Wireless power

ing capacitive coupling between electrodes.[5][8] Applications of this type are electric toothbrush chargers, RFID
tags, smartcards, and chargers for implantable medical
devices like articial cardiac pacemakers, and inductive
powering or charging of electric vehicles like trains or
buses.[9][11] A current focus is to develop wireless systems to charge mobile and handheld computing devices
such as cellphones, digital music player and portable computers without being tethered to a wall plug. In radiative
or far-eld techniques, also called power beaming, power
is transmitted by beams of electromagnetic radiation, like
microwaves or laser beams. These techniques can transport energy longer distances but must be aimed at the
receiver. Proposed applications for this type are solar
power satellites, and wireless powered drone aircraft.[9]
An important issue associated with all wireless power systems is limiting the exposure of people and other living
things to potentially injurious electromagnetic elds (see
Electromagnetic radiation and health).[9]

1 Overview
Antennas or
Coupling Devices

Inductive charging pad for LG smartphone, using the Qi (pronounced 'Chi') system, an example of near-eld wireless transfer. When the phone is set on the pad, a coil in the pad creates
a magnetic eld which induces a current in another coil, in the
phone, charging its battery.

Vs
Power
Source

Transmitter

Receiver

Load

[1]

Wireless power transfer (WPT) or wireless energy

transmission is the transmission of electrical power from
a power source to a consuming device without using
solid wires or conductors.[2][3][4][5] It is a generic term
that refers to a number of dierent power transmission technologies that use time-varying electromagnetic
elds.[1][5][6][7] Wireless transmission is useful to power
electrical devices in cases where interconnecting wires
are inconvenient, hazardous, or are not possible. In wireless power transfer, a transmitter device connected to
a power source, such as the mains power line, transmits power by electromagnetic elds across an intervening space to one or more receiver devices, where it is converted back to electric power and utilized.[1]

Generic block diagram of a wireless power system

Wireless power transmission is a collective term that

refers to a number of dierent technologies for transmitting power by means of time-varying electromagnetic
elds.[1][5][8] The technologies, listed in the table below,
dier in the distance over which they can transmit power
eciently, whether the transmitter must be aimed (directed) at the receiver, and in the type of electromagnetic
energy they use: time varying electric elds, magnetic
elds, radio waves, microwaves, or infrared or visible
light waves.[8]
In general a wireless power system consists of a transmitter device connected to a source of power such as mains
power lines, which converts the power to a time-varying
electromagnetic eld, and one or more receiver devices
which receive the power and convert it back to DC or
AC electric power which is consumed by an electrical

Wireless power techniques fall into two categories, nonradiative and radiative.[1][6][8][9][10] In near-eld or nonradiative techniques, power is transferred over short distances by magnetic elds using inductive coupling between coils of wire or in a few devices by electric elds us1

FIELD REGIONS

load.[1][8] In the transmitter the input power is converted technologies are used for transmitting power:
to an oscillating electromagnetic eld by some type of
"antenna" device. The word antenna is used loosely
Near-eld or nonradiative region - This means
here; it may be a coil of wire which generates a magnetic
the area within about 1 wavelength () of the
eld, a metal plate which generates an electric eld, an
antenna.[1][4][10] In this region the oscillating electric
antenna which radiates radio waves, or a laser which genand magnetic elds are separate[6] and power can
erates light. A similar antenna or coupling device in the
be transferred via electric elds by capacitive coureceiver converts the oscillating elds to an electric curpling (electrostatic induction) between metal elecrent. An important parameter which determines the type
trodes, or via magnetic elds by inductive couof waves is the frequency f in hertz of the oscillations.
pling (electromagnetic induction) between coils of
The frequency determines the wavelength = c/f of the
wire.[5][6][8][9] These elds are not radiative,[10]
waves which carry the energy across the gap, where c is
meaning the energy stays within a short distance
the velocity of light.
of the transmitter.[18] If there is no receiving device or absorbing material within their limited range
Wireless power uses much of the same elds and waves
[6][12]
to couple to, no power leaves the transmitter.[18]
as wireless communication devices like radio,
anThe
range of these elds is short, and depends on
other familiar technology which involves power transthe
size
and shape of the antenna devices, which
mitted without wires by electromagnetic elds, used in
are
usually
coils of wire. The elds, and thus
cellphones, radio and television broadcasting, and WiFi.
the
power
transmitted,
decrease exponentially with
In radio communication the goal is the transmission of
[4][17][19]
distance,
so
if
the
distance between the two
information, so the amount of power reaching the reantennas
D

is
much
larger than the diameter
ceiver is unimportant as long as it is enough that the signal
of
the
antennas
D
very
little power will be reto noise ratio is high enough that the information can
[5][6][12]
ceived.
Therefore
these
techniques
cannot be used
be received intelligibly.
In wireless communicafor
long
distance
power
transmission.
tion technologies generally only tiny amounts of power
reach the receiver. By contrast, in wireless power, the
Resonance, such as resonant inductive
amount of power received is the important thing, so the
coupling, can increase the coupling beeciency (fraction of transmitted power that is received)
tween the antennas greatly, allowing efis the more signicant parameter.[5] For this reason wirecient transmission at somewhat greater
less power technologies are more limited by distance than
distances,[1][4][6][9][20][21] although the elds
wireless communication technologies.
still decrease exponentially. Therefore the
These
are
the
dierent
wireless
power
range of near-eld devices is conventionally
[1][8][9][13][14]
technologies:
devided into two categories:

Field regions

Electric and magnetic elds are created by charged particles in matter such as electrons. A stationary charge creates an electrostatic eld in the space around it. A steady
current of charges (direct current, DC) creates a static
magnetic eld around it. These elds contain energy.
The above elds cannot carry power because they are
static, but time-varying elds can.[16] Accelerating electric charges, such as are found in an alternating current
(AC) of electrons in a wire, create time-varying electric
and magnetic elds in the space around them. These elds
can exert oscillating forces on the electrons in a receiving
antenna, causing them to move back and forth. These
represent alternating current which can be used to power
a load.
The oscillating electric and magnetic elds surrounding
moving electric charges in an antenna device can be divided into two regions, depending on distance D from
the antenna.[1][4][6][8][9][10][17] The boundary between the
regions is somewhat vaguely dened.[8] The elds have
dierent characteristics in these regions, and dierent

Short range - up to about one antenna diameter: D D .[18][20][22] This is

the range over which ordinary nonresonant capacitive or inductive coupling can
transfer practical amounts of power.
Mid-range - up to 10 times the antenna
diameter: D 10 D .[20][21][22][23]
This is the range over which resonant capacitive or inductive coupling can transfer practical amounts of power.
Far-eld or radiative region - Beyond about 1
wavelength () of the antenna, the electric and magnetic elds are perpendicular to each other and propagate as an electromagnetic wave; examples are
radio waves, microwaves, or light waves.[1][4][9] This
part of the energy is radiative,[10] meaning it leaves
the antenna whether or not there is a receiver to absorb it. The portion of energy which does not strike
the receiving antenna is dissipated and lost to the
system. The amount of power emitted as electromagnetic waves by an antenna depends on the ratio
of the antennas size D to the wavelength of the
waves ,[24] which is determined by the frequency:

3.2

Capacitive coupling
= c/f. At low frequencies f where the antenna
is much smaller than the size of the waves, D
<< , very little power is radiated. Therefore the
near-eld devices above, which use lower frequencies, radiate almost none of their energy as electromagnetic radiation. Antennas about the same size
as the wavelength D such as monopole or
dipole antennas, radiate power eciently, but the
electromagnetic waves are radiated in all directions
(omnidirectionally), so if the receiving antenna is far
away, only a small amount of the radiation will hit
it.[10][20] Therefore these can be used for short range,
inecient power transmission but not for long range
transmission.[25]
However, unlike elds, electromagnetic radiation can be focused by reection or refraction
into beams. By using a high-gain antenna
or optical system which concentrates the radiation into a narrow beam aimed at the receiver, it can be used for long range power
transmission.[20][25] From the Rayleigh criterion, to produce the narrow beams necessary
to focus a signicant amount of the energy on
a distant receiver, an antenna must be much
larger than the wavelength of the waves used:
D >> = c/f.[26][27] Practical beam power
devices require wavelengths in the centimeter region or below, corresponding to frequencies above 1 GHz, in the microwave range or
above.[1]

Near-eld or non-radiative techniques

Main article: Coupling (electronics)

The near-eld components of electric and magnetic
elds die out quickly beyond a distance of about one
diameter of the antenna (D ). Outside very close
ranges the eld strength and coupling is roughly proportional to (D /D )3 .[17] Since power is proportional to the square of the eld strength, the power transferred decreases with the sixth power of the distance
(D /D )6 .[6][19][28][29] or 60 dB per decade. In other
words, doubling the distance between transmitter and receiver causes the power received to decrease by a factor
of 26 = 64.

3.1

Vs
Power Oscillator L1
Source

L2

Rectifier Load

Generic block diagram of an inductive wireless power system.

by an electric current to induce a current in a second conductor. This eect occurs in the electromagnetic near
eld, with the secondary in close proximity to the primary. As the distance from the primary is increased,
more and more of the primarys magnetic eld misses the
secondary. Even over a relatively short range the inductive coupling is grossly inecient, wasting much of the
transmitted energy.[30]
This action of an electrical transformer is the simplest
form of wireless power transmission. The primary coil
and secondary coil of a transformer are not directly connected; each coil is part of a separate circuit. Energy
transfer takes place through a process known as mutual
induction. Principal functions are stepping the primary
voltage either up or down and electrical isolation. Mobile
phone and electric toothbrush battery chargers, are examples of how this principle is used. Induction cookers use
this method. The main drawback to this basic form of
wireless transmission is short range. The receiver must
be directly adjacent to the transmitter or induction unit
in order to eciently couple with it.
Common uses of resonance-enhanced electrodynamic
induction[31] are charging the batteries of portable devices
such as laptop computers and cell phones, medical implants and electric vehicles.[32][33][34] A localized charging technique[35] selects the appropriate transmitting coil
in a multilayer winding array structure.[36] Resonance is
used in both the wireless charging pad (the transmitter
circuit) and the receiver module (embedded in the load)
to maximize energy transfer eciency. Battery-powered
devices tted with a special receiver module can then be
charged simply by placing them on a wireless charging
pad. It has been adopted as part of the Qi wireless charging standard.
This technology is also used for powering devices with
very low energy requirements, such as RFID patches and
contactless smartcards. Instead of relying on each of the
many thousands or millions of RFID patches or smartcards to contain a working battery, electrodynamic induction can provide power only when the devices are needed.

Inductive coupling

Main articles: Inductive coupling and Resonant inductive 3.2 Capacitive coupling
coupling
The electrodynamic induction wireless transmission Main article: Capacitive coupling
technique relies on the use of a magnetic eld generated

FAR-FIELD OR RADIATIVE TECHNIQUES

In capacitive coupling (electrostatic induction), the dual

of inductive coupling, power is transmitted by electric
elds[5] between electrodes such as metal plates. The
transmitter and receiver electrodes form a capacitor, with
the intervening space as the dielectric.[5][6][9][37][38] An
alternating voltage generated by the transmitter is applied to the transmitting plate, and the oscillating electric
eld induces an alternating potential on the receiver plate
by electrostatic induction,[5] which causes an alternating current to ow in the load circuit. The amount of
power transferred increases with the frequency[37] and the
capacitance between the plates, which is proportional to
the area of the smaller plate and (for short distances) inversely proportional to the separation.[5]

by the rotating magnets produce less electromagnetic interference to nearby electronic devices than the high frequency magnetic elds produced by inductive coupling
systems. A prototype system charging electric vehicles
has been in operation at University of British Columbia
since 2012. Other researchers, however, claim that the
two energy conversions (electrical to mechanical to electrical again) make the system less ecient than electrical
systems like inductive coupling.[13]

Capacitive coupling has only been used practically in a

few low power applications, because the very high voltages on the electrodes required to transmit signicant
power can be hazardous,[6][9] and can cause unpleasant
side eects such as noxious ozone production. In addition, in contrast to magnetic elds,[20] electric elds interact strongly with most materials, including the human
body, due to dielectric polarization.[38] Intervening materials between or near the electrodes can absorb the energy, in the case of humans possibly causing excessive
electromagnetic eld exposure.[6] However capacitive
coupling has a few advantages over inductive. The eld
is largely conned between the capacitor plates, reducing
interference, which in inductive coupling requires heavy
ferrite ux connement cores.[5][38] Also, alignment requirements between the transmitter and receiver are less
critical.[5][6][37] Capacitive coupling has recently been applied to charging battery powered portable devices[39] and
is being considered as a means of transferring power between substrate layers in integrated circuits.[40]

Far eld methods achieve longer ranges, often multiple kilometer ranges, where the distance is much greater
than the diameter of the device(s). The main reason for
longer ranges with radio wave and optical devices is the
fact that electromagnetic radiation in the far-eld can be
made to match the shape of the receiving area (using high
directivity antennas or well-collimated laser beams). The
maximum directivity for antennas is physically limited by
diraction.

3.3

Magnetodynamic coupling

In this method, power is transmitted between two rotating armatures, one in the transmitter and one in the receiver, which rotate synchronously, coupled together by
a magnetic eld generated by permanent magnets on the
armatures.[13] The transmitter armature is turned either
by or as the rotor of an electric motor, and its magnetic
eld exerts torque on the receiver armature, turning it.
The magnetic eld acts like a mechanical coupling between the armatures.[13] The receiver armature produces
power to drive the load, either by turning an electric generator or by using the receiver armature as the rotor in an
induction generator .
This device has been proposed as an alternative to inductive power transfer for noncontact charging of electric vehicles.[13] A rotating armature embedded in a garage oor
or curb would turn a receiver armature in the underside
of the vehicle to charge its batteries.[13] It is claimed that
this technique can transfer power over distances of 10 to
15 cm (4 to 6 inches) with high eciency, over 90%.[13]
Also, the low frequency stray magnetic elds produced

4 Far-eld or radiative techniques

In general, visible light (from lasers) and microwaves

(from purpose-designed antennas) are the forms of electromagnetic radiation best suited to energy transfer.
The dimensions of the components may be dictated by the
distance from transmitter to receiver, the wavelength and
the Rayleigh criterion or diraction limit, used in standard radio frequency antenna design, which also applies
to lasers. Airys diraction limit is also frequently used
to determine an approximate spot size at an arbitrary distance from the aperture. Electromagnetic radiation experiences less diraction at shorter wavelengths (higher
frequencies); so, for example, a blue laser is diracted
less than a red one.
The Rayleigh criterion dictates that any radio wave, microwave or laser beam will spread and become weaker
and diuse over distance; the larger the transmitter antenna or laser aperture compared to the wavelength of radiation, the tighter the beam and the less it will spread as
a function of distance (and vice versa). Smaller antennae
also suer from excessive losses due to side lobes. However, the concept of laser aperture considerably diers
from an antenna. Typically, a laser aperture much larger
than the wavelength induces multi-moded radiation and
mostly collimators are used before emitted radiation couples into a ber or into space.
Ultimately, beamwidth is physically determined by
diraction due to the dish size in relation to the wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation used to make the
beam.
Microwave power beaming can be more ecient than
lasers, and is less prone to atmospheric attenuation caused
by dust or water vapor.
Then the power levels are calculated by combining the

4.2

Lasers

above parameters together, and adding in the gains

and losses due to the antenna characteristics and the
transparency and dispersion of the medium through
which the radiation passes. That process is known as calculating a link budget.

5
Following World War II, which saw the development of
high-power microwave emitters known as cavity magnetrons, the idea of using microwaves to transmit power
was researched. By 1964, a miniature helicopter propelled by microwave power had been demonstrated.[45]

Japanese researcher Hidetsugu Yagi also investigated

wireless energy transmission using a directional array an4.1 Microwaves
tenna that he designed. In February 1926, Yagi and his
colleague Shintaro Uda published their rst paper on the
Main article: Microwave power transmission
Power transmission via radio waves can be made more tuned high-gain directional array now known as the Yagi
antenna. While it did not prove to be particularly useful for power transmission, this beam antenna has been
widely adopted throughout the broadcasting and wireless
telecommunications industries due to its excellent performance characteristics.[46]
Wireless high power transmission using microwaves is
well proven. Experiments in the tens of kilowatts
have been performed at Goldstone in California in
1975[47][48][49] and more recently (1997) at Grand Bassin
on Reunion Island.[50] These methods achieve distances
on the order of a kilometer.

An artists depiction of a solar satellite that could send electric

energy by microwaves to a space vessel or planetary surface.

Under experimental conditions microwave conversion efciency was measured to be around 54%.[51]

More recently a change to 24 GHz has been suggested as

microwave emitters similar to LEDs have been made with
directional, allowing longer distance power beaming, very high quantum eciencies using negative resistance
with shorter wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, i.e. Gunn or IMPATT diodes and this would be viable
typically in the microwave range.[41] A rectenna may for short range links.
be used to convert the microwave energy back into
electricity. Rectenna conversion eciencies exceeding
95% have been realized. Power beaming using mi- 4.2 Lasers
crowaves has been proposed for the transmission of energy from orbiting solar power satellites to Earth and the
beaming of power to spacecraft leaving orbit has been
considered.[42][43]
Power beaming by microwaves has the diculty that
for most space applications the required aperture sizes
are very large due to diraction limiting antenna directionality. For example, the 1978 NASA Study of solar power satellites required a 1-km diameter transmitting antenna, and a 10 km diameter receiving rectenna,
for a microwave beam at 2.45 GHz.[44] These sizes can
be somewhat decreased by using shorter wavelengths, although short wavelengths may have diculties with atmospheric absorption and beam blockage by rain or water droplets. Because of the "thinned array curse, it is
not possible to make a narrower beam by combining the
beams of several smaller satellites.
For earthbound applications a large area 10 km diameter
receiving array allows large total power levels to be used
while operating at the low power density suggested for
human electromagnetic exposure safety. A human safe
power density of 1 mW/cm2 distributed across a 10 km
diameter area corresponds to 750 megawatts total power
level. This is the power level found in many modern electric power plants.

With a laser beam centered on its panel of photovoltaic cells,

a lightweight model plane makes the rst ight of an aircraft
powered by a laser beam inside a building at NASA Marshall
Space Flight Center.

In the case of electromagnetic radiation closer to the visible region of the spectrum (tens of micrometers to tens
of nanometres), power can be transmitted by converting

electricity into a laser beam that is then pointed at a photovoltaic cell.[52] This mechanism is generally known as
power beaming because the power is beamed at a receiver that can convert it to electrical energy.
Compared to other wireless methods:[53]
Collimated monochromatic wavefront propagation
allows narrow beam cross-section area for transmission over large distances.
Compact size: solid state lasers t into small products.
No radio-frequency interference to existing radio
communication such as Wi-Fi and cell phones.
Access control: only receivers hit by the laser receive
power.

HISTORY

In the context of wireless power, energy harvesting, also

called power harvesting or energy scavenging, is the conversion of ambient energy from the environment to electric power, mainly to power small autonomous wireless
electronic devices.[69] The ambient energy may come
from stray electric or magnetic elds or radio waves
from nearby electrical equipment, light, thermal energy
(heat), or kinetic energy such as vibration or motion
of the device.[69] Although the eciency of conversion
is usually low and the power gathered often minuscule
(milliwatts or microwatts),[69] it can be adequate to run
or recharge small micropower wireless devices such as
remote sensors, which are proliferating in many elds.[69]
This new technology is being developed to eliminate the
need for battery replacement or charging of such wireless devices, allowing them to operate completely autonomously.

Drawbacks include:

6 History

Laser radiation is hazardous. Low power levels can

blind humans and other animals. High power levels
In 1826 Andr-Marie Ampre developed Ampres circan kill through localized spot heating.
cuital law showing that electric current produces a mag Conversion between electricity and light is ine- netic eld.[70] Michael Faraday developed Faradays law
cient. Photovoltaic cells achieve only 40%50% of induction in 1831, describing the electromagnetic
eciency.[54] (Eciency is higher with monochro- force induced in a conductor by a time-varying magnetic
ux. In 1862 James Clerk Maxwell synthesized these and
matic light than with solar panels).
other observations, experiments and equations of elec Atmospheric absorption, and absorption and scat- tricity, magnetism and optics into a consistent theory,
tering by clouds, fog, rain, etc., causes up to 100% deriving Maxwells equations. This set of partial dierlosses.
ential equations forms the basis for modern electromagnetics, including the wireless transmission of electrical
Requires a direct line of sight with the target.
energy.[14][71] Maxwell predicted the existence of elecLaser powerbeaming technology has been mostly ex- tromagnetic waves in his 1873 A Treatise on Electricity
[72]
In 1884 John Henry Poynting develplored in military weapons[55][56][57] and aerospace[58][59] and Magnetism.
oped
equations
for the ow of power in an electromagapplications and is now being developed for commercial
and consumer electronics. Wireless energy transfer sys- netic eld, Poyntings theorem and the Poynting vector,
tems using lasers for consumer space have to satisfy laser which are used in the analysis of wireless energy transfer systems.[14][71] In 1888 Heinrich Rudolf Hertz dissafety requirements standardized under IEC 60825.
covered radio waves, conrming the prediction of elecOther details include propagation,[60] and the coherence tromagnetic waves by Maxwell.[72]
and the range limitation problem.[61]
Georey Landis[62][63][64] is one of the pioneers of solar
power satellites[65] and laser-based transfer of energy es- 6.1 Teslas experiments
pecially for space and lunar missions. The demand for
safe and frequent space missions has resulted in propos- Serbian-born American inventor Nikola Tesla performed
the rst experiments in wireless power transmission at the
als for a laser-powered space elevator.[66][67]
turn of the 20th century,[71][73] and may have done more
NASAs Dryden Flight Research Center demonstrated a
to popularize the idea than any other individual. In the
lightweight unmanned model plane powered by a laser
period 1891 to 1904 he experimented with spark-excited
beam.[68] This proof-of-concept demonstrates the feasiradio frequency resonant transformers, now called Tesla
bility of periodic recharging using the laser beam system.
coils, which generated high AC voltages on elevated capacitive terminals.[71][73][74] With these he was able to
transmit power for short distances without wires. In
5 Energy harvesting
demonstrations before the American Institute of Electrical Engineers[74] and at the 1893 Columbian Exposition
Main article: Energy harvesting
in Chicago he lit light bulbs from across a stage.[73] He
found he could increase the distance by using a receiv-

6.2

Microwaves

7
rmation of this putative demonstration;[76][86][90] Tesla
did not mention it,[86] and it does not appear in his meticulous laboratory notes.[90][91] It originated in 1944 from
Teslas rst biographer, John J. O'Neill,[76] who said he
pieced it together from fragmentary material... in a number of publications.[92] In the 110 years since Teslas
experiments, eorts using similar equipment have failed
to achieve long distance power transmission,[73][76][86][88]
and the scientic consensus is his World Wireless system would not have worked.[14][71][75][81][86][93][94][95][96]
Teslas world power transmission scheme remains today
what it was in Teslas time, a fascinating dream.[14][81]

Tesla demonstrating wireless power transmission in a lecture at

Columbia College, New York, in 1891. The two metal sheets
are connected to his Tesla coil oscillator, which applies a high
radio frequency oscillating voltage. The oscillating electric eld
between the sheets ionizes the low pressure gas in the two long
Geissler tubes he is holding, causing them to glow by uorescence,
similar to neon lights.

ing LC circuit tuned to resonance with the transmitters

LC circuit.[75] At his Colorado Springs laboratory during
1899-1900, by using voltages of the order of 20 megavolts generated by an enormous coil, he was able to light
three incandescent lamps by resonant inductive coupling
at a distance of about 100 feet (30 m).[76][77] Coupling
between resonant circuits by electric or magnetic elds
is now a familiar technology used throughout electronics,
and is currently of interest again as a means of short-range
wireless power transmission.[73][78] As mentioned above
it is a "near-eld" eect,[73] so it is not able to transmit
power over long distances.
However, Tesla claimed to be able to transmit power on
a worldwide scale, using a method that involved conduction through the Earth and atmosphere.[79][80][81][82] The
proposal suggested that receiving stations would consist
of terminals suspended in the air at above 30,000 feet
(9,100 m) in altitude, where the pressure is lower than
at sea level.[79] At this altitude, Tesla claimed, electricity
could be sent at high voltages (millions of volts) over long
distances.
In 1901, Tesla began construction of a large highvoltage coil facility, the Wardenclye Tower at Shoreham, New York, intended as a prototype transmitter
for a "World Wireless System" that was to transmit
power worldwide, but he lost funding by 1904 and
the facility was never completed.[81][83] Although Tesla
claimed his ideas were proven, he had a history of failing to conrm his ideas by experiment,[84][85] and there
seems to be no evidence that he ever transmitted signicant power beyond the short-range demonstrations
above,[14][71][75][76][85][86][87][88][89] perhaps 300 feet (91
m). The only report of long-distance transmission by
Tesla is a claim, not found in reliable sources, that in
1899 he wirelessly lit 200 light bulbs at a distance of
26 miles (42 km).[76][86] There is no independent con-

6.2 Microwaves
Before World War 2, little progress was made in wireless
power transmission.[87] Radio was developed for communication uses, but couldn't be used for power transmission due to the fact that the relatively low-frequency
radio waves spread out in all directions and little energy
reached the receiver.[14][71][87] In radio communication,
at the receiver, an amplier intensies a weak signal using
energy from another source. For power transmission, efcient transmission required transmitters that could generate higher-frequency microwaves, which can be focused
in narrow beams towards a receiver.[14][71][87][94]
The development of microwave technology during World
War 2, such as the klystron and magnetron tubes and
parabolic antennas[87] made radiative (far-eld) methods
practical for the rst time, and the rst long-distance
wireless power transmission was achieved in the 1960s
by William C. Brown.[14][71] In 1964 Brown invented the
rectenna which could eciently convert microwaves to
DC power, and in 1964 demonstrated it with the rst
wireless-powered aircraft, a model helicopter powered
by microwaves beamed from the ground.[14][87] A major
motivation for microwave research in the 1970s and 80s
was to develop a solar power satellite.[71][87] Conceived
in 1968 by Peter Glaser, this would harvest energy from
sunlight using solar cells and beam it down to Earth as
microwaves to huge rectennas, which would convert it
to electrical energy on the electric power grid.[14][97] In
landmark 1975 high power experiments, Brown demonstrated short range transmission of 475 W of microwaves
at 54% DC to DC eciency, and he and Robert Dickinson at NASAs Jet Propulsion Laboratory transmitted
30 kW DC output power across 1.5 km with 2.38 GHz
microwaves from a 26 m dish to a 7.3 x 3.5 m rectenna
array.[14][98] The incident-RF to DC conversion eciency
of the rectenna was 80%.[14][98] In 1983 Japan launched
MINIX (Microwave Ionosphere Nonlinear Interation Experiment), a rocket experiment to test transmission of
high power microwaves through the ionosphere.[14]
In recent years a focus of research has been the development of wireless-powered drone aircraft, which began in
1959 with the Dept. of Defenses RAMP (Raytheon Airborne Microwave Platform) project[87] which sponsored

8 FURTHER READING

Browns research. In 1987 Canadas Communications

Research Center developed a small prototype airplane
called Stationary High Altitude Relay Platform (SHARP)
to relay telecommunication data between points on earth
similar to a communication satellite. Powered by a
rectenna, it could y at 13 miles (21 km) altitude and
stay aloft for months. In 1992 a team at Kyoto University
built a more advanced craft called MILAX (MIcrowave
Lifted Airplane eXperiment). In 2003 NASA ew the
rst laser powered aircraft. The small model planes motor was powered by electricity generated by photocells
from a beam of infrared light from a ground based laser,
while a control system kept the laser pointed at the plane.

7 See also
Beam-powered propulsion
Beam Power Challenge one of the NASA
Centennial Challenges
Dierential capacitance
Dispersion relation
Distributed generation
Electricity distribution
Electric power transmission
Electromagnetic compatibility
Electromagnetic radiation and health

6.3

Near-eld technologies

Inductive power transfer between nearby coils of wire is

an old technology, existing since the transformer was developed in the 1800s. Induction heating has been used
for 100 years. With the advent of cordless appliances,
inductive charging stands were developed for appliances
used in wet environments like electric toothbrushes and
electric razors to reduce the hazard of electric shock.
One eld to which inductive transfer has been applied is
to power electric vehicles. In 1892 Maurice Hutin and
Maurice Leblanc patented a wireless method of powering
railroad trains using resonant coils inductively coupled to
a track wire at 3 kHz.[99] The rst passive RFID (Radio
Frequency Identication) technologies were invented by
Mario Cardullo[100] (1973) and Koelle et al.[101] (1975)
and by the 1990s were being used in proximity cards and
contactless smartcards.

Energy harvesting
Fermi gas
Free electron model
Friis transmission equation
Microwave power transmission
Multidimensional systems
Resonant inductive coupling
Surface plasmon
Surface plasmon polariton
Surface wave
Thinned array curse

The proliferation of portable wireless communication de Transmission medium

vices such as cellphones, tablet, and laptop computers in
recent decades is currently driving the development of
Wardenclye Tower
wireless powering and charging technology to eliminate
Wave vector
the need for these devices to be tethered to wall plugs during charging.[102] The Wireless Power Consortium was
Zenneck wave
established in 2008 to develop interoperable standards
[102]
Its Qi inductive power standard
across manufacturers.
published in August 2009 enables charging and powering
of portable devices of up to 5 watts over distances of 4 8 Further reading
cm (1.6 inches).[103] The wireless device is placed on a
at charger plate (which could be embedded in table tops Books and Articles
at cafes, for example) and power is transferred from a at
coil in the charger to a similar one in the device.
Agbinya, Johnson I., Ed. (2012). Wireless Power
In 2007, a team led by Marin Soljai at MIT used couTransfer. River Publishers. ISBN 8792329233.
pled tuned circuits made of a 25 cm resonant coil at 10
Comprehensive, theoretical engineering text
MHz to transfer 60 W of power over a distance of 2 me Shinohara, Naoki (2014). Wireless Power Transters (6.6 ft) (8 times the coil diameter) at around 40%
fer via Radiowaves. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN
eciency.[73][104] This technology is being commercialized as WiTricity.
1118862961. Engineering text

9
Tomar, Anuradha; Gupta, Sunil (July 2012).
Wireless power Transmission: Applications and
Components. International Journal of Engineering
Research & Technology (ESRSA Publications Pvt.
Ltd.) 1 (5): 18. ISSN 2278-0181. Brief survey of
state of wireless power and applications

[7] Wilson, Tracy V. (2014). How Wireless Power Works.

How Stu Works website. InfoSpace LLC. Retrieved December 15, 2014.
[8] Sun, Tianjia; Xie, Xiang; Zhihua, Wang (2013). Wireless
Power Transfer for Medical Microsystems. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 56. ISBN 1461477026.

Kurs, Andr; Karalis, Aristeidis; Moatt, Robert [9]

(July 2007). Wireless Power Transfer via Strongly
Coupled Magnetic Resonances. Science (American
Association for the Advancement of Science) 317:
8385. doi:10.1126/science.1143254. ISSN 10959203. Landmark paper on MIT teams 2007 development of mid-range resonant wireless transmission [10]
Thibault, G. (2014). Wireless Pasts and Wired Futures. In J. Hadlaw, A. Herman, & T. Swiss (Eds.),
Theories of the Mobile Internet. Materialities and
Imaginaries. (pp. 126154). London: Routledge.
A short cultural history of wireless power
Patents
U.S. Patent 4,955,562, Microwave powered aircraft,
John E. Martin, et al. (1990).
U.S. Patent 3,933,323, Solid state solar to microwave energy converter system and apparatus,
Kenneth W. Dudley, et al. (1976).

Valtchev, Stanimir S.; Baikova, Elena N.; Jorge, Luis R.

(December 2012). Electromagnetic Field as the Wireless
Transporter of Energy. Facta Universitatis Ser. Electrical Engineering (Serbia: University of Ni) 25 (3): 171
181. doi:10.2298/FUEE1203171V. Retrieved December
15, 2014.
Agbinya, Johnson I. (2012). Wireless Power Transfer.
River Publishers. pp. 12. ISBN 8792329233.

[11] New Scientist:Wireless charging for electric vehicles hits

the road
[12] Shinohara 2014 Wireless Power Transfer via Radiowaves,
p. 27
[13] Ashley, Steven (November 20, 2012). Wireless recharging: Pulling the plug on electric cars. BBC website.
British Broadcasting Corp. Retrieved December 10,
2014.
[14] Tomar, Anuradha; Gupta, Sunil (July 2012). Wireless
power Transmission: Applications and Components. International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology
1 (5). ISSN 2278-0181. Retrieved November 9, 2014.
[15] short, midrange, and long range are dened below

U.S. Patent 3,535,543, Microwave power receiving [16] Coleman, Christopher (2004). An Introduction to Radio
Frequency Engineerin. Cambridge University Press. pp.
antenna, Carroll C. Dailey (1970).
13. ISBN 1139452304.

[17] Agbinya (2012) Wireless Power Transfer, p. 126-129

References

[1] Shinohara, Naoki (2014). Wireless Power Transfer via

Radiowaves. John Wiley & Sons. pp. ixxiii. ISBN
1118862961.
[2] Bush, Stephen F. (2014). Smart Grid: CommunicationEnabled Intelligence for the Electric Power Grid. John Wiley & Sons. p. 118. ISBN 1118820231.
[3] Wireless energy transfer. Encyclopedia of terms. PC
Magazine Zi-Davis. 2014. Retrieved December 15,
2014.
[4] Rajakaruna, Sumedha; Shahnia, Farhad; Ghosh, Arindam
(2014). Plug In Electric Vehicles in Smart Grids: Integration Techniques. Springer. pp. 3436. ISBN
981287299X.
[5] Gopinath, Ashwin (August 2013). All About Transferring Power Wirelessly. Electronics For You E-zine (EFY
Enterprises Pvt. Ltd.): 5256. Retrieved January 16,
2015.
[6] Sazonov, Edward; Neuman, Michael R (2014). Wearable
Sensors: Fundamentals, Implementation and Applications.
Elsevier. pp. 253255. ISBN 0124186661.

[18] Umenei, A. E. (June 2011). Understanding Low Frequency Non-radiative Power Transfer. Fulton Innovation, Inc. Retrieved January 3, 2015.
[19] Schantz, Hans G. (June 2007). A Real-Time Location System Using Near-Field Electromagnetic Ranging.
2007 IEEE Antennas and Propagation Society International Symposium, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA. Inst. of Electrical and Electronic Engineers. pp. 37923795. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
[20] Karalis, Aristeidis; Joannopoulos, J.D.; Soljai, Marin
(January 2008). Ecient wireless non-radiative midrange energy transfer. Annals of Physics 323 (1): 3448.
Retrieved January 3, 2015.
[21] Wong, Elvin (2013). Seminar: A Review on Technologies for Wireless Electricity. HKPC. The Hong Kong
Electronic Industries Association Ltd. Retrieved January
3, 2015.
[22] "Typically, an inductive coupled system can transmit
roughly the diameter of the transmitter."(p. 4) "...midrange is dened as somewhere between one and ten
times the diameter of the transmitting coil."(p. 2) Baarman, David W.; Schwannecke, Joshua (December 2009).
White paper: Understanding Wireless Power. Fulton
Innovation. Retrieved January 3, 2015.

10

REFERENCES

[23] "...strongly coupled magnetic resonance can work over the

mid-range distance, dened as several times the resonator
size." Agbinya (2012) Wireless Power Transfer, p. 40

[40] Meindl, James D. (2008). Integrated Interconnect Technologies for 3D Nanoelectronic Systems. Artech House.
pp. 475477. ISBN 1596932473.

[24] Smith, Glenn S. (1997). An Introduction to Classical Electromagnetic Radiation. Cambridge University Press. p.
474. ISBN 0521586984.

[41] Massa, A. Massa, G. Oliveri, F. Viani, and P. Rocca;

Oliveri, Giacomo; Viani, Federico; Rocca, Paolo
(June 2013). Array designs for long-distance wireless
power transmission - State-of-the-art and innovative solutions. Proceedings of the IEEE 101 (6): 14641481.
doi:10.1109/JPROC.2013.2245491.

[25] Tan, Yen Kheng (2013). Energy Harvesting Autonomous

Sensor Systems: Design, Analysis, and Practical Implementation. CRC Press. pp. 181182. ISBN 1439892733.
[26] Feynman, Richard Phillips; Leighton, Robert B.; Sands,
Matthew (1963). The Feynman Lectures on Physics Vol. 1:
Mainly Mechanics, Radiation, and Heat. California Institute of Technology. pp. 30.630.7. ISBN 0465024939.
[27] Thorat, Ashwini Anil; Katariya, S. S. (2013). Solar
Power Satellite. IOSR Journal of Electronics and Communication Engineering (Int'l Org. of Scientic Research)
5. ISSN 2278-2834. Retrieved January 4, 2015.
[28] Agbinya, Johnson I. (February 2013). Investigation of
near eld inductive communication system models, channels, and experiments. Progress In Electromagnetics Research B (EMW Publishing) 49: 130. Retrieved January
2, 2015.

[42] G. A. Landis, Applications for Space Power by Laser

Transmission, SPIE Optics, Electro-optics & Laser Conference, Los Angeles CA, 2428 January 1994; Laser
Power Beaming, SPIE Proceedings Vol. 2121, 252255.
[43] G. Landis, M. Stavnes, S. Oleson and J. Bozek, Space
Transfer With Ground-Based Laser/Electric Propulsion
(AIAA-92-3213) NASA Technical Memorandum TM106060 (1992).
[44] Landis, Georey A. (712 May 2006). Reevaluating
Satellite Solar Power Systems for Earth. IEEE 4th World
Conference on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion. p. 2.
Retrieved 11 May 2012.
[45] Experimental Airborne Microwave Supported Platform
Descriptive Note : Final rept. Jun 64 Apr 65

[29] Bolic, Miodrag; Simplot-Ryl, David; Stojmenovic, Ivan

(2010). RFID Systems: Research Trends and Challenges.
John Wiley & Sons. p. 29. ISBN 0470975660.

[46] Scanning the Past: A History of Electrical Engineering

from the Past, Hidetsugu Yagi. Ieee.cincinnati.fuse.net.
Retrieved 4 June 2009.

[30] Baarman, David W.; Schwannecke, Joshua (December

2009). White paper: Understanding Wireless Power.
Fulton Innovation. Retrieved January 3, 2015.

[47] Space Solar Energy Initiative. Space Island Group. Retrieved 4 June 2009.

[31] A New Resonator for High Eciency Wireless Power

Transfer. Antennas and Propagation Society International Symposium (APSURSI), 2013 IEEE.
[32] Wireless charging, Adaptor die, Mar 5th 2009. The
Economist. 7 November 2008. Retrieved 4 June 2009.
[33] Buley, Taylor (9 January 2009). Wireless technologies
are starting to power devices, 01.09.09, 06:25 pm EST.
Forbes. Retrieved 4 June 2009.
[34] Alternative Energy, From the unsustainable...to the unlimited. EETimes.com. 21 June 2010.
[35] Patent Application PCT/CN2008/0728855
[36] Patent US7164255
[37] Huschens, Markus (2012). Various techniques for wireless charging. EETimes-Asia (eMedia Asia Ltd). Retrieved January 16, 2015.
[38] Puers, R. (2008). Omnidirectional Inductive Powering for
Biomedical Implants. Springer Science & Business Media.
pp. 45. ISBN 1402090757.
[39] Worlds rst!! Production starts for Capacitive Coupling
Wireless Power Transmission Module. ECN magazine
(Advantage Business Media). October 27, 2011. Retrieved January 16, 2015.

[48] Wireless Power Transmission for Solar Power Satellite

(SPS) (Second Draft by N. Shinohara), Space Solar Power
Workshop, Georgia Institute of Technology
[49] Brown., W. C. (September 1984). The History of
Power Transmission by Radio Waves. Microwave Theory and Techniques, IEEE Transactions on 32 (Volume: 32, Issue: 9 On page(s): 12301242+ ISSN:
00189480): 1230. Bibcode:1984ITMTT..32.1230B.
doi:10.1109/TMTT.1984.1132833.
[50] POINT-TO-POINT WIRELESS POWER TRANSPORTATION IN REUNION ISLAND 48th International Astronautical Congress, Turin, Italy, 610 October
1997 IAF-97-R.4.08 J. D. Lan Sun Luk, A. Celeste,
P. Romanacce, L. Chane Kuang Sang, J. C. Gatina
University of La Runion Faculty of Science and
Technology.
[51] Brown, W.C.; Eves, E.E. (June 1992). Beamed microwave power transmission and its application to space.
IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques
40 (6): 12391250. doi:10.1109/22.141357.
[52] Sahai., A.; Graham, David (2 June 2011). Optical
wireless power transmission at long wavelengths.
IEEE International Conference on Space Optical Systems and Applications (ICSOS), 2011, Santa Monica,
CA (Print ISBN 9781424496860): 164170.
doi:10.1109/ICSOS.2011.5783662. ISBN 978-1-42449686-0.

11

[53] Smith, David (4 January 2009). Wireless power spells

end for cables. The Observer (London).

[71] Shinohara (2014) Wireless Power Transfer via Radiowaves, p. 11

[54] power transmission via lasers. Laserfocusworld.com.

Retrieved 4 June 2009.

[72] Angelo, Joseph A. (2009). Encyclopedia of Space and

Astronomy. Infobase Publishing. pp. 292293. ISBN
1438110189.

[55] Skillings, Jonathan (23 August 2008). Laser weapons:

A distant target, CNET news August 23, 2008 1:41 pm
PDT. News.cnet.com. Retrieved 4 June 2009.
[56] Laser Weapons Almost Ready?" Not!".
fensetech.org. Retrieved 4 June 2009.

De-

[57] White Sands testing new laser weapon system, US

Army.mil, 30 Jan 2009. Army.mil. 30 January 2009.
Retrieved 4 June 2009.
[58] Lasers Power Planes, Drones. Defensetech.org. Retrieved 4 June 2009.
[59] Riding a Beam of Light. Space.com. 24 October 2005.
Retrieved 4 June 2009.
[60] Free-Space Laser Propagation: Atmospheric Eects.
Ieee.org. Retrieved 4 June 2009.
Propagation Characteristics of Laser Beams Melles
Griot catalog
L. C. Andrews and R. L. Phillips, Laser Beam Propagation through Random Media, 2nd ed. (SPIE Press, 2005).
Google Books. 2005. ISBN 978-0-8194-5948-0. Retrieved 4 June 2009.
[61] Dr. Rdiger Paschotta. An explanation of Coherence.
Rp-photonics.com. Retrieved 4 June 2009.
[62] An Evolutionary Path to SPS. Islandone.org. Retrieved
4 June 2009.
[63] A Supersynchronous SPS. Georeylandis.com. 28 August 1997. Retrieved 4 June 2009.
[64] Papers Relating to Space Photovoltaic Power, Power
beaming, and Solar Power Satellites.
S.net.
doi:10.1089/153110701753198927.
Retrieved 4
June 2009.
[65] Limitless clean energy from space. Nss.org. Retrieved
4 June 2009.
[66] Power Beaming (Climber) Competition.
ward.org. Retrieved 4 June 2009.

Space-

[67] From Concept to Reality. The Space Elevator. Retrieved 4 June 2009.
Space Elevator Tethers Coming Closer.
Crnano.typepad.com. 31 January 2009. Retrieved 4
June 2009.
[68] Dryden Flight Research Center, Beamed Laser Power
For UAVs. Nasa.gov. 7 May 2008. Retrieved 4 June
2009.
[69] Beeby, Stephen; White, Neil (2010). Energy Harvesting
for Autonomous Systems. Artech House. pp. 12. ISBN
159693719X.
[70] Richard Fitzpatrick (2007). Ampres Circuital Law.

[73] Lee, C.K.; Zhong, W.X.; Hui, S.Y.R. (September 5,

2012). Recent Progress in Mid-Range Wireless Power
Transfer. The 4th Annual IEEE Energy Conversion
Congress and Exposition (ECCE 2012). Raleigh, North
Carolina: Inst. of Electrical and Electronic Engineers. pp.
38193821. Retrieved November 4, 2014.
[74] Tesla, Nikola (May 20, 1891) Experiments with Alternate
Currents of Very High Frequency and Their Application
to Methods of Articial Illumination, lecture before the
American Inst. of Electrical Engineers, Columbia College, New York. Reprinted as a book of the same name
by. Wildside Press. 2006. ISBN 0809501627.
[75] Wheeler, L. P. (August 1943). Teslas contribution to
high frequency. Electrical Engineering (IEEE) 62 (8):
355357. doi:10.1109/EE.1943.6435874. ISSN 00959197.
[76] Cheney, Margaret; Uth, Robert; Glenn, Jim (1999).
Tesla, Master of Lightning. Barnes & Noble Publishing.
pp. 9092. ISBN 0760710058.
[77] Tesla was notoriously secretive about the distance he could
transmit power. One of his few disclosures of details was
in Tesla, Nikola (June 1900). The Problem of Increasing Human Energy. Century Magazine (New York: The
Century Co.). Retrieved November 20, 2014. g. 7. The
caption reads: "EXPERIMENT TO ILLUSTRATE AN INDUCTIVE EFFECT OF AN ELECTRICAL OSCILLATOR
OF GREAT POWER - The photograph shows three ordinary incandescent lamps lighted to full candle-power by
currents induced in a local loop consisting of a single wire
forming a square of fty feet each side, which includes the
lamps, and which is at a distance of one hundred feet from
the primary circuit energized by the oscillator. The loop
likewise includes an electrical condenser, and is exactly attuned to the vibrations of the oscillator, which is worked at
less than ve percent of its total capacity."
[78] Leyh, G. E.; Kennan, M. D. (September 28, 2008).
Ecient wireless transmission of power using resonators
with coupled electric elds. NAPS 2008 40th North
American Power Symposium, Calgary, September 28
30, 2008. Inst. of Electrical and Electronic Engineers.
pp. 14. doi:10.1109/NAPS.2008.5307364. ISBN 9781-4244-4283-6. Retrieved November 20, 2014.
[79] US Patent No. 645576, Nikola Tesla, System of transmission of electrical energy, led September 2, 1897; granted
March 20, 1900
[80] Tesla, Nikola (March 5, 1904). The Transmission of
Electric Energy Without Wires. Electrical World and Engineer (McGraw Publishing Co.) 43: 2376023761. Retrieved November 19, 2014., reprinted in Scientic American Supplement, Munn and Co., Vol. 57, No. 1483, June
4, 1904, p. 23760-23761

12

10

[81] Broad, William J. (May 4, 2009). A Battle to Preserve

a Visionarys Bold Failure. New York Times (New York:
The New York Times Co.). pp. D1. Retrieved November
19, 2014.
[82] Carlson 2013 Tesla: Inventor of the Electrical Age, p. 209210

EXTERNAL LINKS

[97] Glaser, Peter E. (November 22, 1968). Power from

the Sun: Its future. Science (American Assoc. for
the Advancement of Science) 162 (3856): 857861.
doi:10.1126/science.162.3856.857. Retrieved November
4, 2014.

[83] Carlson 2013 Tesla: Inventor of the Electrical Age, Ch. 14

& 15, p. 302-367

[98] Dickinson, Richard M. (1976). Performance of a highpower 2.388 GHz receiving array in wireless power transmission over 1.54 km.. MTT-S Int'l Microwave Symposium Digest: 139141. Retrieved November 9, 2014.

[84] Hawkins, Lawrence A. (February 1903). Nikola Tesla:

His Work and Unfullled Promises. The Electrical Age
30 (2): 107108. Retrieved November 4, 2014.

[99] US Patent No. 527857A, Maurice Hutin, Maurice

Leblanc, Transformer system for electric railways, led
November 16, 1892; granted October 23, 1894

[85] Carlson, W. Bernard (2013). Tesla: Inventor of the Elec- [100] US Patent No. 3713148A, Mario W. Cardullo, William
trical Age. Princeton University Press. pp. 294, 301.
L. Parks, Transponder apparatus and system, led May
ISBN 1400846552.
21, 1970; granted January 23, 1973
[86] Coe, Lewis (2006). Wireless Radio: A History. McFar- [101] Koelle, A. R.; Depp, S. W.; Freyman, R. W. (1975).
land. p. 112. ISBN 0786426624.
Short-range radio-telemetry for identiction, using modulated RF backscatter. Proc. of the IEEE (Inst. of Elec[87] Brown, William C. (1984). The history of power transtrical and Electronic Engineers) 63 (8): 12601261.
mission by radio waves. MTT-Trans. on Microwave Theory and Technique (Inst. of Electrical and Electronic En- [102] Sayer, Peter (Dec 19, 2008). Wireless Power Consorgineers) 32 (9): 12301234. Retrieved November 20,
tium to Unleash Electronic Gadgets. PCWorld (IDG
2014.
Consumer and SMB). Retrieved December 8, 2014.
[88] Dunning, Brian (January 15, 2013). Did Tesla plan to [103] Global Qi Standard Powers Up Wireless Charging.
transmit power world-wide through the sky?". The Cult
PRNewswire (UBM plc). September 2, 2009. Retrieved
of Nikola Tesla. Skeptoid.com. Retrieved November 4,
December 8, 2014.
2014.
[104] Kurs, Andr; Karalis, Aristeidis; Moatt, Robert (July
[89] Life and Legacy: Colorado Springs. Tesla: Master of
2007). Wireless Power Transfer via Strongly CouLightning - companion site for 2000 PBS television docupled Magnetic Resonances. Science (American Assomentary. PBS.org, US Public Broadcasting Service webciation for the Advancement of Science) 317: 8385.
site. 2000. Retrieved November 19, 2014.
doi:10.1126/science.1143254. ISSN 1095-9203.
[90] Dunning, Brian (January 15, 2013). Did Tesla cause
a eld of light bulbs 26 miles away to illuminate wirelessly?". The Cult of Nikola Tesla. Skeptoid.com. Retrieved November 4, 2014.
[91] Tesla, Nikola; Marini, Aleksandar, Ed. (1977).
Colorado Springs Notes, 1899-1900. Beograd, Yugoslavia: The Nikola Tesla Museum.
[92] O'Neill, John J. (1944). Prodigal Genius: The life of
Nikola Tesla. Ives Washburn, Inc. p. 193.
[93] Wearing, Judy (2009). Edisons Concrete Piano: Flying
Tanks, Six-Nippled Sheep, Walk-On-Water Shoes, and 12
Other Flops From Great Inventors. ECW Press. p. 98.
ISBN 1554905516.
[94] Curty, Jari-Pascal; Declercq, Michel; Dehollain, Catherine; Joehl, Norbert (2006). Design and Optimization of
Passive UHF RFID Systems. Springer. p. 4. ISBN
0387447105.
[95] Belohlavek, Peter; Wagner, John W (2008). Innovation:
The Lessons of Nikola Tesla. Blue Eagle Group. pp. 78
79. ISBN 9876510096.
[96] Dennis Papadopoulos interview. Tesla: Master of Lightning - companion site for 2000 PBS television documentary. PBS.org, US Public Broadcasting Service website.
2000. Retrieved November 19, 2014.

10 External links
Howstuworks How Wireless Power Works describes near-range and mid-range wireless power
transmission using induction and radiation techniques.
Microwave Power Transmission, its history before
1980.
The Stationary High Altitude Relay Platform
(SHARP), microwave beam powered.
Marin Soljai's MIT WiTricity wireless power
transmission pages.
Rezence ocial site of a wireless power standard
promoted by the Alliance for Wireless Power
Qi ocial site of a wireless power standard promoted by the Wireless Power Consortium
PMA ocial site of a wireless power standard promoted by the Power Matters Alliance

13

11
11.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Wireless power Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless%20power?oldid=645517593 Contributors: Jimbo Wales, Bryan Derksen, Heron, Edward, Skysmith, Ronz, Julesd, Feedmecereal, Rob.derosa, Reddi, Omegatron, AnonMoos, Twang, Fuelbottle, Xanzzibar,
Wjbeaty, Gil Dawson, Wolfkeeper, Fleminra, Ssd, Remy B, Bobblewik, Beland, Icairns, GaryPeterson, JamesTeterenko, Punga, Shadanan,
Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Pjacobi, YUL89YYZ, Pjrich, Adambro, Jordin, John Vandenberg, Jag123, Sparkgap, Bert Hickman, Jeodesic, Kundor, Pearle, Justinc, Passw0rd, Merenta, Hcm1955, Gary, Hackwrench, Wouterstomp, SlimVirgin, Metron4, BRW,
Cromwellt, Wtshymanski, Bsadowski1, Cfrjlr, Richwales, Gatewaycat, Smark33021, Noz92, JALockhart, Mindmatrix, Radderz, Armando, Benbest, CharlesC, Phoenix-forgotten, Edison, Josh Parris, Rjwilmsi, Ansend, Vegaswikian, Tdowling, NeonMerlin, JanSuchy,
Xero, Docbug, Nihiltres, Ewlyahoocom, Kolbasz, Fresheneesz, Diza, Srleer, Idaltu, Bgwhite, Manscher, Roboto de Ajvol, The Rambling Man, Peregrine Fisher, RussBot, Shawn81, Gaius Cornelius, Salsb, Yrithinnd, Ospalh, Dv82matt, Eurosong, WAS 4.250, 2over0,
Peter Judge, Back ache, Georey.landis, Mossig, AGToth, Tierce, Katieh5584, Tom Morris, SmackBot, Prebys, Thierry Caro, Luketheobscure, Jagged 85, Alan McBeth, BiT, Gilliam, Chris the speller, TimBentley, Thumperward, Oli Filth, Neo-Jay, Quackslikeaduck, A. B.,
Theneokid, Achilles03, Trekphiler, Rrburke, Worrydream, Addshore, GVnayR, NOS, Ohconfucius, LN2, Rjmorris, Teneri, Sbmehta,
Jaganath, Soumyasch, Shawnborgia, Mr. Blake, BillFlis, Akitstika, Peter Horn, Kvng, Hu12, Iridescent, Cbrown1023, MGlosenger, Benplowman, Dikasths, SamerZiadeh, Tawkerbot2, G-W, Chetvorno, Chris55, MightyWarrior, Mikiemike, CmdrObot, Suls, GALVATRON,
N2e, Joechao, Casper2k3, User6985, Cydebot, Dougweller, Calorus, Marx1980, Gralo, Chrisdab, Tellyaddict, Nick Number, AntiVandalBot, Jj137, Fritz Jrn, Alphachimpbot, Lfstevens, Hayesgm, Magioladitis, VoABot II, SHCarter, Roches, Tobogganoggin, Joecoolaug,
RicarDog, Indon, Tjameson, Dontdoit, MartinBot, Xtraplanetary, Jim.henderson, Jwagnerhki, RockMFR, J.delanoy, Hans Dunkelberg,
Ayecee, Hnc14, LordAnubisBOT, GandalfDaGraay, Gripen40k, Rocket71048576, Fountains of Bryn Mawr, Atropos235, WinterSpw,
Xnuala, VolkovBot, Gmoose1, AeoniosHaplo, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, GLPeterson, WI Keith, IPSOS, Anna Lincoln, Gillyweed, J
Casanova, YordanGeorgiev, KarusaUK, Legoktm, Demize, Hazel77, HybridBoy, Sylvia chamorro, SieBot, Moonriddengirl, Qi78, Caltas,
Eagleal, Bhimaji, Nopetro, BobShair, Ericjul, Afernand74, Wikiaristos, Wuhwuzdat, Denisarona, Escape Orbit, Kanonkas, Efege, Sfan00
IMG, Oneforlogic, ClueBot, PipepBot, Krish raja, PhilDWraight, Auntof6, Sun Creator, SchreiberBike, El bot de la dieta, Scotttroyer,
DumZiBoT, InternetMeme, XLinkBot, Dthomsen8, Pathexplorer, MystBot, RyanCross, Rogimoto, Leeman0, Addbot, DOI bot, PowerBeam, Diegobarone, Sergei, Leszek Jaczuk, 1archie99, Mdr5546, 5 albert square, Wireless friend, Rojypala, Suzumebachisecret, Yobot,
TaBOT-zerem, Mandm, Gdewilde, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Powerbeam08, Visionary77, Frkandris, Henriqueqc, ,
Aaagmnr, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Knowledge Incarnate, LilHelpa, Obersachsebot, Konor org, Capricorn42, Drilnoth, Gensanders,
Gilo1969, Inferno, Lord of Penguins, StealthCopyEditor, Dranthonyjthomson, Kirsted, Brett Lally, GliderMaven, FrescoBot, Magnagr,
Freonjake, Afshin23, Doylespace, BenzolBot, Citation bot 1, DrilBot, Drjokerman, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Jonesey95, GabrielHug, JamesOKAY, Confuxous, Yunshui, Vr3690, DoinkerBoink, Torjusf, RjwilmsiBot, Agent Smith (The Matrix), Enauspeaker, John of
Reading, Carsten.erickson, GoingBatty, Wikipelli, Hhhippo, F, N90p, Bushben, Greatpouya2, Kunihura, JosJuice, EricWesBrown, Rangoon11, VictorianMutant, Teapeat, Rememberway, ClueBot NG, Incompetence, A520, Ronhui, Rknelissen, Widr, MerlIwBot, Helpful
Pixie Bot, Bibcode Bot, Earleon, BG19bot, Artticlesnet1, Rijinatwiki, Nen, Great Tasting Snacks, Xlicolts613, SAuhsoj, Klilidiplomus,
BattyBot, Obarac, Khazar2, AutomaticStrikeout, Akram84, Nikolas369, Mogism, DJBitterbarn, Andyhowlett, Beastly789, Malfactor22,
Veredai, Camyoung54, Gunasekarkvct, Jerey Bosboom, MMcGehee, Stamptrader, JaconaFrere, Wyn.junior, Hulk1992amr, Monkbot,
Filedelinkerbot, Tigercompanion25, BethNaught, Antenna Designer, Tanuj22, A-dizz-a, Aluchsinger, Cartheur, Bullsmaniac and Anonymous: 414

11.2

Images

File:Crystal_energy.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg License: LGPL Contributors:

Own work conversion of Image:Crystal_128_energy.png Original artist: Dhateld
File:ED03-0249-18.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/ED03-0249-18.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.dfrc.nasa.gov/Gallery/Photo/Power-Beaming/HTML/ED03-0249-18.html Original artist: Tom Tschida
File:Inductive_charging_of_LG_smartphone_(2).jpg Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Inductive_
charging_of_LG_smartphone_%282%29.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: LG ,
Original artist: LG
File:Suntower.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Suntower.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:TeslaWirelessPower1891.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/TeslaWirelessPower1891.png License: Public domain Contributors: Electrical World, May 20, 1891. Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: Original uploader
was Reddi at en.wikipedia
File:Wireless_power_system.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Wireless_power_system.svg License:
CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Chetvorno
File:Wireless_power_system_-_inductive_coupling.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/Wireless_
power_system_-_inductive_coupling.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Chetvorno

11.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0