively stable internal environment is known
as homeostasis.
1.5 Explain that homeostasis consists of two stages: detecting changes from the stable
state, counteracting changes from the stable state
Negative Feedback System is where the response to the stimulus is to reduce and
counteract the change. It causes the body to respond so that a reversal in the direction of
a change occurs.
Positive Feedback System is where the response to a stimulus is to amplify the change
instead of reducing it. This does not result in homeostasis.
Detecting Changes: In this stage, a receptor detects a change in a specific variable from

the desired stable level of the variable.

Counteracting Changes: An effector receives the message that an undesirable change
must be counteracted and the variable restored to its desired level

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This is how the negative feedback system occurs:
Stimulus: All organisms receive information from the various parts of their bodies and
from their environment in the form of stimuli. It can be either external or internal.
Receptor: A variation in either the internal or external environment is detected by a
receptor. Sight, sound, touch, taste and smell are all receptors.
Control Centre (Central Nervous System CNS): Once a variation is detected, a
message is sent to the control centre. This then replies by sending a message to the
effector to counteract the variation.
Effector: The effector is normally either a muscle or gland that responds to the message
and counteracts the variation.
Response: This is the action of counteracting the variation.
1.6 Outline the role of the nervous system in detecting and responding to
environmental changes
The nervous system is made up of the brain, spinal chord and sensory and motor
neurons. The nervous system enables the detection of external and internal environment
changes to the body and then coordinates the responses the body will make to
counteract these changes. It is made up of two interacting elements:
Central Nervous System is composed of the brain and spinal chord. The spinal chord
transmits messages from the receptor organs via the sensory neurons to special regions
of the brain (hypothalamus).When one of these regions receives stimuli from the sensory
neurons it then coordinates the correct response necessary to counteract the change by
sending out messages to the effector organs via the motor neurons.
Peripheral Nervous System is composed of neurons outside the CNS. These include
sensory and motor neurons. Sensory neurons transmit messages from the receptor
organs to the brain. Motor neurons transmit messages from the brain to the effector
organs to activate a response.
1.7 Identify the broad range of temperatures over which life is found compared with the
narrow limits for individual species
Life is found over a broad range of temperatures on planet earth. Where climatic
temperature can vary from -75oC to above 50oC. However, most individual species have
narrow temperature limits and they cannot exist in habitats that have great varying
temperatures. Most species can tolerate only a narrow temperature range so they
possess behavioural and physiological adaptations that enable them to maintain their
temperature within this narrow range.

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1.8 Compare responses of named Australian ectothermic and endothermic organisms to
changes in the ambient temperature and explain how these responses assist
temperature regulation
Ambient Temperature: The temperature of the surrounding environment
Ectotherms: are organisms whose body temperature is determined by their
surroundings. They have limited ability to control their temperature because their own
cellular activities generate little heat.
e.g. Plants, invertebrates, fish, amphibians, reptiles
Endotherms: are organisms that have physiological structures that enable them to
maintain their body temperature within a narrow range irrespective of the ambient
temperature. Their body metabolism generates heat and maintains an internal body
temperature that is independent of the external temperature. To do this takes energy so
more food is required by endotherms.
e.g. Birds, Mammals
If temperatures are too hot or too cold for an organism, it may die. Aquatic ectotherms
remain at the temperature of the surrounding water; they do not show any specialised
adaptations to regulate their body temperature.
However, terrestrial ectotherms and endotherms experience a greater range of
temperature changes and have receptors to detect these changes. They show a variety of
responses or adaptations to regulate heat gain and loss from their bodies.
Behavioural adaptations (change in behaviour)
Migration: Move to avoid temperature extremes (e.g. Sharp tailed sandpiper breeds in
Siberia, travels south to southern hemisphere for non-breeding period)
Hibernation: Metabolism slows to avoid cold conditions, endotherm body temperature
drops. 60% of the annual energy requirement is reserved. Aestivation is when animals
hibernate in hot conditions (e.g. Bogong Moth aestivates in cool caves in Australian Alps
for summer)
Shelter: Dig burrows, caves etc. (e.g. Central netted dragon climbs trees to seek cooler
conditions off the ground)
Nocturnal Activity: Active at night (e.g. Desert animals like hopping mice and desert
bandicoots shelter from heat in day and feed at night)

Controlling Exposure: Ectotherms alter posture to expose larger or smaller surface area to
sunlight. Endotherms huddle or curl up to reduce heat loss (e.g. Penguins/Bats huddle,
small mammals curl up, tuck legs in and curl tail around body)

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Structural (morphology of features) and Physiological (regulate a function)
Adaptations
Insulation: Fur in mammals and feathers in birds form an insulation layer of trapped air
that slows down heat exchange. Thickness of air layer increased by contracting muscles
(e.g. Domestic cats have a thicker coat of fur in the winter, fat can also be used as
insulation like the Australian Fur Seals layer of blubber)
Metabolic Activity: Heat generated as result of metabolic activity. Shivering increases
muscle activity and produces heat.
Control of Blood Flow: Blood flow and route adjusted to lower skin temperature but
maintain normal internal body temperature.
Counter-current Exchange: Blood vessels leading to and from extremities of the body are
placed close together and chilled blood returning in veins picks up heat from arteries
going to extremities (e.g. Legs of arctic birds, fins of seals, feet of platypus). Some
ectotherms also use this system (e.g. Yellowfin tuna and Skipjack tuna use heat from
metabolic activity from blood vessels going to gills to blood vessels coming from gills.
This maintains heat within the fishs body)
Evaporation: Rate of evaporation of water can keep organisms cool. (e.g. Dog pants,
humans sweat, birds flutter a membrane in their throat, kangaroos lick forearms so that
the moisture can evaporate and cool forearms thus cooling blood)
Australian Endotherm - Red Kangaroo (5 - 38 degrees Celsius in dry, arid central
Australia)
Physiological
Cold
Conditions

Increased metabolism
to create more heat
within body

Warm
Conditions

Decrease in metabolic
rate

Structural

Behavioural
Basking in sun

Panting to release
heat, Shunting of
blood to exposed
areas

Nocturnal, Sitting in
shade, Licking forelegs
to increase evaporation

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Australian Ectotherm - Diamond Python (rainforests, grasslands)

Cold
Conditions

Physiological

Structural

Behavioural

Lies on eggs and shivers to

increase temperature of
incubation

Dark colour to
absorb heat

Basking in sun, Hibernation,

Migration to warmer areas

Warm
Conditions

Nocturnal, Burrowing at
night

Compare the responses of endotherms and ectotherms

Endotherms need to have a high metabolism rate to maintain this optimum temperature
rate in cold conditions and as a result need to eat large amounts. Ectotherms do not
need to do this however they have greater restrictions placed on their activity as a result.
In hot conditions endotherms must have specific adaptations to these environmental
changes to regulate heat gain so not to raise their temperature above their optimum
temperature level as this can cause severe damage. This is the same for both endotherms
and ectotherms in relation to cold climates. Ectotherms are not found in extremely cold
climates.
1.9 Identify some responses of plants to temperature change
Plants are ectothermic and so cannot maintain a constant temperature. Therefore they
have a range of adaptations to help them survive in a variety of temperatures, the most
common of which is by altering their growth rate. Apart from this, there are several other
ways plants respond to temperature changes in their environment.
Leaf Fall: Many plants in hot conditions reduce their surface area that is exposed to the
sun by dropping their leaves. This reduces the amount of water lost in transpiration.
Transpiration: The movement of water through the plant helps to cool the plant during
hot conditions. This is also effecting when evaporation of water occurs from the stomates
of the leaf.
Heat-Shock Proteins: Produced by plants when they are under stress from very high
temperatures. They are thought to stop the denaturing of the enzymes within the cell, so
allow normal cell reactions to continue.
Reflective Surface: Some plants reduce the amount of heat received by having shiny
leaves that reflect solar radiation.
Orientation of leaves: Some plants orientate their leaves in such a way that it reduces the
amount of sun rays that make contact with the surface area of the leaf. e.g. eucalyptus

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Die Back: In harsh conditions, shoots of a plant may die. However the soil and roots will
begin to grow again when favourable conditions returns
Ice formation between cell: Most plants are able to tolerate fairly low temperatures
compared to animals. This is due in part to their cell walls as when temperatures drop
bellowing freezing, ice will form outside of the plant cells. This is because the solution
within the plant cells is higher in solutes (and therefore higher freezing point) than the
solution between the cells. Ice will therefore form between the plant cells, which are
protected from ice crystals by cell walls. However this is ineffective if temperatures drop
too quickly, such as during a frost.
1.11 Gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources and use available
evidence to develop a model of a feedback mechanism
An example of a feedback mechanism is a thermostat. It is a device that measures
temperature and senses when the temperature is too low. When it detects low
temperature it initiates a response - a heating process which brings the temperature
back to the appropriate level.

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1.12 Analyse information from secondary sources to describe adaptations and
responses that have occurred in Australian organisms to assist temperature
regulation
Adaptation/Response

How it assists temperature regulation

Australian
Example

Migration

Moves to avoid temperature extremes

Sharp-tailed
sandpiper

Hibernation

Slows metabolism, drops heart rate and oxygen Bogong Moth

consumption to avoid cold temperatures

Nocturnal

Avoid heat of the day by being active at night

Hopping
mouse

Controlling exposure

Changing surface area and volume exposure to

sun to control how much heat is lost

Brown snake

Control of blood flow to

skin and extremities

Vasodilation/constriction - allowing more

blood to the surface allows heat loss through
radiation

Humans

Metabolic activity

Metabolising generates heat. Reduced in hot

weather and increased in cold weather

Humans

Evaporation

As moisture evaporates, heat is lost with it e.g.

sweating, panting. As kangaroos lick their
paws, spit evaporates taking heat with it

Red kangaroos

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Plants and animals transport dissolved nutrients and gases in a fluid medium

Composition of Blood: If a sample of mammalian blood is taken and spun in a centrifuge, it

will separate into two parts: the plasma and the cellular matter. Plasma makes up about 55%
of the volume of blood. In whole blood, red and white blood cells and small particles called
platelets are suspended in this plasma
Plasma: is a sticky, straw-coloured, slightly salted liquid. It is made up of about 90% water
and various other substances carried in solution. It contains salts (carried as ions) and large
plasma proteins. These salts and proteins play a role in maintaining the pH of the blood.
There are different types of plasma proteins including antibodies, clotting factors and lipid
transporters. Many substances are transported in the plasma and their amount changes as
the blood circulates. 55%
Red Blood Cells: also known as erythrocytes. They are disc shaped and biconcave and are
thinner at the centre than at the edges. They contain the pigment haemoglobin. Their
function is to transport respiratory gases particularly oxygen (carried as oxyhaemoglobin)
around the body as well as carbon dioxide (carried as carbaminohaemoglobin). One millilitre
of blood contains about 5-6 million red blood cells. 45%
White Blood Cells: also known as leucocytes. There are between 4000-12000 white blood
cells in one millilitre of human blood. The two important types of white cell are phagocytes
and lymphocytes. Phagocytes surround and ingest bacteria, foreign bodies and dead cells
and collect are areas of infection or injury. Lymphocytes act specifically against foreign
material. They make antibodies which help the bodys defence against disease. 0.1%
Platelets: are fragments of cells made in the bone marrow. They play an important role in
helping the blood clot and are about 3 m in diameter. <0.1%
Lymph and Interstitial Fluid: is blood without red blood cells, platelets and the large plasma
proteins. In the lymph vessels a large number of lymphocytes made in the lymph glands are
added to the lymph.

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2.1 Identify the form(s) in which each of the following is carried in mammalian blood:

Substance

From

To

Form

Carried By

Carbon Dioxide

Body Cells

Lung

Carbaminohaemoglobin

RBC &
Plasma

Oxygen

Lungs

Body Cells

Oxyhaemoglobin

RBC

Water

Digestive System &

Body Cells

Body Cells

Water molecules

Plasma

Salts

Digestive System &

Body Cells

Body Cells

Ions

Plasma

Lipids

Digestive System &

Body Cells

Body Cells

Chylomicrons

Lymph &
Plasma

Nitrogenous
Waste

Liver & Body Cells

Kidney

Urea, uric acid and

creatinine

Plasma

Other products
of digestion

Digestive System &

Liver

Body Cells

Separate molecules

Plasma

2.2 Explain the adaptive advantage of haemoglobin

In mammals, red blood cells contain haemoglobin, a protein molecule comprising of four
polypeptide chains (called globins) and each is bonded to a haem (iron-containing)
group. Each haemoglobin molecule contains four active sites where oxygen molecules
can be attached.
Mammalian cells need a lot of energy and must have continual supply of oxygen for
respiration. Oxygen from air diffuses into blood in the lungs and is transported in the
circulatory system to all blood cells. Oxygen diffuses across respiratory surfaces into
blood because it is in a higher concentration in the air than in the blood.
Oxygen is not very soluble in water. Blood is a watery liquid, and a 100 ml of blood can
carry 0.2 ml of oxygen if it relied solely on oxygen being dissolved in the plasma. The
presence of haemoglobin increases oxygen carrying capacity by 100 times. 20 ml of
oxygen can be carried in 100 ml of blood.
The adaptive advantage of haemoglobin is to give mammals the ability to transport large
quantities of oxygen to the tissues giving an organism the ability to become more
complex.

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Haemoglobin, the red pigment in blood, transports oxygen from lungs to body cells
around the body. This in turn allows the organism to carry out certain metabolic
functions such as cellular respiration.
In the lungs, when the oxygen concentration is high, oxygen combines with haemoglobin
in the red blood cells in to form oxyhaemoglobin.
haemoglobin + oxygen oxyhaemoglobin

Oxygenated blood is bright red. It is transported to the tissues, where oxygen levels are
low. At this lower concentration the reverse reaction occurs, and the oxygen released
diffuses into blood cells.
oxyhaemoglobin haemoglobin + oxygen (4H2O)

Carbon dioxide occurs in high concentration in the body tissues. It diffuses into
circulatory system, where it may be carried in blood in different ways. 70% of carbon
dioxide combines with water to form hydrogen carbonate ions (HCO3--) in red blood cells.
These are then carried in the plasma.
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ + HCO3-

23% combines with haemoglobin to produce carbaminohaemoglobin (This does not

prevent oxygen from combining with the haemoglobin molecule)
7% directly dissolves into the plasma.
At respiratory surface, CO2 levels are low so the reverse reaction occurs and the carbon
dioxide diffuses out of the blood and to the external environment.

Haemoglobin transports CO2 from body lungs to cells. It allows organisms to maintain
blood pH as excess CO2 in the bloodstream can alter pH and have an adverse affect on
the organism. Each red blood cell contains 280-300 million haemoglobin molecules.
This adaptive advantage indicates that a large proportion of oxygen can be transported
within an organism and the organism can function at the optimum level.
Adaptive advantage: Allows 4 oxygen molecules to bind to iron ions with the
haemoglobin structure to form an oxyhaemoglobin molecule.
2.3 Compare the structure of arteries, capillaries and veins in relation to their function
Arteries:
Thick muscular walls: cope with the high pressure of blood being pumped out to the
body
Elastic walls: enables expansion and contraction to adjust to the amount of blood flowing
through at any one time
Smooth inner layer: allows blood to flow with ease
Arteries carry blood away from heart, blood pressure is high.
They contain muscle fibres which contract and relax

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Main function is to carry oxygenated blood taken away from the heart
Capillaries:
Endothelium: a single layer of flat overlapping cells that are one cell thick allowing a
single file of red blood cells to pass through, maximising the opportunity for the
exchange of gases, nutrients and wastes between the blood and the tissue cells. In this
way the bodys tissue are efficiently supplied with the substances they need while wastes
are removed
Veins:
Thin muscular walls- this is in response to the lessened amount of pressure as the blood
is not being pumped hard as it returns to the heart
Wider diameter- allows increased amounts of blood to flow through veins and return to
heart
Valves- prevent blood from flowing backwards in the vein
Veins carry blood to heart, blood pressure is low
They contain no muscle and rely on valves and when large muscle contract they help
push the blood flow through veins
Main function is to carry deoxygenated blood taken to the heart
2.4 Describe the main changes in the chemical composition of the blood as it moves
around the body and identify tissues in which these changes occur
The chemical composition of blood changes as it moves around the body. This is due to
continuous exchange of substances between blood and surrounding tissues. Blood
moving through the bodys tissues delivers oxygen and glucose for cellular respiration as
well as nutrients. Blood moving away from the bodys tissues carries carbon dioxide and
nitrogenous wastes for disposal.
Pulmonary Circuit (Lungs)
Blood flows from heart to lungs and then back to the heart
Blood is under lower pressure than the systemic circuit
The rate of blood flow is faster
Very little body fluid is formed
The blood contains high levels of CO2 and low oxygen levels
Systemic Circuit
Blood flows from the heart to the body (except the lungs) and returns back to the heart.
Blood is under high pressure due to contractions of the left ventricle of the heart, but
pressure gradually decreases.
Kidneys
Blood loses urea and has the composition of water and salt balanced (osmoregulation)
Intestines
Blood collects the products of digestion
Levels of glucose, amino acids and lipids rise

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Liver
Regulates the level of glucose in blood
Excess glucose is converted to glycogen and is stored
Converts excess amino acids to urea
Tissue

Main Changes in Blood

Lung

Small intestine

- glucose and other products of digestion (amino acids, lipids,

vitamins, minerals, water)

Kidneys

nitrogenous wastes (salts and water to form urea)

Other body
tissues

oxygen
glucose
carbon dioxide

oxygen
carbon dioxide

2.5 Outline the need for oxygen in living cells and explain why removal of carbon
dioxide from cells is essential
Need for oxygen: Cells need oxygen so that the process of cell respiration can occur.
Cell respiration is essential as it provides energy that is needed for metabolic process and
if these processes do not occur, it can result in fatality.
Need for removal of carbon dioxide: The products of respiration are carbon dioxide
and water. When carbon dioxide dissolves in blood, it forms carbonic acid which lowers
pH. For most living cells that do not photosynthesis, carbon dioxide is a waste and must
be removed as it can become poisonous if too concentrated in a cell. If carbon dioxide
accumulates, it becomes more acidic resulting in the denaturing of enzymes in the cell
and lowering their activity which can result in fatality of the cell. Low pH reduces
haemoglobin oxygen saturation, depriving cells of oxygen.
CO2 means pH means rate/depth of breathing
CO2 means pH means rate/depth of breathing

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2.6 Describe current theories about processes responsible for the movement of
materials through plants in xylem and phloem tissue
Movement in xylem occurs via the transpiration-cohesion-tension mechanism
Transpiration: Gases enter and leave the leaf through the stomata. Most of the water lost
by the plant is in transpiration through the stomata. As water evaporates, water moves
out of the cells to ensure that the walls of the mesophyll are kept most. In turn, water
from the small xylem vessels into the mesophyll cells. This is called transpiration
pull/initiates the pull of the transpiration stream.
Cohesion: Water is drawn up xylem tubes to replace the loss of water due to
transpiration, by capillarity (cohesive forces between the water molecules and adhesive
forces between water and cellulose cell walls)
Tension: A high concentration of water in the soil is absorbed by the root hairs which
have a lower concentration of water. This is caused by osmosis and is called osmotic
pressure.
Root pressure: plays a minor role in causing water to rise up the stem. At night, mineral
ions may be actively taken in through the roots but transpiration is low. Pressure builds
up and water is gushed up the stem. It can be seen as drops on the ends of the leaves
early in the morning (guttation) when pressure puts water out of leaves. As water is
pulled upwards, some leaks out through pits. More water is lost by leakage in smaller,
finer branching vessels.
Movement in phloem occurs by a mechanism known as source-path-sink or pressure
flow mechanism and is driven by a pressure gradient generated osmotically.
Translocation is the movement of organic materials to wherever theyre needed,
especially to growing points and reproductive structures.
Phloem loading at the source: as sugars are actively transported into phloem, water
follows and osmotic pressure at the source increases. There are 2 theories for how
nutrients in a leaf are loaded into the phloem:
Symplastic loading: sugars/nutrients move in cytoplasm from mesophyll cells to sieve
elements through plasmodesmata. This theory requires plasmodesmata between leaf
cells.
Apoplastic loading: sugars and other nutrients move along cell walls until they reach the
sieve element, then cross the cell membrane by active transport to entre phloem tube.
Phloem unloading at the sink: as sugars are actively removed from the phloem, water
follows, and pressure is low. Sink is a region of the plant where sugars/nutrients are being
actively removed e.g. roots, stem, flowers, and storage areas. This reduces pressure at the
source and the reduction of pressure at the sink causes water to flow from source to sink.
Near the source, water moves from xylem vessels to phloem; near the sink, water moves
from phloem and xylem vessels. Having reached a sink area and been unloaded,
transported nutrients are either used in metabolism or stored.

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2.9 Analyse information from secondary sources to identify current technologies that
allow measurement of oxygen saturation and carbon dioxide concentrations in
blood and describe and explain the conditions under which these technologies are
used
Oxygen Saturation: relates to the measure amount of oxygen in the blood. Normal
oxygen saturation in the human body is about 96%
Measuring these concentrations helps doctors in diagnosis of patients and in monitoring
them while in hospital. It gives information about the ability of lungs both in providing
oxygen to the body and removing carbon dioxide from the body as well as information
on the kidneys ability to reabsorb or excrete bicarbonate ions to maintain normal body
pH.
People who need this tested/monitored are patients-undergoing any procedure that
requires anaesthesia or sedation, with abnormal breathing in intensive care, in accident
and emergency facilities, who are premature new-born babies, who shows dangerously
low oxygen levels or high levels of carbon dioxide. Advances in biotechnology and
electronics have resulted in the product of biosensors that have made analysing blood
more accurate. A biosensor is a device that translates a physical or chemical property into
an electrical signal that can be measured. The key component is the transducer or signal
converting element that converts the property to be measure into a signal. In hospitals, a
Pulse Oximeter is used to monitor the oxygen saturation of the blood and in dramatic
cases, blood is taken from an artery for Arterial Blood Gas Analysis.
Pulse Oximeter: Pulse oximeters measure the amount of oxygen in arterial blood (blood
being pumped from the heart to the body cells). They consist of a sensor or probe that is
attached to a part of the body such as a fingertip. When oxygen combines with
haemoglobin the colour of the blood changes from dark red (unsaturated) to bright red
(saturated). Light from two light emitting diodes is passed through the finger and the
amount of light energy transmitted is detected by two light detecting sensors. The light
energy varies depending on the level of oxygenation of haemoglobin in the blood. Two
diodes are commonly used, one emitting red light (650nm) and the other infrared
(940nm). Oxygenated blood absorbs red light whereas deoxygenated blood absorbs
more infrared light. There is a large difference in the amount of red light absorbed by the
oxyhaemoglobin compared to haemoglobin. By calculating the absorption at the two
wavelengths the processor can compute the proportion of haemoglobin which is
oxygenated. The signal is first amplified, then the oxygen saturation is calculated and the
result displayed on the screen. An alarm rings if oxygen saturation falls below a certain
level, usually about 90%. Oximeters give no information about the level of carbon dioxide
and therefore have limitations in the assessment of patients developing respiratory
failure due to carbon dioxide retention.
Condition: on patients who are undergoing procedures that require anaesthesia or
sedation to alert staff to expected hypoxia, with patients who are on a ventilator (artificial
breathing machine), helps assess whether a patients oxygen therapy is adequate, used in
sleep laboratories for patients who are having difficulty breathing when they sleep.

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Arterial Blood Gas Analysis: Arterial blood is taken from easily accessible artery; either
the wrist, upper arm or groin. The syringe that is used contains a small amount of
heparin, to prevent the blood from coagulating. Once the sample is obtained, care is
taken to eliminate visible gas bubbles, as these bubbles can dissolve into the sample and
cause inaccurate results. The sample is then packed in ice and taken to the laboratory.
Here, the blood sample is put into a machine which measures the oxygen saturation, pH,
the partial pressures of oxygen, carbon dioxide and the bicarbonate concentration
(amount of carbon dioxide carried in blood). The pH is measured with a glass bulb that
contains a known solution of known pH. When this sensor is placed in an unknown pH
the difference between the two solutions is calculated and so pH of the solution is
determined. Blood pH is a reflection of the concentration of hydrogen ions in blood. A
high concentration gives a low pH (acidic) and a low concentration gives a high pH
(alkaline). Partial pressure of oxygen shows the concentration of a gas in a medium and
therefore displays how much oxygen the lungs are delivering to the blood. It is measured
using a Clark oxygen sensor. Oxygen from the blood sample diffuses through a gaspermeable membrane where it causes an electrical current to be generated. The amount
of current generated is proportional is proportional to the concentration of oxygen in the
sample. This is measured and the result reported. Carbon dioxide levels are tested by a
sensor, based on the design invented in 1965 by Severinghaus. The sensor detects pH
changes in a small volume of bicarbonate solution separated from the sample by a gas
permeable membrane. As carbon dioxide crosses the membrane, the following reactions
occurs:
carbon dioxide (CO2) + water (H2O) carbonic acid (H2CO3) + hydrogen
ions (H+) + hydrogen bicarbonate ions (HCO3-)
Any change in hydrogen ion concentration changes the pH. This is measured by the
internal pH sensor. pH as a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ion can be related
to the concentration of carbon dioxide. This calculation is made and the result reported.
Condition: monitoring a patient during therapy, diagnosis of a respiratory disease, to
investigate function of kidneys intensive care units e.g. baby care units and labour wards.
2.10 Analyse information from secondary sources to identify the products extracted
from donated blood and discuss the uses of these products
Donors are screened for health, past medical history, and risk of viral infections. Usually
470 mL of blood is collected in a plastic bag containing an anti-clotting agent, and
stored for a maximum 35 days. Compatibility tests are carried out to make sure there
are no antibodies in recipient's blood that react with the donors red cell antigens.
Whole Blood: volume replacement in cases with large blood loss (emergency
transfusion)
Red Blood Cells: treatment of anaemia and bleeding after trauma/surgery
(Filtered red cells: for patients who have antibodies against white cells)
White Blood Cells: for patients who are not producing their own white cells or who have
a serious bacterial infection
Platelets: control of haemorrhage (severe bleeding); patients with low platelet count

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Plasma:patients who have bleeding problems after trauma where there is a deficiency in
coagulation
Cryoprecipitate: for Haemophilia A patients or severe bleeding
Albumin: burn patients, shock due to blood loss
Intagram P: for immunity disorders like AIDS to reduce infection susceptibility
Prothtrombinex: for severe bleeding
Biostate: for Haemophilia B
Thrombotre: patients whose blood clot too quickly
Immunoglobulins: for treatment/prevention of inflammatory diseases or acute infection;
immune deficiency
Albumex-20: for patients with liver or kidney disease
Granulocytes: low neutrophil count
Clotting factor VII: for management of haemophilia
Factor IX concentrate: Haemophilia B
Factor IX complex: Hereditary factor VII, IX, X deficiency. Haemophilia A with factor VII
inhibitors
Antihaemophilic factor: Haemophilia A
Intravenous gammaglobulin: Immunodeficiency diseases
Antithrombin III concentrate: risk of thrombosis
2.11 Analyse and present information from secondary sources to report on progress in
the production of artificial blood and use available evidence to propose reasons
why such research is needed
Artificial blood: A blood substitute that can be used to provide fluid volume and carry
oxygen in the vessels. It remains in circulation until blood volume is restored and then
artificial is safely excreted.
Artificial blood is routinely used but not commonly. This is because it only transmits
oxygen but not nutrients, so cannot be used in long term treatments. Also it does not
contain white blood cells, so cannot resist viruses from outer environment.
Artificial blood exists because there are not enough blood donors, there is a shortfall in
blood supply, it has a longer shelf life then donated blood and is easily produced and
developed at a fast rate and works for all blood types meaning the prices will be
dropped and will be more readily available in poorer countries.
These substitutes can only carry oxygen and/or carbon dioxide, where blood has many
other functions such as transport of nutrients, clotting and initiation of immune
reactions. Further research is needed before artificial blood substitutes can be
considered true blood substitutes rather than oxygen carriers.
Current uses: Administration of normal saline (solution of 0.9% sodium chloride) as
substitutes for plasma

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Modified Haemoglobin:
Advantages - Haemoglobin has high oxygen carrying capacity, can be extracted from
donor blood and used by itself (doesnt need to be cross matched), can be sterilised to
remove pathogens without affecting its function, can be stored as a stable dried powder
Problems - Cannot be used as a blood substitute in isolation from red blood cells as
toxic changes occur to haemoglobin in isolation. Red blood cell membrane contains a
cofactor which is needed by haemoglobin to release oxygen as required. In circulation,
haemoglobin is rapidly broken down and excreted by the kidneys. This is toxic to the
kidneys. Researchers are attempting to stabilise isolated haemoglobin and make it safe
to use as a blood substitute.
Advances:
Encapsulated haemoglobin- Artificial red blood cells have been produced which have
the necessary cofactor, and hence an oxygen dissociation curve similar to real RBCs
Haemoglobin is not broken down inside these
These artificial RBCs have no blood group antigens
However, these artificial cells are rapidly removed from circulation and current research
focuses on improving circulation time
Crosslinkedhaemoglobin-A diacid is used to crosslink haemoglobin to make
polyhaemoglobin, which does not break down in isolation
Research is being done in both intramolecular and intermolecular cross linking
Recombinant haemoglobin- is also being investigated, using genetic engineering to
product haemoglobin that does not break down in circulation
Perfluorocarbons: are compounds derived from hydrocarbons by replacement of
hydrogen atoms by fluorine atoms.
Advantages- Oxygen and carbon dioxide are highly soluble in PFCs, since a PFC
microdroplet is 70 times smaller than in red blood cells, these PFCs can carry oxygen to
places in the body that red blood cells cannot, inert and can be sterilised, can be stored
at room temperature, shelf life of 12 months or more, no matching of blood types
required, can be used temporarily during surgery to partially replace patients blood so
that blood loss during surgery is minimised (must be combined with lipids to form an
emulsion that can mix with blood).
Problems- Maximum amount used is only 20% because of viscosity of PFC emulsion at
high concentrations. Because of this smaller amount used, and also oxygen is dissolved
in PFCs rather than bound to it, sufficient oxygen carriage can only take place when
patients are breathing >70% oxygen, PFCs are rapidly removed from circulation, The
retention of PFCs in the reticuloendothelial system (RES) suppresses the system,
resulting in lowered resistance in infection
Advances- One current PFC product, Oxygent, can be used in higher concentrations
than normal. Oxygent is being used in clinical trials in surgical patients to offset blood
loss during surgery and in the future, the small PFC particles may also help affected
tissues in thromboses or embolisms

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Plants and animals transport dissolved nutrients and gases in a fluid medium
3.1 Explain why the concentration of water in cells should be maintained within a
narrow range for optimal function
Water inside a cell is essential for life. Too little for too much can result in serious
problems and most cells will die if their water content is changed significantly. It is
necessary for many reasons:
1. It is the medium that transports and distributes many substances (such as
nutrients and wastes) in and between cells.
2. It is the solvent in which many important ions and molecules required for
metabolic reactions are dissolved. They are only able to move when in aqueous
solution as they can diffuse across cells.
3. Metabolic reactions that occur within cells can only occur in solution.
4. Water itself is a reactant or product of many cellular reactions e.g. Cellular
respiration
5. Without water, vital functions (e.g. removal of wastes by excretory systems)
decline, and wastes accumulate in tissues.
6. Water is necessary to maintain blood pressure and circulation.
7. Water is essential for functioning of cells and organs, and is used for body
temperature maintenance, as a lubricant and for excretion of waste products.
8. A loss of water from cells reduces their ability to retain compounds in solution,
which inhibits the metabolic process.
The optimal functioning of cells is reliant on their water content being kept within a very
narrow range. Living cells work best in an isotonic environment - the concentration of
water inside the cell (intracellular fluid) must match the concentration of the water
outside the cell (interstitial fluid). If these concentrations do not match, water will move
by osmosis from the area of high concentration to lower concentration. This leaves cells
vulnerable to losing or gaining too much water, causing cell death.
3.2 Explain why the removal of wastes is essential for continued metabolic activity
Cells are the sites of many metabolic reactions which keeps the cell function and
therefore the organism alive and healthy. As a result of metabolic processes in cells,
waste products are formed. If they were allowed to accumulate in cells and tissues they
would slow down metabolism and poison the cells. The two main wastes produced by the
body are carbon dioxide and nitrogenous wastes. They are the by-products of the breakdown of nucleic acids and proteins and are toxic to cells and hence must be removed as
quickly as possible.
Carbon dioxide is harmful as it can lower pH, therefore not providing optimum
conditions for enzymes to function.
Nitrogenous wastes such as urea can poison the cell and also increase pH to really high
levels and disrupt enzyme activity and rate of metabolic reactions.

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Animal

Waste produced

Explanation

Fish
(aquatic)

Ammonia

Secrete ammonia directly into the water

Save energy by not having to convert it into a safe molecule

Mammals
(terrestrial)

Urea

Humans are not surrounded by water and must store their

waste for a period of time
Urea has a much lower toxicity than ammonia and is soluble
and can be excreted in a soluble form
It does not require as much energy to produce as uric acid

Birds
(terrestrial)

Uric acid

Because birds produce eggs they must produce a waste that is

virtually non-toxic so that it can sit in the egg for a long period
of time
Uric acid requires a lot of energy but stay as a solid mass in the
egg until hatching
Adult birds also produce uric acid which is almost insoluble in
water and can be excreted as a paste, conserving water

Reptiles
(terrestrial)

Ammonia or uric
acid

Aquatic reptiles produce ammonia for the same reasons as fish

Terrestrial reptiles produce uric acid for the same reason as
birds

Insects
(terrestrial)

Uric acid crystals

This preserves water- even less water than the paste excreted
by birds and reptiles

3.3 Identify the role of the kidney in the excretory system of fish and mammals
Osmoregulation: maintenance of a constant concentration of salt ions and therefore
water levels within the body regardless of the concentrations of the external
environment.
The kidney is part of the urinary system and is the main organ involved in the excretion
of wastes and osmoregulation in fish and mammals.
The role of the kidney is to excrete waste (e.g. hormones and vitamins), maintain
osmoregulation, maintain appropriate pH levels in the blood, reabsorb nutrients that are
needed.
In fish: Kidneys maintain constant concentration of internal fluid for the cells
In mammals: Kidneys excrete urea and regulates internal salt/water concentrations

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3.4 Explain why the processes of diffusion and osmosis are inadequate in removing
dissolved nitrogenous wastes in some organisms
Osmosis and diffusion are both examples of passive transport in that they do not require
the expenditure of energy. In unicellular organisms, the process of excreting nitrogenous
wastes occurs solely by these two processes. They are not selective processes; they result
in the movement of any substance small enough to cross the cell membrane where there
is a concentration gradient. The cell membrane of these unicellular organisms are semi
permeable allowing water molecules to enter by osmosis when necessary and
nitrogenous wastes to exit by diffusion.
However multicellular organisms are made up of millions of cells and it is too difficult for
this same process of excretion to work. The processes are inadequate as they do not
occur fast enough to maintain the required solute concentrations in cells. To remove
these wastes, the water in which they are dissolved must also be excreted. The water
required to remove these wastes is an important consideration for osmoregulation. Due
to these reasons, active transport is a mechanism that substitutes diffusion and osmosis
in many multicellular organisms.
Diffusion is too slow to maintain normal functioning of the body. If removal is
dependent only on diffusion, wastes would be able to move only if they were more
concentrated inside cells/bloodstream than in fluids outside. As concentrations equalise,
movement slows and eventually stops.
Osmosis only deals with the movement of water and thus would only allow water to
move out of the body, not the nitrogenous wastes. Too much water may be lost in urine.
If urine contains lots of nitrogenous wastes, water is drawn into urine by osmosis to dilute
wastes and equalise concentrations. The movement of water makes waste too dilute,
slowing down the excretion by diffusion
3.5 Distinguish between active and passive transport and relate these to processes
occurring in the mammalian kidney
Passive transport: diffusion of molecules from regions of high concentration to low
concentration without the expenditure of energy, This includes diffusion, facilitated
diffusion (specific carrier protein assists diffusion), osmosis and filtrations (caused by
blood pressure).
Active transport: the net movement of particles against a concentration gradient from an
area of low concentration, with the expenditure of energy. Specific carrier proteins
membrane may bind with substance and carry it across the membrane. This includes
endocytosis where a pouch is formed that carries the matter through the membrane.
Mammalian kidney:
Passive transport - 98% of water needs to be reabsorbed from the filtrate and returned to
the blood. It can move by osmosis only if there are more solutes outside the tubule than
inside the tubule. Solutes in the filtrate will tend to diffuse out through the tubule walls
into the tissue fluid and the blood, but once the concentration are equal there will be no
further net diffusion. If all of a substance needs to be reabsorbed, then active uptake

[MAINTAINING A BALANCE] Winson Lo

must occur. Osmosis of water moves out of the nephrons at the proximal tubule, loop of
Henle and collecting ducts.
Active transport - occurs in secretion of substances into the nephrons, reabsorption of
nutrients back into the blood, and selective reabsorption of salts required by the body.
3.6 Explain how the processes of filtration and reabsorption in the mammalian nephron
regulate body fluid composition
The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney, it filters the blood of metabolic wastes,
make and secrete urine and reabsorbs water to maintain homeostasis. There are millions
of nephrons in the kidneys cortex and medulla. The reabsorption of water from the urine
allows the nephron to regulate body fluid composition. This reabsorption along with
secretion back into the nephron helps maintain constant composition of blood and
interstitial fluid. The purpose of nephrons is to reabsorb useful molecules, keep unwanted
molecules in the tubule, balance the pH of blood and to maintain the correct osmotic
balance in the blood (water/salt).
Part of the
Nephron

Main function

Glomerulus

A bunch of capillaries in an area of high blood pressure which has a semipermeable membrane allowing for the removal of small molecules and ions
from the bloodstream.

Bowmans
Capsule

A cup shaped structure surrounding the glomerulus that collects material

going out of the blood

Proximal
Tube

Most of the bicarbonate ions are reabsorbed and some hydrogen ions
secreted which helps maintain constant pH of blood and body fluids. Drugs
and poisons are secreted into the tubule. Nutrients such as glucose and
amino acids are actively transported from the tubule back into the blood.
Regulation of salts also occurs here.

Loop of
Henle

In the descending part, Walls are permeable to water but not to salt. This
allows water to pass by osmosis. In the ascending part, the converse happens
and the walls are permeable to salt but not water. The salt passing out makes
the interstitial fluid of the medulla concentrated.

Distal Tube

Selective reabsorption and secretion occurs to adjust pH of the blood and

level of salts. The walls of conducting ducts are permeable to water but not
salt. Water passes out by osmosis and the final filtrate or urine is formed.

Collecting
Duct

The materials remaining after reabsorption of wastes move through this

tubule. The waste in the tubule is urine which is passed into the pelvis of the
kidney.

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[MAINTAINING A BALANCE] Winson Lo

3.7 Outline the role of the hormones, aldosterone and ADH (anti-diuretic hormone) in
the regulation of water and salt levels in blood
The kidneys play a major role in maintaining water and salt levels in the blood. They are
aided by hormones (chemical control substances) product by the bodys endocrine
system. The two main hormones involved in osmoregulation are Aldosterone and Antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
Note: High salt concentration=Increased blood volume/pressure
Aldosterone: hormones produced by the adrenal cortex that regulates the salt balance
(increases salt retention). A consequence of low water levels is low blood pressure, as a
result of lessened blood volume. This change in blood pressure is detected by the
receptors in the kidneys, resulting in the release of Aldosterone. Aldosterone acts to
control the reabsorption of solutes, specifically sodium. The higher the level of
Aldosterone, the more permeable the walls of the nephron are to the sodium. Sodium
ions and water is reabsorbed back into the blood.
Low water = Low blood pressure Release of Aldosterone More sodium reabsorbed
in kidneys More Water returned to blood
High water = High blood pressure Reduced Aldosterone output Less sodium
reabsorbed in kidneys More salt/water lost in urine
ADH: hormone produced by the hypothalamus that controls the reabsorption of water in
the kidneys (increased water retention)
Diuresis: loss of urine
Diuretics: substances that increase the volume of urine
Hypothalamus has osmoreceptors that detect a rise in the concentrations of solutes in
the blood (low concentration of water). As a result, ADH is released into the bloodstream
by pituitary gland, travelling in blood to the distal tubule of the kidney. This increases the
permeability of distal and collecting tubule walls so that more water is reabsorbed. This
results in an increase in the amount of water returned to the blood and a decrease in the
amount of urine produced.
Low water = High solute concentration Release of ADH More water absorbed in
kidneys and returned to blood
High water = Low solute concentration Reduced ADH output Water passed out in
urine

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3.8 Define enantiostasis as the maintenance of metabolic and physiological functions
in response to variations in the environment and discuss its importance to estuarine
organisms in maintaining appropriate salt concentrations

Enantiostasis: the maintenance of metabolic and physiological functions in response to

variations in the environment. Enantiostasis is not a form of homeostasis for it involves
maintaining only functionality in spite of external fluctuations, as opposed to the
maintenance of stable ideal conditions in homeostasis
Estuary: are areas where the fresh water from one or more rivers mixes with the salt water
from the ocean. In this environment, fresh water draining from land mixes with saline
water from the sea. Due to tidal movements, the salt concentration is constantly
fluctuating. There is a salinity gradient in an estuary, with high salinity at the ocean end
and low salinity in the other end.
Organisms that live in this habitat undergo enantiostasis, meaning they employ various
tactics to cope with changing salinity. Many estuarine animals use behavioural
adaptations. Some burrow into the sand or mud where the salinity changes are less
pronounced than in the water. However, plants are unable to avoid the salt fluctuations
so they must undergo enantiostasis.
Osmoregulator: organisms that have special physiological mechanisms that allow them to
control salt levels in their bodies. (e.g. marine mammals, most fish)
Osmoconformers: organisms that tolerate environmental change by altering
concentration of internal solutes to match the external environment. It moves up and
down in parallel with the level of the environment. Osmotic pressure is then the same
inside and outside the body, therefore metabolism and cell function can continue. (sharks
and various species of algae)
Stenohaline: organisms can tolerate little or no change in the salinity of their
environment
Euryhaline: organisms can tolerate a wide range of salinities
Plant example - Avicennia marina (Grey Mangrove)
It has special tissues in the roots and lower stem that are like barriers to the uptake of salt
that help the exclusion of salt.
It is also able to concentrate and secrete salt through special glands on the underside of
its leaves.
Animal Example Dugong
Drinks seawater and actively secretes minimal amounts of concentrated urine.

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3.9 Describe adaptations of a range of terrestrial Australian plants that assist in
minimising water loss
Xerophytes: Plants adapted to arid or dry conditions
Water loss generally occurs as a by-product of transpiration. If a plant needs to reduce
water loss it must close its stomata to do this. However, this plant needs to
photosynthesis and respire, processes that need the stomata to be open for gas
exchange. In general, plants which are well adapted to the arid climate have:
Ability to close stomates when temperatures rise at midday
Hairs that reduce airflow over surface, thus reducing evaporation
Woody petiole to reduce water loss
Leaves close together to reduce air flow around leaves
Hard leaves with waxy cuticle
Extra thickening of cell walls throughout their branches, so they dont wilt even
though they may lose large amounts of water
Thicker bark
Adaptation

Plant

How?

Phyllodes

Acacia group

Replaced leaves with a modified leaf stems called phyllodes.

They are green and able to photosynthesise life a leaf but
contain fewer stomata per square centimetre than normal leaves.
Therefore reduces transpiration and water loss for the plant.

Reduce size of
leaves

Casuarina
equisetifolia

Reduces the amount of stomata present on the leafs surface

and therefore reduces transpiration stream.

Sunken
stomates

Wollemi Pine

Leaves have stomates that are set into or sunken into the leaf.
The stomates have no direct contact with the sunlight so water
evaporation is reduced.

Hairy Leaves

Paper Daisy

Leaves and sometimes stems are covered in hairs to reduce

water loss. The hairs trap water that has evaporated from the
plant, increasing the humidity around this area. This humidity
decreases the transpiration rate.

Leaf curl

Flax Lilies

Will curl their leaves when temperatures get too high. Most of
their stomates are located on the upper side of their leaves so
when the leaves roll up, the stomates are on the inside protected
from heat and evaporation.

Leaf shape

Native Pig
Face

Grows on sand dunes so exposed to sunlight practically all day.

Leaves are triangular in shape to reduce the surface area
exposed to sunlight and decreasing water loss.

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3.11 Gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources to compare the
process of renal dialysis with the function of the kidney
Renal dialysis: Artificial process in which wastes in blood are removed by diffusion
across a partially permeable membrane
Renal dialysis is used for people who have impaired kidney function, where products of
metabolism (including urea, creatinine and uric acid) build up in the body. High
concentration of these substances can cause symptoms such as tiredness, weakness,
loss of appetite and vomiting. The level of creatinine in the blood is often used as a
measure of the degree of kidney failure.
Haemodialysis: Blood is drawn from an artery where Heparin, an anticlotting factor is
added. It passed through dialysis tubing made of semi-permeable material. The tubing
passes through a container of dialysis fluid (balanced salt solution). The membrane
allows wastes to diffuse across into dialysis solution, but not bloods cells, platelets or
proteins and excess water is removed by osmosis. Dialysing fluid is constant replaced to
maintain concentration gradients and to ensure maximum waste removal.
Haemodialysis can be used only 4-5 hours at a time, 3 times a week. It is dangerous to
use large quantities of Heparin, because blood cells may be damaged as they pass
through the plastic tubes and because there is a risk of infection.
Peritoneal Dialysis: Blood is purified inside the body using the peritoneum (membrane
that lines the abdominal cavity) as a natural filter. The dialysis solution enters the
abdominal cavity via a catheter. Natural membrane lining peritoneal cavity is a partially
permeable membrane so wastes diffuse and excess water moves by osmosis from inside
peritoneum membrane down the concentration gradient into the fluid. The waste filled
solution is then drained from cavity and disposed of. This process is carried out daily,
using four lots of dialysis solution totalling about 2 litres in volume. Each solution is
allowed to take up wastes for about 4 hours.
A renal dialysis successfully replicates the passive transport components of the kidneys
functions but cannot replicate the kidneys use of active transport. Urea and excess
water/salts diffuse from blood to dialysis fluid, instead of leaving by pressure filtration
as in the nephron. Dialysis is a slower and less efficient process than natural processes
found in a healthy kidney.

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3.12 Present information to outline the general use of hormone replacement therapy in
people who cannot secrete aldosterone
The pituitary produces a hormone that influences the secretion of hormones from the
adrenal cortex, including aldosterone. If there is damage to the adrenal cortex gland, it
can result in the gland producing insufficient levels of all adrenal cortex hormones,
including aldosterone.
Hypoaldosteronism: a condition where people fail to secrete aldosterone
Addisons disease: a disorder that occurs when the adrenal glands do not produce
enough of their hormones; in this case, the inability to secrete aldosterone from the
adrenal cortex, caused by shrinking/destruction of the adrenal gland.
The effect of low aldosterone levels due to Addisons disease includes excessive
amounts of sodium are excreted with high urine output, dehydration, low sodium levels,
high potassium levels, high acid levels, lowered blood pressure/volume which can lead
to heart failure. Symptoms include fatigue, muscle weakness, weight loss and skin
changes, As a result, people with insufficient levels of adrenal cortex hormone require
multiple hormone replacement therapy, using a synthetic hormone called
fludrocortisone (Florinef). Careful monitoring is needed to avoid fluid retention and high
blood pressure. Patients are advised to increase salt intake.
3.13 Analyse information from secondary sources to compare and explain the
differences in urine concentration of terrestrial mammals, marine fish and
freshwater fish
Isotonic: When the two solutions have the same concentration of solutes. Therefore
there is no net movement of solutes by diffusion and no net movement of water by
osmosis
Hypertonic: Concentration of solutes is greater outside the cell than inside. Water will
flow out of this solution by osmosis. (less concentrated/less solutes than surroundings)
Hypotonic: Concentration of solutes is greater inside the cell than outside. Water will
flow into a hypertonic solution by osmosis. (more concentrated/more solutes than
surroundings)
Nitrogenous Waste Product Toxicity

Solubility in
water

Animal

Ammonia

High

High

Fish

Urea

Medium

Medium

Terrestrial
mammals

Uric Acid

Low

Low

Insects,reptiles,
birds

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Freshwater Fish: Tissues are hypertonic to surroundings. The concentration gradient
results in a loss of salts and an uptake of water. Therefore the fish must remove water
and keep salts to maintain homeostasis. They do not drink water, secretes copious
amounts of very dilute urine that contains ammonia, kidneys actively reabsorbs salts
(NaCl) to prevent salt loss, gill membranes permeable to water, gill actively absorb ions
(some ammonia leaves gills at the same time).
Saltwater Fish: Tissues are hypotonic to surroundings. The concentration gradient results
in a loss of water and an uptake of salts. Therefore the fish must retain water to maintain
homeostasis. They constantly drink seawater to replace water losses, excrete small
amounts of concentrated urine, tubules actively secrete MgSO4 ,gill membranes are
relatively impermeable to water, gills actively secrete sodium from chloride cells;
chloride ions follow.
Note: Marine cartilaginous fish (sharks and rays) have tissues isotonic to seawater to
avoid osmoregulation problems.
Note: Freshwater and saltwater fish are both osmoregulators.
Terrestrial Mammals: Mammals must produce urine to be able to excrete their
nitrogenous waste (urea). Oxidation of proteins results in urea, as well as carbon dioxide
and water, causing water loss. The urine concentration changes with the availability of
water, as well as temperature and water loss through sweat.
Desert Terrestrial Mammal: Little water loss occurs as most is retained through kidneys
(long loops of henle) and therefore produces very concentrated urine.
3.14 Use available evidence to explain the relationship between the conservation of
water and the production and excretion of concentrated nitrogenous wastes in a
range of Australian insects and terrestrial mammals
Australian insect

Australian
insect

Terrestrial
Mammal

Terrestrial Mammal

Name

Meat Ants

Leichardt's
Grasshopper

Spinifex hopping
mouse

Common Wallaroo

Location

Sand or gravel in
urban, forest,
woodland areas
across Australia

Sandstone
plateaus in
northern
Australia e.g.
Arnhem land

Desert - central
and western
Australia in
grasslands
dominated by
spinifex or mulga

Arid inland of
Australia. Dry areas

Type of
nitrogenous
waste

Uric acid

Uric acid

Urea in
concentrated
form

Urea, concentrated
urine

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Excretory
system/H2O

Malpighian
tubules - blind
ending kidney
tubules that open
directly into the
hid part of the
digestive tract.
Tubules collect
water and uric
acid from
haemolymph
useful substances
reabsorbed by
the intestines and
wastes leave
through the anus

Malpighian
tubules close
to rectum so
solutes in the
tubules draw
water by
osmosis across
the lining of
the rectum so
very dry faeces
produced.
Extremely
efficient in
conserving
water

Females feeding
young have
concentrated milk
and drink urine of
their young. Large
loop of Henle for
greater
reabsorption of
water and smaller
glomerulus and
Bowman's capsule
to reduce amount
filtered and
therefore water
lost.

Excrete concentrated
urine via kidney.
Large loop of Henle,
small glomerulus
and bowman's
capsule. 70% of
filtered urea is
reabsorbed through
the kidney filtrate.

Relationship
between H2O
Conservation
and waste
production

Uric acid is
insoluble in water
so little water is
lost during
excretion.
Important where
water is scarce

Arnhem land is
a very dry area.
Efficient
excretory
system
minimises
water loss

The animal lives

in a very arid
environment. It
drinks very little
water and
excretes urea in a
concentrated
form, so that
water can be
conserved. It has
very concentrated
urine due to
nephron structure
and behavioural
adaptations to
conserve water.

70% of filtered urea

reabsorbed during
adequate diet. Up to
90% urea filtered
and reabsorbed
during dehydration.
Urea urine to plasma
ratio remains
constant suggesting
that urea
reabsorption is
passive. Wallaroos
have a very efficient
excretory system
that recycles
nitrogen and urea to
make very
concentrated urine.
This allows them to
survive in very arid
environments.

[MAINTAINING A BALANCE] Winson Lo

3.15 Process and analyse information from secondary sources and use available
evidence to discuss processes used by different plants for salt regulation in saline
environments
Halophyte: A plant that successfully inhibits areas of high salinity. Possess various
adaptations to assist them in surviving high salt level in their surroundings. (e.g.
Saltbushes (genus Atriplex) that have special salt excretion glands in their leaves and are
the dominant species in salt-marsh communities throughout Australia)
Most plants cannot tolerate salty condition in saline environments the solute
concentration in the soil is greater than it is inside the plants root and so water tends to
move out by osmosis.
An excess of sodium ions inside cells inhibits enzymes activity and can result in a
decrease in the uptake of essential potassium ions and therefore it is important for
plants to regulate salt.
Plants in saline environments use three main processes for salt regulation:
Secretion - plants are able to concentrate salt and remove it through glands on leaves
(Grey Mangrove: the salt is washed off by rain)
Exclusion - Special tissues in the roots prevent salt uptake but allow water.
Accumulation - Some plants allow salt to accumulate in older tissues which are later
discarded (Mangrove concentrates salt in its old leaves which then fall off)
Plant

Process of Salt Regulation

Salt marsh plant

(Sarcocorniaquinqueflora)

Salt collected in swollen leaf bases then are shed from the
plant

Atriplex (saltbush)

Sodium ions are concentrated in salt glands within the leaf

which eventually expand and burst, releasing the excess salt.

Palmers Grass
(Distichlispalmeri)

Salt leaves the plant through the cells on the leaf, builds up
on the leaf surface and is ultimately washed away

Northfolk Island Pine

Exposed to salty air and prevent salt from entering their

leaves by covering the stomates with a thin layer of cuticle

Grey Mangrove

Salt is secreted in from the cells of the plant onto the lower
surface of the leaf and into bark. The leaves are then
dropped and water dissolves the salt off the bark.
The endodermis in the roots forms a barrier against the
passage of most salt into the xylem so the xylem contains
reasonable fresh desalinated water.