ADCS Notes Part1

Course Notes
Spacecraft Attitude Dynamics and Control

Politecnico di Milano
Prof. Franco Bernelli Zazzera
Part 1:
Attitude dynamics and kinematics
Course notes
Note for the reader

These short notes are in support of the course Attitude dynamics and control, they are not
intended to replace any textbook. Interested readers are encouraged to consult also printed
textbooks and archival papers.
Acknowledgments
I must really thank Ivan Ferrario and Mauro Massari, former students in my class, whose patient
work gave the first impulse to the preparation of the current notes.
Course notes
Index
Fundamental quantities ................................................................................................................... 3
Angular momentum of a rigid body ............................................................................................. 3
Inertia matrix .............................................................................................................................. 4
Rotation kinetic energy of a rigid body ........................................................................................ 5
Principal axes and principal inertia moments ............................................................................... 5
Inertia ellipsoid, kinetic energy ellipsoid, angular momentum ellipsoid ....................................... 7
Geometrical/graphical description of torque-free motion ............................................................... 10
Polhode and herpolhode ............................................................................................................ 10
Attitude parameters ....................................................................................................................... 14
Direction cosines ....................................................................................................................... 14
Euler axis and angle .................................................................................................................. 16
Quaternion ................................................................................................................................ 18
Gibbs vector .............................................................................................................................. 20
Euler angles .............................................................................................................................. 21
Attitude kinematics ....................................................................................................................... 26
Direction cosines ....................................................................................................................... 26
Quaternions ............................................................................................................................... 27
Gibbs vector .............................................................................................................................. 28
Euler angles .............................................................................................................................. 28
Euler equations ............................................................................................................................. 33
Torque-free motion of a simple spin satellite ............................................................................. 35
& , ) ................................................................ 40
Solution of Euler equations in the phase plane (
Attitude stability ........................................................................................................................... 43
Attitude stability of simple spin satellites .................................................................................. 43
Stability of simple spin satellites with energy dissipation .......................................................... 44
Attitude stability relative to a rotating frame.............................................................................. 46
Stability of dual spin satellites ................................................................................................... 49
Effects of energy loss on axial symmetric dual spin satellite ...................................................... 51
Stability diagrams ..................................................................................................................... 53
Disturbing torques......................................................................................................................... 58
Gravity gradient torque ............................................................................................................. 58
Stability of simple spin satellites subject to gravity gradient torque ........................................... 60
Dynamics of dual spin satellites subject to gravity gradient ....................................................... 65
Magnetic torques ....................................................................................................................... 67
Magnetic field model ................................................................................................................ 67
Dipole model ............................................................................................................................ 70
Torque due to atmospheric drag ................................................................................................ 77
Solar radiation torque ................................................................................................................ 79
Suggested readings........................................................................................................................ 81
Course notes
Fundamental quantities
Angular momentum of a rigid body

Let us start by defining the physical quantities that are fundamental and recurrent in the rotational
motion of rigid spacecraft. These quantities are the angular momentum and the kinetic energy. The
angular momentum of a rigid body B is defined referring to a reference frame attached to the
rigid body and moving with it, with origin O:
z
v
B
r
O
y
Considering an infinitesimal point mass, it is defined as:

d h o = r v dm
Therefore, for the whole rigid body B:
h o = r v dm
B
The velocity is expressed as:

v = v o + r + v iB
where vo is the velocity of the origin of the reference system attached to the rigid body, is the
angular velocity of the rigid body and viB is the relative velocity between any point of the body and
the origin of the reference system. For a rigid body, this relative velocity is always zero.
Evaluating the integral yields:
h o = r (v o + r )dm = v o r dm + r ( r )dm
B
We must now evaluate the vector cross products:
x

= y

z
Course notes
x

r = y
z

y z z y
( r ) = z x x z
y x
y
x
x y 2 y xy + x z 2 z xz
r ( r ) = y z 2 z yz + y x 2 x xy
x 2 xz + y 2 yz
x
z
y
z
The first term of the integral can be expressed as a function of the first moment of mass, that is a
measure of the distance between the origin of the reference system and the center of mass, while
integrating the terms of the second vector term, since angular velocity is constant at any point of the
rigid body, we can form the so called inertia matrix and write the angular momentum as:
h o = v o So + I
where So is the first moment of mass and I is the inertia matrix that is expressed as:
So = r dm
B
I xx = y 2 + z 2 dm
I xy = xy dm
I xz = xz dm
B
B
B
2
2
I=
I yx = yx dm
I yy = x + z dm
I yz = yz dm
B
B
B
I zy = zy dm
I zz = x 2 + y 2 dm
I zx = B zx dm
B
B
Inertia matrix
The inertia matrix is symmetric and the terms along the diagonal are called inertia moments, while
the off-diagonal terms are called inertia products. Inertia moments are always positive, while there
is no general rule for the inertia products. The inertia matrix, by its definition, must respect precise
constraints among its elements. It is possible to define 6 triangular inequalities that relate the inertia
moments, which represent constraints on the admissible values of inertia moments. These
constraints are on the sum of two inertia moments and on the difference between two inertia
moments, for example:
I xx + I yy = (x 2 + y 2 + 2z 2 )dm (x 2 + y 2 )dm = I zz
I xx I yy = (y 2 x 2 )dm (x 2 + y 2 )dm = I zz
The remaining inequalities are obtained by simple rotation of the labels x, y and z.
There exist also 3 inequalities that relate the inertia products:
Course notes
I xx = (y 2 + z 2 )dm = (y + z ) dm 2zy dm = A + 2 I zy
2
A0
I xx 0
I xx 2 I zy
Again, remaining inequalities are obtained by simple rotation of the labels x, y and z. Overall, 9
constraints relate the elements of the inertia matrix.
Rotation kinetic energy of a rigid body
Kinetic energy is defined as:

2T = v v dm = (v o + r ) (v o + r ) dm = (v o v o + 2 v o ( r ) + ( r ) ( r )) dm
B
The first term represents the kinetic energy due to the linear motion of the rigid body, not of interest
in this case since we study only rotational motion. Therefore, the kinetic energy due to the angular
motion is expressed as:
2Trot = (2 v o ( r ) + ( r ) ( r )) dm = 2 v o So + ( r ) ( r )dm
B
Expanding the term to be integrated we have:
( r ) ( r ) = 2y z 2 + 2z y 2 + 2z x 2 + 2x z 2 + 2x y 2 + 2y x 2 2y z yz 2z x xz 2y x xy
That, once integrated, leads to:
( r ) ( r )dm = I
B
xx
2x + I yy 2y + I zz 2z + 2I yz y z + 2 I xz z x + 2 I xy y x
We can then write the kinetic energy using matrix notation, as:
2T = 2 v o So + I
By choosing the origin O coincident with the center of mass of the system, So vanishes and the
angular momentum and kinetic energy become:
h = I
2T = I
Principal axes and principal inertia moments
We can now try to find a further simplification of the expressions of the angular momentum and
kinetic energy, trying to simplify the inertia matrix. In order to do so, we must change the reference
system, keeping the origin coincident with the center of mass but such that the kinetic energy is a
Course notes
purely quadratic expression in the components of , thus reducing the inertia matrix to diagonal
form.
z
z
y
y
x
x
Any vector can be transformed from one reference system to another by multiplication by the
direction cosine matrix. This matrix contains the projections on the second reference frame of the
axis defining the first reference frame.
' = a
a represents the direction cosines matrix, that is orthogonal (aT=a-1). Applying the multiplication
rule to the expression of the kinetic energy leads to:
2T = (a T ' ) I (a T ' )
and, in matrix notation1:
T
2T = ' a I a T ' = ' I' '

where I is the inertia matrix in the new reference frame (a I aT).
Coming back to the problem of finding a rotation capable of transforming the inertia matrix into
diagonal form, we can write this problem as:
a I aT = diag I x' , I 'y , I z'
This is the standard eigenvalue problem for matrix I. Once the eigenvalue problem is solved, the
rotation matrix a is composed by the eigenvectors associated to the eigenvalues of I, that are Ix, Iy
and Iz. Each row of rotation matrix a is one eigenvector. Eigenvectors correspond to the direction
cosines of the new reference frame, called principal inertia frame, with respect to the starting
reference frame. The principal inertia frame is therefore reference frame with origin in the center of
mass of the rigid body and such that all inertia products are equal to zero. Calling Ix, Iy, Iz, the
principal inertia moments, the angular momentum and kinetic energy become:
h = I = I x x + I y y + I z z
2T = I = I x 2x + I y 2y + I z 2z
1
Matrix notation for vector dot product (inner product or scalar product) consists in the following:
v 1 v 2 = v 1T v 2
Course notes
It is pointed out that a plane of symmetry (in terms of mass distribution) includes 2 principal inertia
axes, and then the third is uniquely defined as the axis orthogonal to the plane and passing through
the center of mass. It is also pointed out that, normally, it is easy to evaluate the inertia matrix in a
geometrically meaningful reference. Should this not be a principal axis frame, it can be calculated
by solving the eigenvalue problem as described.
The principal inertia matrix includes always the maximum possible and the least possible inertia
moment, no other reference can show along the diagonal greater or smaller inertia moments.
Inertia ellipsoid, kinetic energy ellipsoid, angular momentum ellipsoid
Assuming that the angular velocity has a constant direction, we can write:
=
where is the unit vector defining the direction of . The kinetic energy can be written in the form:
2T = I = I xx 2x + I yy 2y + I zz 2z + 2(I xy x y + I yz y z + I xz x z ) = I 2
The expression of I can now be evaluated as:
2
y

I = I xx x + I yy

+ I zz z + 2 I xy x

+ I yz y
z

+ I xz x z

with:
x i
=
= l x
y j
=
= l y
z k
=
= l z
defined as the direction cosines of unit vector . In a principal inertia reference system we can
write:
I = I x l 2x + I y l 2y + I z l 2z
that can be transformed into:
l 2 x I
1 Ix
l 2 y I
1 Iy
l 2 z I
1 Iz
=1
This is an ellipsoid, called inertia ellipsoid, in which the coordinates of each point represent the
components of the generic direction divided by the square root of the inertia moment associated
Course notes
to that direction, while the semi-axes are inversely proportional to the square root of each principal
inertia moment.
Semi-axes:
Point coordinates
1/ I x , 1/ I y , 1/ I z
l x
I , l y
I , l z
Representing this ellipsoid in a Cartesian space, in a principal inertia frame, it is possible to

calculate the inertia moment associated to any direction. Tracing any direction, the intersection with
the ellipsoid occurs at a distance from the origin equal to 1 I , where is the unit vector of the
given direction. In the same way, the intersection of the ellipsoid with the coordinate axes allows to
calculate the principal inertia moments.
Now we can write the expression of the kinetic energy as a function of the generic inertia moment
in the direction :
2T = I 2 = I x 2x + I y 2y + I z 2z
This can be written also as:
2
y
2x
2z
+
+
=1
2T I x 2T I y 2T I z
that represents another ellipsoid, called kinetic energy ellipsoid, in a space defined by angular
velocities. This ellipsoid represents all possible angular velocities compatible with the given kinetic
energy T. The intersection of the ellipsoid with any direction is at distance 2T I from the origin.
A similar representation holds for the angular momentum:
h 2 = h h = I 2x 2x + I 2y 2y + I 2z 2z
Course notes
that can be written as:

2
y
2x
2z
+
+
=1
h 2 I 2x h 2 I 2y h 2 I 2z
Finally, we have a third ellipsoid, called angular momentum ellipsoid, which represents the
compatibility of the angular velocity with the given level of angular momentum.
Course notes
Geometrical/graphical description of torque-free motion
Polhode and herpolhode
The inertia ellipsoid has no intersection with the kinetic energy ellipsoid, unless the two are
coincident, while the angular momentum ellipsoid must intersect the kinetic energy ellipsoid at least
in one point in order to represent a real motion. In fact, if no energy dissipation exists and no torque
is applied, both kinetic energy and angular momentum must be constant. So, given T and h, angular
motion must evolve in such a way that angular velocity vector identifies the intersection of the
kinetic energy ellipsoid with the angular momentum ellipsoid. In fact, angular velocity must be
compatible with the energy level and with the angular momentum defined by the initial conditions
of motion. The intersection of the kinetic energy ellipsoid with the angular momentum ellipsoid
generates two lines, called polhodes.
P oloide
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
2
1
2
1
0
0
-1
y
-1
-2
-2
So far we have looked at the problem in a body frame, not fixed in inertial space. In an inertial
frame, we will observe vector h as a fixed vector, if no torque is applied. Then, if no dissipation is
present, we have:
T = h = cos t
h = cos t
We can observe that the projection of over h is constant:
h =
h T
= = cos t
h
h
Now, considering a plane orthogonal to h, at a distance h from the center of mass, the terminal
point of vector lies always on this plane due to the conservation of the projection of over h.
This plane is called invariant plane. All this is a consequence of conservation of kinetic energy T
with time:
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Course notes
d
( h ) = 1 (d h + d h ) = 0
dt
dt
dh = 0
d h = 0 d h
The line traced by the angular velocity on the invariant plane is in general not closed, it is called
herpolhode. The herpolhode is in any case a curve limited in space. In the body axes reference
frame the derivative of the angular velocity vector is always tangent to the kinetic energy ellipsoid,
while in the inertial space the kinetic energy ellipsoid rolls on the invariant plane as the angular
velocity draws the herpolhode.
From the mathematical point of view, the intersection of the two ellipsoids is evaluated as:
2y
2x
2
+
+ z =1
2T
2T
2T
Ix
Iy
Iz
2y
2x
2z
+
+
=1
h2 2 h2 2 h2 2
Ix
Iy
Iz
Equating the two left hand terms, equal to 1, we find the polhode:
Iy
I
1
1
I
1
2
+ 2z I z z2
2x I x x2
+ y I y 2
=0
2T
2T
2T
h
h
h
In order to obtain a real solution, the three terms into brackets must show differences in sign.
Multiplying each term by h2 we have three terms like:
h2
2T
Assuming Ix > Iy > Iz we obtain the conditions for a sign change:

Ix >
h2
2T
and
Iz <
h2
2T
It is not necessary to impose conditions on Iy since the change in sign is already guaranteed by the
previous conditions. The final constraint is then:
Ix >
h2
> Iz
2T
that guarantees the possibility of having a real rotational motion.

Given the result so far obtained, it is difficult to make any consideration on the polhode as a line in
space, while it is interesting to analyze its projections onto the three coordinate planes. We have:
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Course notes
2
I x 2x I y y I z 2z
+
+
=1
2T
2T
2T
I x 2x + I y 2y + I z 2z = 2T
Looking at the projection onto the plane (x-y), we reduce to two dimensions by eliminating the
coordinate z:
I z 2z = 2T I x 2x I y 2y
Substitution into the polhode equation gives:
Iy I
1
1 Iz
1
I
I
I x 2x x2
+
2 + I y 2y 2 z2 + 2T z2
=0
2 T 2T h
h
2T
h
h
h
Iy I
I
I
I
I x 2x x2 z2 + I y 2y 2 z2 + 2T z2 1 = 0
h
h
h
h
h
I y (I y I z ) 2TI z h 2
I (I I )
+
2x x x 2 z + 2y
=0
h
h2
h2
I (I I )
I y (I y I z )
= 1
2x x2 x z + 2y 2
h 2TI z
h 2TI z
that represents a planar conic curve. Operating in the same way, we have the projections onto the
(y-z) plane:
I y (I y I x )
I (I I )
+ 2z z2 z x = 1
2y 2
h 2TI x
h 2TI x
and onto the (x-z) plane:
I x (I x I y )
I (I I )
+ 2z z2 z y = 1
2x 2
h 2TI
h 2TI
y
y
Analyzing the planar conic curves and the signs of all coefficients, we have that:
h 2 2TI z > 0
h 2 2TI x < 0
h 2 2TI y ?
12
Course notes
Therefore we know that the projections on planes (x-y) and (y-z) are ellipses, since coefficients are
of the same sign, while projection on plane (x-z) is a hyperbola since the signs of the coefficients
are different.
The fact that, looking at the polhode in the (x-z) plane, i.e. looking at it from the y axis, we see a
hyperbola can be considered as a sort of instability. In fact, if the angular velocity is slightly shifted
from the x-axis or from the z-axis it will remain confined in a region close to the axis, while a slight
shift from the y-axis would cause a dramatic departure from the original condition. All this can be
seen by looking at the kinetic energy ellipsoid and at the trajectories that are drawn on it by the
angular velocity vector. It is possible to divide the ellipsoid into areas corresponding to different
initial conditions:
z
2TIx < h2 <2TIy
h2 = 2TIz
2TIy < h2 <2TIz
y
h2 = 2TIx
h2 = 2TIy
x
The inequalities hold for a given ellipsoid where the energy level has been fixed.
13
Course notes
Attitude parameters
It is always necessary to be able to switch from a reference frame to another reference frame, such
as the case of representing the principal inertia frame (body frame) as seen by an inertial frame or
by an Earth-centered reference frame or even by a local-vertical-local-horizontal frame.
3
3
Y
X
Satellite
Z
3
Earth
Sun
2
Earth
2
1
1
Y
y
X
X is the satellite local vertical direction

Y is the satellite velocity direction
Z is the third direction, orthogonal to X and Y
x
Satellite
z
Z
x,y,z are the satellites principal inertia axes
To define the orientation of one frame with respect to another, three parameters are the minimal set
required. Often redundant parameters are used, i.e. more than three, either in order to improve the
physical insight into the transformation or to simplify some numerical analysis.
Direction cosines
Each axis of the reference frame that we target is defined in the current reference frame by the three
components of its unit direction vector. Assembling the components of the three axes we obtain the
direction cosines matrix:
u1
A = v1
w 1
u2
v2
w2
u3
v 3
w 3
in which each row represents one axis. This matrix allows switching from the representation of a
vector in one reference to another reference. As example, let consider a planar rotation:
14
Course notes
2
v
cos sin 0
A = sin cos 0
0
1
0
u
The formal expression of the vector in the new reference (auvw) is obtained by multiplying the
original vector (a123) by the direction cosine matrix A:
a uvw = A a 123
For the inverse rotation it is necessary to write the direction cosine matrix of axes 1,2,3 in the
reference u,v,w; the result is the transpose of matrix A:
a 123 = A T a uvw
This transformation does not affect the magnitude of the vectors and the relative angles between
vectors. This attitude representation includes 9 parameters, 6 more than the minimal set, but it must
be considered that the three axes are mutually orthogonal. So, there must be six constraints among
direction cosines, three expressing mutual orthogonality and three expressing the invariability of
magnitude of the unit vectors:
u = u 12 + u 22 + u 32 = 1
2
2
2
v = v1 + v 2 + v 3 = 1
2
2
2
w = w 1 + w 2 + w 3 = 1
Magnitude
u v u v = u 1 v 1 + u 2 v 2 + u 3 v 3 = 0
u w u w = u 1 w 1 + u 2 w 2 + u 3 w 3 = 0
v w v w = v w + v w + v w = 0
1 1
2
2
3 3
Orthogonality conditions
The six constraints among the direction cosines lead to the following property of the direction
cosines matrix:
A AT = I
Then, A is orthogonal so that the following holds:
A T = A 1
15
Course notes
We can now see how to treat a sequence of two rotations:

3
v
w
u
v
u
2
123
uvw
uvw
Inertial (Sun)
Geocentric
Principal inertia
The generic rotation of vector a from the reference 123 into reference uvw is expressed as:
a uvw = A a 123
In the same way, the second rotation from reference uvw to reference uvw is expressed as:
a u ' v 'w ' = A'a uvw
Then, the overall rotation from reference 123 to reference uvw becomes:
a u ' v ' w ' = A"a 123 = A'a uvw = A' A a 123
Concluding, in order to compose a sequence of two rotations it is sufficient to build the overall
direction cosine matrix as the product of the two individual rotations (direction cosine matrix),
taken in the reversed order compared to the sequence of rotations.
A" = A' A
Euler axis and angle
From matrix algebra it is known that real, orthogonal matrices have one unit eigenvalue, to which
we associate the eigenvector e:
Ae = e
(the eigenvalue is 1)
Therefore, vector e does not change due to the rotation represented by matrix A. This is possible
only if the rotation occurs around axis e. This axis is called Euler axis, and the rotation amplitude
around this axis is called Euler angle. We can now try to relate the direction cosines matrix A with
16
Course notes
vector e. If we consider elementary rotations around each coordinate axis 1, 2 and 3, we can notice
that:
cos sin 0
A 3 ( ) = sin cos 0
0
0
1
cos 0 - sin
A 2 ( ) = 0
1
0
sin 0 cos
0
e = 0
1
0
e = 1
0
0
1
A1 ( ) = 0 cos
0 sin
1
e = 0
0
0
sin
cos
In each case, the trace of matrix A is the same and equals:

tr (A ) = 1 + 2 cos
Then it is possible to infer the relation between Euler angle and rotation matrix A:
cos =
1
(tr (A ) 1)
2
Given matrix A it is possible to evaluate e and with simple operations.

Matrix A has the following form in relation to components of the Euler axis e and angle :
cos + e12 (1 cos )
e1e 2 (1 cos ) + e3sin e1e3 (1 cos ) e 2sin
A = e1e 2 (1 cos ) e3sin

cos + e 22 (1 cos )
e 2e3 (1 cos ) + e1sin
e1e3 (1 cos ) + e 2sin e 2e3 (1 cos ) e1sin
cos + e32 (1 cos )
or:
A = I cos + (1 cos )e e sin [e ]
T
where:
0 e3 e 2
[e ] = e3 0 e1
e 2 e1
0
represents cross product matrix operator.
If we know the attitude parameters expressed as Euler axis and angle, it is therefore straightforward
to evaluate the direction cosine matrix A. The inverse operation is also possible, given the rotation
matrix A evaluate Euler axis and angle, in fact:
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Course notes
= cos 1 (tr (A ) 1)
2
(A 23 A 32 )
e1 = 2sin
(A 31 A13 )
e 2 =
2sin
(A12 A 21 )
e 3 =
2sin
It is remarked that the direct transformation, from Euler axis/angle to rotation matrix A, is always
possible, while the inverse transformation, from rotation matrix A to Euler axis/angle, is not always
defined. In fact, when sin becomes zero the Euler axis is undetermined. This occurs when = n ,
that physically means that the axis is not uniquely determined, i.e., it is possible to reach the final
configuration through at least two rotations of same amplitude but different axis. When the inverse
transformation is not determined, the condition is known as a singularity in the attitude
parameterization.
It is also remarked that the inverse trigonometric function arcos returns two possible values of the
Euler angle ( ) that in turn provide two different axes ( e ). This is actually different from the
singularity condition, since we are always looking at the same axis, once from the positive and once
from the negative direction, and to each condition we associate the same rotation angle with
opposite sign. This is physically the same condition.
Euler axis/angle parameters are useful since they are only 4 parameters (the constraint condition is
associated to the fact that e is a unit vector), but unfortunately it is not possible to infer a relation for
sequence of rotations.
Quaternion
A quaternion is a vector of four parameters, linked to the Euler axis/angle parameters through the
relation:
q 1 = e1sin 2
q = e sin
2
2
2
q 3 = e 3sin
q 4 = cos
2
It can be noticed that the quaternion is normalized:
q 12 + q 22 + q 32 + q 24 = 1
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Course notes
In some cases it is convenient to divide the quaternion into a vector part q and a scalar part q4:
q1

q = q 2 , q 4
q
3
The direct transformation, given the quaternion evaluate the direction cosine matrix A, leads to:
q12 q 22 q 32 + q 24
A = 2(q1q 2 q 3q 4 )
2(q1q 3 + q 2q 4 )
or:
2(q1q 2 + q 3q 4 )
2
1
2
2
2
3
q +q q +q
2(q 2q 3 q1q 4 )
2
4
2(q1q 3 q 2q 4 )
2(q 2q 3 + q1q 4 )
q12 q 22 + q 32 + q 24
A = q 24 q T q I + 2q q T 2q 4 [q ]
where:
0
[q ] = q 3
q 2
q3
0
q1
q2
q1
0
The inverse transformation, from matrix A to quaternion, is represented as:

1
q 1 = 4q (A 23 A 32 )
4
q 2 = 4q (A 31 A13 )
4
1
q =
(A A 21 )
3 4q 4 12
1
q = 1 (1 + A + A + A ) 2
4
11
22
33
2
The sign ambiguity has the same explanation given for the Euler axis/angle case. We are always
looking at the same axis, once from the positive and once from the negative direction, and to each
condition we associate the same rotation angle with opposite sign. This is physically the same
condition. Quaternions have no singular condition even in the inverse transformation. In fact,
should q4 become zero it is always possible to evaluate one of the other components of the
quaternion, which will be surely different from zero due to the normalization constraint, and then
evaluate the remaining three components. The inverse transformation has then the following three
further sets of alternative equations:
19

q12 = 1 + A11 A 22 A 33
q 22 =
q 32 =
q 24 =
q 32 = 1 A11 + A 22 A 33
1
(A12 + A 21 )
2
q13 =
(A13 + A 31 )
q 33 =
(A 23 A 32 )
q 34 =
4q1
1
4q12
1
4q12
Course notes
q 34 = 1 A11 A 22 + A 33
(A12 + A 21 )
3
q14 =
(A 23 + A 32 )
q 42 =
(A 31 A13 )
q 44 =
4q 2
1
4q 32
1
4q 32
1
4q 34
1
4q 34
1
4q 34
(A13 + A 31 )
(A 23 + A 32 )
(A12 A 21 )
It is even possible to select the set of equations to adopt on the basis of the maximization of the
square root term, for a reduced truncation error in the following operations. Unfortunately,
quaternions have no physical meaning and therefore their use is not intuitive.
Adopting quaternions, it is possible to express a sequence of two consecutive rotations, combining
quaternion components in the reversed order of rotations. Given a first rotation represented by
quaternion q, a second rotation represented by quaternion q, the overall rotation is represented by
quaternion q given by:
q 4
q
q" = 3
q 2

q1
q 3
q 4
q 1
q 2
q 2
q 1
q 4
q 3
q 1
q 2
q
q 3
q 4
Gibbs vector
Gibbs vector is a minimal attitude parameterization, since it includes only three parameters. It can
also be seen as a non-normalized quaternion, and can be inferred from Euler axis/angle:
q1
g1 = q = e1 tan 2
4
q2
= e 2 tan
g 2 =
q4
2
q3
= e 3 tan
g 3 =
q4
2
Also in this case it is possible to represent the direct transformation from Gibbs vector to rotation
matrix A:
1 + g12 g 22 g 32
2(g1g 2 + g 3 )
2(g1g 3 g 2 )
1
2
2
2
2(g1g 2 g 3 ) 1 g1 + g 2 g 3
2(g 2g 3 + g1 )
A=
2
2
2
1 + g1 + g 2 + g 3
2(g1g 3 + g 2 )
2(g 2g 3 g1 ) 1 g12 g 22 + g 32
or:
20
Course notes
(1 g )I + 2g g 2[g ]
A=
(1 + g )
2
where:
0
[g ] = g 3
g 2
g3
0
g1
g2
g1
0
The inverse transformation is given by:
A 23 A 32
g 1 = 1 + A + A + A
11
22
33
A 31 A13
g 2 =
1 + A11 + A 22 + A 33
A12 A 21
g 3 =
1 + A11 + A 22 + A 33
The inverse transformation becomes singular when = (2n + 1) .

Two consecutive rotations (first rotation expressed by vector g, second rotation represented by
vector g) can be merged into a single Gibbs vector g with the following rule:
g" =
g + g ' g' g
1 g g'
Also this parameterization has a poor physical meaning and furthermore it has singularity
configuration in the inverse transformation, therefore part of the advantages of having only three
parameters are lost.
Euler angles
The attitude can be represented by means of three Euler angles, which are a minimal representation
and have a clear physical interpretation. The concept is based on the fact that it is always possible to
make two orthogonal frames overlap by appropriate rotation of one of them three times around its
reference axes.
Let us make an example to overlap systems 1,2,3 and u,v,w.
We start by rotating by angle around axis 3, that brings the triad in the new configuration 1,2,3.
Now rotate by angle around axis 1, that brings the triad in the configuration 1,2,3.
Finally, rotate by angle around axis 3 to superimpose the triad to the reference u,v,w.
21
Course notes
3=3
3=w
2
2
1
1=1
The direction cosine matrix can be written by adopting the rule of consecutive rotations. In fact, it is
possible to combine the elementary rotation matrices since each rotation is around one of the
coordinate axes:
A 313 (, , ) = A 3 ( ) A1 () A 3 ( )
where:
cos sin 0
A 3 ( ) = sin cos 0
0
1
0
0
0
1
A1 () = 0 cos sin
0 sin cos
cos sin 0
A 3 ( ) = sin cos 0
0
1
0
The labels 1,2,3 of the rotation matrices do not indicate in this case the axis of rotation, but rather
the rotation type, i.e., the family of axes around which the triad is rotating. The overall rotation
matrix is labeled according to the rotation sequence and the rotation angles associated to each
individual rotation:
A 313 (, , )
In this case it is fundamental to remind that matrix products must be made in the reversed order as
compared to the rotations. It is also possible to superimpose the two triads by a different set of
rotation axes, and in this case the values of the rotation angles will also change radically.
This is true even if only the last rotation is changed, all angles will change their magnitude. Matrix
A313 is then written as:
A 313
cos sin + sin cos cos sin sin

cos cos sin sin cos
= sin cos cos sin cos sin sin + cos cos cos cos sin
sin sin
cos sin
cos
It can be noticed that the inverse transform, from matrix A to Euler angles, in this case takes the
form:
22
Course notes
1
= cos (A 33 )
1 A 31
= tan
A 32
= tan 1 A13
A 23
In this case we notice a singularity when sin tends to zero. This means that the first and last
rotations are actually around the same physical direction in space, therefore it is not possible to
distinguish them individually, but rather only the sum or difference of the two.
With Euler angles we have a different rotation matrix A for each combination of rotation axes. Two
consecutive rotations cannot be around the same axis, they would become one single rotation,
therefore the possible sequences are 12, out of which 6 have all indexes different and 6 are
characterized by the same first and third index:
312,213,123,321,231,132
313,323,212,232,131,121
all different indexes

first and third index equal
The different sets of Euler angles are singular for different values of the second rotation angle ,
depending on the fact that the indexes are all different or the first and third index coincide. When all
indexes are different, the singularity condition is = (2n+1)/2, while for equal first and third index
the singularity occurs when = n.
Here follow the symbolic expressions of the direction cosine matrix for the 12 possible sequences,
assuming that the first rotation is always represented by angle , the second by angle and the third
by angle .
cos cos
A123 = sin cos
sin
cos cos
A132 = sin
sin cos
cos sinsin + sin cos

sin sinsin + cos cos
cos sin
cos sincos + sin sin
cos cos
sin sincos cos sin
- cos sin cos + sin sin

sin sin cos + cos sin
cos cos
cos sinsin sin cos
cos sin
sin sinsin + cos cos
coscos
sin
- cos sin
A 231 = cos sin cos + sin sin cos cos cos sin sin + sin cos
sin cos - sin sin sin + cos cos

sin sin cos + cos sin
cos cos + sin sin sin sin cos - cos sin + sin cos sin
A 213 = sin cos + cos sin sin cos cos sin sin + cos cos sin
sin cos
- sin
cos cos
23
A 312
Course notes
cos cos sin sin sin cos sin + sin cos sin
=
- sin cos
cos cos
sin cos + cos sin sin sin sin cos cos sin
- sin cos
sin
coscos
cos cos
cos sin
- sin
A 321 = cos sin + sin cos sin cos cos + sin sin sin sin cos
sin sin + cos cos sin sin cos + cos sin sin cos cos
sin sin
cos sin
cos
A121 = sin sin cos cos sin sin cos

cos sin + sin cos cos
cos sin sin cos cos sin cos sin sin + cos cos cos
cos sin
sin sin
cos
A131 = - cos sin sin sin + cos cos cos sin cos + cos sin cos
sin sin - cos sin sin cos cos cos cos sin sin cos
cos cos sin sin cos sin sin - cos sin sin cos cos
A 212 =
sin sin
cos
cos sin
sin cos + cos sin cos - cos sin sin sin + cos cos cos
A 232
sin sin + cos cos cos

=
cos sin
cos sin
cos
sin sin
sin cos cos sin cos
sin sin
cos cos sin sin cos
A 313
cos cos sin sin cos

= sin cos cos sin cos
sin sin

sin sin + cos cos cos
cos sin
A 323
sin sin + cos cos cos sin cos + cos sin cos
= - cos sin sin cos cos cos cos sin sin cos
cos sin
sin sin
sin sin
cos sin
cos
cos sin
sin sin
cos
If angles are small, i.e., up to 10- 15, we can assume cos x =1, sin x = x, x*x =0 (with x in
radians), therefore the dependence on the order of rotations is lost and we can write:

1
A 312 (, , ) = 1
= A 321 (, , ) = A 213 (, , ) = ....
1
It is reminded that in any case the correspondence between axis and angle must be kept. Matrix A
can also be written as:
A = I [angles ]
If the first and last indexes are coincident, due to loss of importance of the order of rotations, we are
always in the condition that the first and last rotations are almost around the same physical direction
in space, so it is like having only two rotations:
24
Course notes
+ 0
1
A 313 (, , ) =
1
1
0
For small angles, quaternion can be simplified and directly connected to Euler angles when the
three indexes are different. For the sequence 312 we can write:
1
q 1 = 2
q = 1
2
2
1
q 3 =
2
q 4 = 1
Attitude parameterization adopting Euler angles has a clear physical meaning but is numerically
time consuming. Moreover, the rule of consecutive rotations, although existing, is really hard to
implement due to its complexity, therefore it will not be illustrated.
25
Course notes
Attitude kinematics
Direction cosines
We now want to define how attitude parameters change with time, and how they are related to the
angular velocity expressed in body frame.
We begin by considering the direction cosines matrix:
dA
= f (u , v , w )
dt
If matrix A is known at time t, then it is possible to evaluate the matrix at time t+t adopting the
rule of consecutive rotations:
A(t + t ) = A' A(t )
where A represents the rotation in the interval t. Express matrix A as a function of Euler axis and
angle in the interval t:
A' = I cos + (1 cos )e e sin[e ]
T
To define the derivative we must consider short time intervals, therefore will be small:
A' = I [e ]
Euler axis for small rotations will be coincident with the angular velocity vector direction, so that:
= t
= e
0
[e ] = t e w
e v
ew
0
eu
ev 0
e u = w

0 v
w
0
u
v
u t = [ ]t
Therefore we can write:

A' = I [ ]t
A(t + t ) = A(t ) t[ ]A(t )
Applying the definition of derivative, we have:

dA
A (t + t ) A (t )
t[ ]A(t )
= lim
= lim
= [ ]A(t )
0
dt
t
t
26
Course notes
Then, knowing we can integrate dA/dt in order to update matrix A. Since integration is done
numerically, after some steps matrix A will no longer be orthogonal. It is therefore necessary to
orthogonalize matrix A after a certain number of integration steps.
This operation is long and complex, if done exactly, so that approximate solutions to the
orthogonalization are normally used. In this way, approximate solutions can be evaluated with a
higher frequency (at every integration step) since the numerical process is fast enough. It can be
demonstrated that, starting from an initial guess A0(t) of the direction cosines matrix, not orthogonal
due to numerical errors, the recursive formula
Ak+1(t)= Ak(t)*3/2- Ak(t)*AkT(t)*Ak(t)/2
converges rapidly, with increasing k, to the exact value of A. In a first order approximation it is
possible to adopt a single step iteration
A(t)= A0(t)*3/2- A0(t)*A0T(t)*A0(t)/2
Quaternions
The procedure adopted to derive the kinematic relation for direction cosines can now be repeated to
analyze the quaternion kinematics. We can assume that quaternion at time t + t is given by the
composition of quaternion at time t and a quaternion representing the rotation in the interval t:
q4
q
q(t + t ) = 3
q2
q1
q3
q4
q1
q2
q2
q1
q4
q3

q1 = e u sin 2
q = e sin
v
2
2
with
q = e sin
w
3
2
q4 = cos
q1
q2
q (t )
q3
q4
Then:
q (t + t ) = I cos + w
2 ev
eu
ew
ev
eu
eu
ev
ew
eu
ev
sin q (t )
ew 2
For short intervals t we can approximate:

= t
cos
=1
2
sin
t
= =
2 2
2
and evaluate eu, ev, ew, as a function of = e and therefore write:
27
Course notes
q(t + t ) = I + t q(t )
2
where :
0

= w
v
w
0
u
v
v
u
0
w
u
v
w
Taking the limit for t0:

dq
q (t + t ) q (t ) 1
= lim
= q (t )
0
t
dt
2
Therefore, also in this case, knowing the angular velocity we can integrate the derivative of the
quaternion to propagate attitude. As for the direction cosines, there is a problem of normalization,
but since q is a vector its normalization is trivial.
Gibbs vector
It is not possible to evaluate the derivative of the Euler axis/angle parameterization, due to the lack
of rule for consecutive rotations. For the Gibbs vector this can instead be evaluated, with the usual
procedure already adopted for quaternion and direction cosines:
g(t + t ) =
g(t ) + g'g 'g(t )

1 g (t ) g '
where:
g ' = etan
1
small t
= t
2
The derivative is then:

dg 1
= g(t ) + (g(t ) )g (t )
dt 2
Euler angles
Euler angles have no convenient rule for combining two consecutive rotations, however it is
possible to calculate the derivatives of the angles for each sequence of rotations. Let consider the
sequence 313 (,,):
28
Course notes
If we have variation of angle alone, then rotation will be about axis 3, so that we can write:
= & 3
If we have variation of alone, then rotation will be about axis 1, so that:

= & 1'
Again, if we have variation of angle alone, rotation will be about axis w, so that:
= & w
The three contributions are independent one from the other, therefore by simple combination of the
three contributions we obtain:
= & 3 + &1'+ & w

3=3
w=3
2
2
2
&
1
&
1
&
u
Taking the projections of on axes u,v,w :
& 1'u +
u = u = & 3 u +
& w u = & 3 u + & 1'u
& 1'v
& w v = & 3 v +
v = v = & 3 v + & 1'v +
&
& ww
w = w = & 3 w + 1'w +
Inner products 3 u, 3 v, 3 w represent the third column of matrix A313, while inner products 1u, 1v,
1w represent the first column of matrix A313 if we consider = 0, in fact the first column represent
axis 1, that is coincident with axis 1 in case = 0. Finally, w w = 1 since w is a unit vector.
We then have:
u = & sin sin + & cos
& sin
v = & sin cos
= & cos +
&
w
from which the kinematic relations are obtained as:
29
Course notes
& (u sin + v cos )

=
sin
&
= u cos v sin
cos
& = w (u sin + v cos )
sin
where angles ,, are taken at time t.

For the other sequences of rotations we obtain different sets of kinematic equations, adopting the
same procedure and considering the composition of appropriate angles and axis of rotation. It is
important to notice that in any case we have some singular conditions, for which the derivatives are
infinite, and these singular conditions occur for the same angle values that make singular the inverse
transformation of the parameters.
Here follow the sets of kinematic equations for the derivatives of Euler angles for the 12 possible
sequences of Euler angles, assuming that the first rotation corresponds always to angle , the
second rotation to angle and the third rotation to angle .
& (u cos vsin )
=
cos
&
sequence 123 = vcos + u sin
sin
& = w (u cos vsin )
cos
& (u cos + w sin )

=
cos
&
sequence 132 = w cos u sin
sin
& = v + ( u cos + w sin )
cos
& ( vcos w sin )
=
cos
&
sequence 231 = w cos + vsin
sin
& = u ( vcos w sin )
cos
& ( vcos + u sin )
=
cos
sequence 213& = u cos vsin
sin
& = w + ( vcos + u sin )
cos
& ( w cos u sin )
=
cos
&
sequence 312 = u cos + w sin
sin
& = v ( w cos u sin )
cos
30
Course notes
& ( w cos + vsin )

=
cos
&
sequence 321 = vcos w sin
sin
& = u + ( w cos + vsin )
cos
& ( vsin + w cos )
=
sin
&
sequence 121 = vcos w sin
cos
& = u ( vsin + w cos )
sin
& ( vcos w sin )
=
sin
sequence 131& = w cos + vsin
cos
& = u + (vcos w sin )
sin
& ( w cos u sin )
=
sin
&
sequence 212 = u cos + w sin
cos
& = v + ( w cos u sin )
sin
& ( w sin + u cos )
=
sin
&
sequence 232 = w cos u sin
cos
& = v ( w sin + u cos )
sin
& ( usin + vcos )

=
sin
&
sequence 313 = u cos vsin
cos
& = w (u sin + vcos )
sin
& (u cos vsin )
=
sin
&
sequence 323 = vcos + u sin
cos
& = w + (u cos vsin )
sin
Euler angles are integrable, this meaning that:
31
Course notes
t
= 0 + & dt
0
t
& dt
= 0 +
0
= 0 + & dt
0
This is not true for angular velocities, that when integrated do not provide angles, since angular
velocity is not a fixed vector. To verify this statement, we recall the integrability condition:
dz = Adx + Bdy
A B
=
y x
& cos dt = sin sin d + cos d = A d + B d

u = & sin sin +
u
A
= sin cos
=0
not integrable
The same integrability condition verified for Euler angles:

& = u
sin
cos
+ v
sin
sin
d =
sin
cos
v dt = Au dt + Bv dt
u dt +
sin
sin
sin
1
A

sin
cos
sin
sinin
=
=
( vdt ) ( vdt ) sin 2

( vdt )
( vdt )
cos cos
&
=
=
sin
( vdt ) v
&
=
= sin
( vdt ) v
therefore :
1
A
=
sin 2 cos cos 2sin
( vdt ) sin 2
B
and check that it has the same expression, this
(u dt )
demonstrates integrability of Euler angles.
In similar way we can evaluate
32
Course notes
Euler equations
Euler equations are the analytic form adopted to describe the attitude motion of a rigid body. We
start by writing the fundamental equation:
dh
=M
dt
In body axes the angular momentum vector is:
I xx x + I xy y + I xz z
h = I yx x + I yyy + I yzz
I + I + I
zx x zy y zz z
Writing the fundamental equation in body axes we have:
h& + h = M
and expanding the expression of the angular momentum we obtain a system of first order
differential equations, nonlinear and strongly coupled:
I xx
& x + I xy
& y + I xz
& z I xyx z I yyyz I yz2z + I xz x y + I zzz y + I yz2y = M x
& x + I yy
& y + I yz
& z I yzx y I zzx z I xz 2x + I xx x z + I xyz y + I xz 2z = M y
I yx
&
& y + Izz
& z I xx x y I xz yz I xy 2y + I yyx y + I yzz x + I xy2x = M z
I zx x + I zy
If we refer the dynamics to the principal inertia axes, we can simplify the system dynamics since
inertia products will vanish:
Ix
& x + Iz I y zy = M x
& y + (I x Iz )x z = M y
I y
I
z & z + I y I x y x = M z
In these equations, if the coupling term vanishes then the rotation around one axis will be driven
only by the torque around the same axis.
Rotational dynamics of a satellite is then described by joining Euler equations and an attitude
parameterization.
M
?
Euler
equations
0
33
Attitude
Parameters
0,0,0
,,
Course notes
On a satellite we have torques influencing directly the dynamics (Euler equations) and induce
changes in the components of angular velocity. Adopting one attitude parameterization we can,
knowing the angular velocity, calculate the attitude parameters that indicate the orientation of the
satellite in space and that allow to evaluate the position-dependent torques. In Euler equations it is
therefore required to assign initial conditions for angular velocity, while in attitude parameterization
we must assign the initial satellite attitude.
If the reference system is not centered in the system center of mass, in deriving the rotational
dynamics equations we must also consider the linear motion of the origin of the reference frame.
With reference to the following figure, assuming O is the center of mass and A the origin of the
reference system, assuming that we define with Mo and Fo the torque and force referred to the
system center of mass, we have
MO
FO
RO
z
rA
RA
y
x
dh O
dt
= MO
FO = m a O
h A = h O + m rA r&A
M A = M O + rA FO
a A = a O &r&A
h O = h A m rA r&A
M O = M A rA FO
a O = a A + &r&A
that is
Substituting these expressions in the equation of the angular momentum derivative, we have
dhO
d h m r r&
MO =
M A rA FO = dt
A
A
A
dt
and, since FO = m a O
d h m r r&
M A rA m a A + &r&A = dt
A
A
A
For a rigid body we have r&A = 0 , &r&A = 0 , therefore h O = h A , a O = a A and

d hO
dhA
MA =
+ rA m a A =
+ SA a A
dt
dt
where S A stands for the static moment of the rigid body with respect to point A. If the reference
axes are parallel to the principal inertia axes, then we can write
34
Course notes
I x & x + I z I y z y + Sya z Sz a y = M x
I y& y + (I x I z ) x z + (Sz a x Sx a z ) = M y
I & + I I + S a S a = M
y
x y x
x y
y x
z
z z
It is pointed out that the same result would have been obtained by considering the equation of the
derivative of the angular momentum vector, expressed in the general form h o = v o So + I ,
with no additional assumptions on the reference frame (fixed or with origin in the system center of
mass).
Even in the simplest case, assuming as reference system the principal inertia system, Euler
equations are difficult to integrate and therefore numerical integrations is adopted. In some
simplified cases we can obtain an analytical solution of the equations, to be used to verify the
numerical integration results.
Torque-free motion of a simple spin satellite
Assume the satellite is axial-symmetric. Having two equal principal inertia moments, one equation
is decoupled from the other two.
Assume that Ix = Iy :
& x + (I z I y )z y = M x
I x
& y + (I x I z )z x = M y
I y
I
z & z = Mz
Assume that no external torque is applied, then we can study the torque-free motion knowing the
initial conditions:
& x + (I z I y )z y = 0
I x
& y + (I x I z )z x = 0
I y
I
z&z =0
The last equation leads immediately to:
z = const = z0
Furthermore, since no torque is applied, angular momentum and kinetic energy are constant.
Combining the first two equations, the first multiplied by x and the second multiplied by y, we
obtain:
I x & x x + I x & y y = 0
& x x + & y y = 0
d 2
x + 2y = 0
dt
(2x + 2y ) = const
35
Course notes
The magnitude of is then constant. The same result would have been obtained by considering the
constant kinetic energy. To have the magnitude constant, both the x and y components of the
angular velocity must be constant or the projection of the angular velocity on the x-y plane is on a
circle. In fact we know that the angular momentum is constant, therefore:
h = const
h = I x x i + y j + I zz k = h xy + h z
hz is constant, while hxy is parallel to xy (component on x-y plane) but not constant. Therefore
vectors h and describe cones with axis coincident with axis z if we look at the motion from a
body axes reference. If we look at the motion from an inertial reference, h will be fixed and and
the unit vector z describe cones with axes coincident with vector h. Furthermore, and h are
constantly on a plane intersecting axis z. In case the only non-zero component of the angular
velocity is the z component, then motion is referred to as simple spin satellite motion.
z
hz
y
xy
hxy
We can now solve the first two equations. Define:

=
(I z I x )z
Ix
as a characteristic constant of the rigid body, the equations become:

& x + y = 0
& y x = 0
& y from the second equation, we have:

Deriving the first and substituting the value of
&& x + 2 x = 0
36
Course notes
This is the typical equation of an harmonic system that has the following solution:
x = a cos(t ) + b sin (t )
& x = a sin (t ) + b cos(t )
with initial conditions:
x (0 ) = x0
& x (0 ) = & x0
y (0 ) = y0
& y (0 ) = & y0
We then have:
x = x0cos(t ) +
& x0
sin (t )
From the second equation we obtain:
y =
so that:
&x
x = x0cos(t ) y0sin (t )
y = x0sin (t ) + y0cos(t )
In order to demonstrate that xy describes a circle, we can write it as a complex number:

xy = x + i y = x0 [cos(t ) + i sin (t )] y0 [sin (t ) i cos(t )]
or:
xy = x 0 [cos(t ) + i sin (t )] + i y 0 [cos(t ) + i sin (t )]

xy = (x 0 + i y 0 )[cos(t ) + i sin (t )]
that is a harmonic motion on a plane, with magnitude given by the initial values of and constant
angular velocity equal to .
At this point we must analyze the case in which Iz is the maximum inertia moment and the case in
which Iz is the minimum inertia moment:
Iz maximum > 0
Iz minimum
Now we can look at the angles that h and form with the z axis:
37
<0
tan =
tan =
Course notes
xy
z
h xy
hz
I x xy
I z z
Ix
tan
Iz
If Iz is the maximum inertia moment, then > 0 and < , while if Iz is the minimum inertia
moment, < 0 and > .
So far we have seen the motion in the body axes frame, and analyzed the motion of the angular
momentum vector around the z body axis.
In reality vector h is fixed in an inertial frame, so if we allow one of the inertial frame axis to be
coincident with h we will see the body axis rotating around it, along with the angular velocity
vector.
The z axis draws a cone with axis coincident with h, with aperture , while the angular velocity
draws a cone with axis coincident with z, with aperture . Moreover we recall that draws also a
cone with axis coincident with h. We then have two cones, one fixed ( around h) called space
cone, and one that revolves on it ( around z), called body cone. The two cones revolve one
outside the other if is negative, while they revolve one inside the other if is positive.
3h
3h
<0
>0
We can now apply one attitude representation to the axial symmetric satellite:
z
hz
z
y
xy
hxy
38
Course notes
(I z I x )z
Ix
Adopting the Euler angles with sequence 313, we can represent the inertial reference with the third
axis coincident with h.
h=3
x = & sin sin
y = & sin cos
z = & cos + &
We notice that is constant due to the satellite symmetry, and axis z draws a cone of amplitude
around axis h.
Taking time derivatives, we have:
&x =
&& sin sin + & & cos sin
&y =
&& sin cos & & sin sin
&
&& cos +
&&
z =
Replacing in the Euler equations we represent the dynamics as a function of ,, and recalling
that:
&z =0
& x + y
&y =0
x
from the second equation we obtain:
&&& sin 2 sin 2 + & 2

& sin 2 sin cos +
&&& sin 2 cos 2 & 2
& sin 2 sin cos =
&&& sin 2 sin 2 + cos 2 =

&&& sin 2 = 0
Since must be constant the following must hold:

&&& = 0 & = cos t
From the first equation we now have:

&& = 0 & = cos t
39
Course notes
We now have the following expressions:
= 0 + & 0 t
= 0 + & 0 t
=
0
We must now calculate the initial values of the derivatives of e , and to do so we make use of
the first two Euler equations:
&& sin sin + &
& cos sin + & sin cos = 0
&& sin cos &

& sin sin & sin sin = 0
Since the second time derivative of is zero we have:
& =
+
& = z
cos
& =
Ix Iz
z
Ix
& =
I z z
I x cos
In our case Iz < Ix and therefore the time derivative of is positive.
& , )
Solution of Euler equations in the phase plane (
Reconsider the Euler equations:
& x + (I z I y )z y = 0
I x
& y + (I x I z )x z = 0
I y
& (
I z z + I y I x )y x = 0
If we assume that the external torques are zero, then angular momentum and kinetic energy will be
constant:
2T = const
h 2 = const
We now look for a method to decouple and solve the three equations, making use of the
conservation laws just mentioned. Starting from the first equation, taking its time derivative, we
have:
&& x + (I z I y )
& z y + (I z I y )z
&y =0
Ix
From the second and third equations we can compute the time derivative of the angular velocity
components, and substitute it in the above equation:
40

I I
&& x + (I z I y ) x y
Ix
Iz
Course notes
I I
2
y x + (I z I y ) z x
I
2
z x = 0
Now we evaluate:
h 2 2TI z = I 2x 2x + I 2y 2y I x I z 2x I y I z 2y
so that:
2y (I y I z )I y = h 2 2TI z 2x (I x I z )I x
2y (I y I z ) =
h 2 2TI z 2x (I x I z )I x
Iy
Substituting in the previous equation, we get to:

I I
&& x + x y
Ix
Iz
(I x I y ) (I x I z ) 3 + (I I ) I z I x
(2TI z h 2 )
x +
x
z
y
Iy
Iz
Iy
Iy
2
z x = 0
Now evaluate:
h 2 2TI y = I 2z 2z + I 2x 2x I y I z 2z I x I y 2x
so that:
2z (I z I y )I z = h 2 2TI y + 2x (I y I x )I x
(I z I y ) =
2
z
h 2 2TI y + 2x (I y I x )I x
Iz
Substituting in the previous equation, we get to:

I I
&& x + x y
Ix
Iz
(I x I y ) (I x I z ) 3 + I z I x
(2TI z h 2 )
x +
x
I
Iy
Iz
Iy
(h 2 2TI y )
(I I ) (I y I x ) 3 = 0
x + z x
x
Iz
Iy
Iz
or:
(I I x ) h 2 2TI z + (I z I x ) h 2 2TI y
&& x + y
IxIyIz
2(I z I x )(I y I x )I x 3
x +
x = 0
IxIyIz
The other two equations are obtained by following the same procedure, simply with a permutation
of all the operation indexes:
(I I y ) h 2 2TI x + (I x I y ) h 2 2TI z
&& y + z
IxIyIz
(I I z ) h 2 2TI y + (I y I z ) h 2 2TI x
&& z + x
IxIyIz
41
2(I z I y )(I x I y )I y 3
y +
y = 0
Ix IyIz
2(I x I z )(I y I z )I z 3
z +
z = 0
IxIyIz
Course notes
The three equations all have the same structure:
&& + P + Q3 = 0
Integrating the equation we obtain:

1
& 2 + P 2 + Q 4 = K
2
that, for the x equation, becomes:
1
& 2x + Px 2x + Q x 4x = K x
2
1
& 2x + 2x Px + Q x 2x = K x
& ) . We can evaluate

The last expression can be considered as a conic section in the phase plane (,
the sign of each coefficient.
Assuming that Iz > Iy > Ix , we have:
Ix <
h2
< Iz
2T
The coefficients have therefore the following signs:

Px ?
Qx > 0
Py > 0
Qy < 0
Pz ?
Qz > 0
Due to the structure of the coefficients, if the angular velocity component is large enough the Q
term will predominate over the P term, while if the angular velocity component is small enough the
P term will predominate over the Q term. Then, in the y phase plane if the angular velocity is large
the conic section will be a hyperbola, if the angular velocity is small the conic section will be an
ellipse. In the x and z phase planes the conic sections are ellipses for large velocities, for small
velocities the type of conic section is undefined. This is not really important, since in any case, even
for divergent phase plane trace (hyperbola) it is clear that as the angular velocity grows the trace
will change into an ellipse. Notice that in the y phase plane (intermediate inertia phase plane),
should the velocity grow, we would have a diverging motion. This is not possible due to the
conservation of kinetic energy, therefore the conclusion is that in the y phase plane the solution
must be such that the angular velocity is small enough to prevent the trace from being a hyperbola.
x
x
Px > 0
Qx > 0
Px < 0
Qx > 0
42
Course notes
Attitude stability
At this stage we can discuss attitude stability with time, starting by the analysis of Euler equations
in case of torque-free motion:
& x + (I z I y )z y = 0
I x
& y + (I x I z )x z = 0
I y
& (
I z z + I y I x )y x = 0
There is a distinction between torque-free stability and forced-motion stability. The latter depends
on the type of torque applied, rarely known in a suitable analytical form, therefore we will mostly
concentrate on torque-free stability. To analyze stability the first step consists in evaluating an
equilibrium configuration. This is obtained by imposing zero time derivatives of the system states
and then solving the corresponding system of equations:
(I z I y )z y = 0
(I x I z )x z = 0
(I I )y x = 0
y x
The solution is found for one single angular velocity component different from zero. This condition
is known as simple spin satellite. Assume, without loss of generality, that the non-zero component
is the z component:
z 0
x = y = 0
Attitude stability of simple spin satellites
To analyze the stability of this condition, we must first write the linearized equations of motion,
considering small perturbations around the equilibrium position:
(
= (
= (
)
+ )=
+ )=
z = z + z
x
Angular velocity components are now expressed as the sum of the nominal value plus the small
perturbation. In the rest of the analysis, should the assumption of small perturbations hold this will
mean that the condition is stable. Rewriting the equations, the product of two perturbations become
negligible, so that the linearized equations are:
43
Course notes
I x
& x + (I z I y )z y = 0
& y + (I x I z )x z = 0
I y
I
z & z = 0
The derivative are taken only for the perturbation component of the angular velocity, since the
nominal components are constant by definition. The system can now be integrated:
z = const
The perturbation of the z component is therefore constant. For the two remaining equations we can
write:
&& x + 2 x = 0
2 =
(I
I y )(I z I x )
IxIy
The solution is then of the general form:

x = a e it
The condition that guarantees a stable motion, harmonic, is 2 > 0, while for 2< 0 the solution is
exponentially diverging, so unstable.
The condition for stability is verified when:
2 > 0
I z > I y and Iz > I x
or
Iz < I y and Iz < I x
that means that Iz must be either the maximum or the minimum inertia moment.
Stability of simple spin satellites with energy dissipation
Now we look at how the two previous stability conditions are changed due to presence of energy
dissipation, that is:
T& < 0
h = cos t
Calling with z the angular velocity, in case the rotation occurs around the maximum inertia axis or
the minimum inertia axis we can write:
2TI z max = Iz max 2zmax

2TI z min = Iz min 2zmin
h = I z max z max = I z min z min
therefore, for conservation of angular momentum, zmax < zmin, and substituting this inequality into
the expression of kinetic energy we have:
44
Course notes
TIz min > TI z max

Therefore, in case of energy loss, the satellite will tend to the motion condition that has the
minimum energy, rotating around the maximum inertia axis.
The only stable condition, with the usual assumptions on the inertia moments, is then:
Iz > Iy > Ix
We can now analyze how the satellite reorients itself from a generic motion condition to the stable
one. For simplicity we take the case of axial symmetric satellite.
Izz
Inn
We take as reference a rotating system, whose plane n-z includes the three vectors , z and h. This
reference is also principal inertia, and vector h has only 2 components, along the two axes n and z:
h 2 = I 2z2z + I 2n 2n
2T = I z 2z + I n 2n
The energy loss can be represented as:
& z + 2I n n
&n <0
2T& = 2I z z
In addition, the following holds:
& z + 2 I 2n n
&n =0
in fact
h& = 0
2 hh& = 2 I 2z z
so that we have:
I2
& n = 2z z
&z
n
In
and the energy loss is expressed as:
I2
& z I z z = z
& z z (I n I z ) < 0
T& = z
In
In
If Iz is the minimum inertia axis, then:
45
Course notes
&z <0
z
&z <0
z > 0
&z >0
z < 0
In both cases, z decreases in amplitude, and n increases, therefore the angular velocity will tend
to align itself with the maximum inertia axis. If instead Iz is the maximum inertia moment, then it
can be seen that z increases in amplitude, and n decreases, so again the angular velocity will tend
to align itself with the maximum inertia axis. We finally have:
tan =
I n n
I zz
It is possible to repeat the analysis taking the time derivative of angle . Kinetic energy will vary
only until the angular velocity is aligned with the maximum inertia axis, that in this case is
coincident with h. In this final condition all internal dissipation sources must vanish, since loss of
energy will no longer be possible without reduction of angular momentum, and this may vary only
if external torques are applied to the satellite.
Attitude stability relative to a rotating frame
We can now consider the stability of the satellite taking as parameters the relative rotation of the
principal inertia axis relative to a rotating frame. This is the typical case of a simple spin satellite
spinning at one rotation per orbit along a circular orbit, for which the stability implies that the
principal inertia axis remain aligned with the LVLH frame (local-vertical local-horizontal). For this
analysis we must rewrite the equations of motion and then introduce the relative attitude
parameters.
The equations are:
& x + (I z I y )z y = 0
I x
& y + (I x I z )x z = 0
I y
& (
I z z + I y I x )y x = 0
We consider a rotation around the z axis of the LVLH frame (the pitch axis), small rotations and a
set of Euler angles with three different indexes, to avoid singularity in the nominal condition.
y
roll
pitch
z
yaw
x
46
Course notes
Having considered small rotations, the order in which they are defined is not relevant. Indicating the
three small angles as x, y, z, the rotation matrix representing the relative attitude of the satellite
in the LVLH frame is:
1
z y
A = z
1
x
y x
1
Angular velocity becomes:

z y & x
x 1

1
x & y
y = z

1 & z + n
z y x
where n is the nominal angular velocity of the satellite along its orbit (typically, one rotation per
orbit).
Neglecting the products of two or more small quantities:
x = & x y n
y = & y + x n
z = & z + n
therefore the time derivatives are:

&x =
&& x & y n
&y =
&& y + & x n
&
&& z
z =
Now we can substitute in the Euler equations:

&& x & y n ) + (I z I y )(& z + n )(& y + x n ) = 0
I x (
&& y + & x n ) + (I x I z )(& z + n )(& x y n ) = 0

I y (
I
z && z + (I y I x )(& x y n )(& y + x n ) = 0
and expand the products, still neglecting the products of infinitesimal terms:
&& x + n (I z I y I x )& y + n 2 (I z I y ) x = 0
I x
&& y + n (I x + I y I z )& x + n 2 (I z I x ) y = 0
I y
&&
I z z = 0
We then have:
&&z = 0 & z = const z = const t + const
Dividing the first equation by Ix and the second by Iy we get:
47
Course notes
&& x + n (K x 1)& y + n 2 K x x = 0
&& y + n (1 K y )& x + n 2 K y y = 0
where the coefficients Kx and Ky are non-dimensional and always in the range between 1 and +1:
Kx =
Ky =
Iz Iy
Ix
Iz Ix
Iy
To evaluate the stability we can take the Laplace transform of the system, and analyze the
characteristic polynomial:
s2 + K xn 2
sn (1 K y )
sn (K x 1) x (s ) 0
=
s 2 + K y n 2 y (s ) 0
The roots of the characteristic polynomial must have non positive real part in order to have a stable
system:
det[A (s )] = 0
(s
)(
+ n 2 K x s 2 + n 2 K y s 2 n 2 (1 K y )(K x 1) = 0
)
)+ n K K
s + s n K x + n K y + n 2 (1 K y )(1 K x ) + n 4 K x K y = 0
4
s + n s (K x + K y + 1 K x K y + K x K y
4
2 2
=0
s + n s (1 + K x K y ) + n K x K y = 0
4
2 2
For stability, s2 cannot be real or complex, since in this case its square root will correspond to two
complex numbers with phase difference equal to , so one will have positive real part. The only
stable condition will then be s2<0, that will give two purely imaginary solutions, with zero real part.
The stability conditions are then:
b 2 > 4c
a =1
b > b 2 4c
Since n2 is positive, it is possible to solve the characteristic equation for the variable n2s2, so the
stability conditions are written as:
(1 + K
(1 + K
K y ) 4K x K y > 0
Ky )>
(1 K
Ky )
(1 K
Ky ) > 0
2
KxKy> 0
The first condition is trivial, so the second is the real stability condition, that is transformed into:
Iz > Ix
Iz < Ix
or
Iz > I y
Iz < I y
48
Course notes
We have therefore found the same stability condition that must hold for stability in terms of angular
velocity. This because angular velocity components x and y are harmonic, so also angles show a
harmonic oscillation. Rotation around axis z is unstable and tends to misalign axis z and the pitch
axis.
To analyze the actual motion of the satellite we must evaluate the system characteristic roots:
n 2 (1 + K x K y ) n 2 (1 K x K y )
s =
The solution depends upon the nominal angular velocity n, therefore if nominal motion is slow also
the oscillations around axes x and y will be slow. The oscillation is not asymptotically stable since
the characteristic roots have zero real part, while for asymptotic stability a negative real part is
required.
Stability of dual spin satellites
Following the previous analysis, we know that if Iz is the maximum inertia moment then the
rotation is stable, and if the nominal angular velocity is high the frequency of oscillation is also high
and the amplitude of the resulting oscillations will be small. We would like however to have a
satellite whose stability and frequency of oscillation are independent from the axis of rotation and
from the nominal value of the angular velocity, so that we could have stable motion even if rotation
is around an axis that is not the maximum inertia axis.
In the simple spin satellite the stability is dependent upon Izz, that is the nominal angular
momentum. In order to increase the nominal angular momentum, without varying z, we can
introduce an additional element that can rotate relatively to the z axis. This is the dual spin satellite.
z
The angular momentum becomes:

h = I x x i + I y y j + (I z z + I r r )k
where Ix, Iy and Iz include the presence of the rotor and r is the relative velocity of the rotor around
the z axis. We can write the Euler equations for this system, simply replacing the term Izz with the
term Izz+Irr:
49
Course notes
& x + (I z I y ) z y + I r r y = M x
I x
& y + (I x I z ) x z I r r x = M y
I y
& z + (I y I x ) y x + I r
& r = Mz
I z
I
r & r = Mr
The fourth equation is now required since we added one degree of freedom to the system. Mr is the
relative torque between rotor and satellite.
We can now analyze the stability of the torque-free motion of the dual spin satellite. The
equilibrium condition is obtained with the nominal angular velocity of the satellite aligned with axis
z, and arbitrary relative velocity of the rotor. Linearizing the equations in this condition, we have:
I x
& x + (I z I y ) z y + I r r y = 0
& y + (I x I z ) x z I r r x = 0
I y
& z + Ir
&r =0
I z
&
I r r = 0
The last two equations are decoupled, that is we can decouple the equations representing rotations
around the nominal direction of h. From these two equations we have z and r constant.
The first two equations are again solved by taking the time derivative of the first and substituting
the derivative obtained by the second equation:
& y = y x
&& x + x y x = 0
having introduced:
x =
(I
y =
I y )z + I r r
Ix
= K x z +
(I x Iz )z Ir r
Iy
Ir
r
Ix
= K y z +
Ir
r
Iy
Stability condition now becomes:

xy > 0
Taking the case:
x > 0
y > 0
we have two inequalities whose solution depends on Ir and r :
I z I y z + I r r > 0
(I z I x )z + I r r > 0
For given z , r , I r we can evaluate the conditions on Ix, Iy, Iz that guarantee stability. This is
normally not the best way to look at the problem, since in general we want to analyze stability for
50
Course notes
given z , Ix, Iy, Iz, evaluating the conditions on Ir and r . So, normally we evaluate the
characteristics of the rotor that guarantee the stability of the overall system. If z = 0 then the
system is stable for any r , while if r = 0 we have the same result of the simple spin satellite.
The most interesting case is the general case, for which stability holds if:
I y I z z < I r r
(I x I z ) z < I r r
This system of inequalities has always a set of solutions, since it is enough to solve the inequality
with the greatest left side term.
Moreover, there is the condition:
x < 0
y < 0
that would lead to:
I y I z z > I r r
(I x I z ) z > I r r
This second set of inequalities are valid only for the case with no energy loss.
The dual spin satellite can then be stable even if rotating around an axis that is not the maximum
inertia axis.
Effects of energy loss on axial symmetric dual spin satellite
The system angular momentum is:

h = (I z z + I r r )k + I n n i
h 2 = (I z z + I r r ) + (I n n )
& z + Ir
& r ) + 2I 2n n
&n =0
2hh& = 2(I z z + I r r )(I z
h
The kinetic energy is:
51
Course notes
2T = I z 2z + I r 2r + I n 2n
& z + 2I r r
& r + 2I n n
&n
2T& = 2I z z
& +I
& +I
& = T& + T&
T& = I
z
We can evaluate an equivalent angular velocity as:

e =
( Iz z + I r r )
In
In n & n = e (I z& z + I r & r ) since 2hh& = 0

T&s + T& r = I z& z (z e ) + I r & r ( r e )
It is an arbitrary distribution of the energy loss, with the first term relative to the satellite and the
second relative to the rotor:
& zz
T& s = I z
&T = I
&
r
r rr
misalignment of h
viscous energy loss due to the relative velocity
with:
z = (z e )
r = (r e )
We therefore have:
T&
T&
& n = e s + r
I n n
z r
Now, evaluate angle :

sin =
hn
h
Taking the time derivative:
& cos =
&n
In
h
T&
T&
e s + r
&
&
I
I
z r =
& = n n = n n n =
h cos h cos n
h cos n
T&
T&
T&
T&
I n e s + r
I n e s + r
z r =
z r =
=
h cos I n n
h cos h n
T&
T&
T&
T&
I n e s + r
2I n e s + r
z r =
z r =
=
2
h cos hsin
h sin 2
T&
2I T&
T&
T&
= 2 n e s + r = A s + r
h sin 2 z r
z r
since:
0 < < 2
52
Course notes
therefore sin ( ) > 0 and where A > 0.

For stability we should have & < 0 , that is:
T& s T& r
+
z r
> 0
Assuming the contribution of the nominal value of h is given mostly by the presence of the rotor,
that is:
I r r >> I z z
we then have:
e =
I r r
In
z = z
I r r
I
r r
In
In
r = r
I r r
In
In the case Ir >> In (case only theoretical, since this would imply a rotor bigger than the satellite):
z < 0
r < 0
T&
>0
stable
The more general case is then Ir < In, for which:

I n T& s
I n T& r
+
>0
(I n z I r r ) (I n r I r r )
This stability condition is transformed into a condition on the energy loss terms:
T& (I I r r )
T& r > s n r
(I r r I n z )
In general, the rotor energy loss can be tuned with some viscous damping mechanism. Notice that
& r = 0 , then the
now we have a condition that is no longer purely geometrical. In fact, in the case
rotor will show no energy loss and T& r would be zero, so that even with energy loss in the satellite
the system would be unstable. Therefore the rotor should generate some energy loss to ensure
stability.
Stability diagrams
We can now take a look at a few diagrams, known as canonical representations, used to evaluate
attitude stability of satellites.
53
Course notes
Let consider a plane including the three points on the axes at unit distance from the origin,
represented by the equation:
A + B+ C =1
a
1
or, defining:
A=
Ix
Ix + I y + Iz
B=
Ix
Iy
Ix + I y + Iz
Iy
Iz
I I I
C=
Iz
Ix + Iy + Iz
=1
Connecting the three mid points on the sides of the triangle, we form a second triangle (a,b,c) that
includes all the possible combinations of inertia moments.
In fact, the following holds:
-
In point a: Ix = 0 and Iy = Iz
In point b: Iy = 0 and Ix = Iz
In point c: Iz = 0 and Iy = Ix
Along the bisectors two inertia moments are equal:

-
Along the bisector from a: Iz = Iy

Along the bisector from b: Iz = Ix
Along the bisector from c: Ix = Iy
At the intersection of the three bisectors the three inertia moments are all equal.
54
Course notes
Iy = 0
Ix = 0
Iz>Ix>Iy
Iz>Iy>Ix
Stability area of simple
spin satellites with energy loss
Ix>Iz>Iy
Iy>Iz>Ix
+
Ix>Iy>Iz
Stability area of simple spin

satellites with no energy loss
Iy>Ix>Iz
Iz = 0
Alternatively, through a simple change of variables, it is possible to represent in the same way the
plane as a function of Kx, Ky, Kz, in fact:
Iz Iy
Kx =
Ix
Ky =
Kz =
Iz Ix
Iy
Iy Ix
Iz
It is then possible to reduce the representation to the Kx Ky plane. In this case, typically the
coefficients are renamed as Kp, Kr, and Ky, where the correspondence with the previously defined
Kx, Ky, and Kz coefficients is:
Kx = Ky
Ky = Kr
Kz = Kp
Yaw
Roll
Pitch
Ky
1
Kp = 0
Kp<0
Kp>0
-1
Izmax
1
Kr
Izmin
-1
55
Course notes
It is possible to see that:
I x K y = I z I y I z = I x K y + I y
I y K r = I z I x I z = I y K r + I x
Ix K y + Iy = I yK r + Ix
Therefore:
(K
1) =
Iy
Ix
(K r 1)
If Iy > Ix we then have Kp > 0, (Kr - 1) < 0, (Ky - 1) < 0, so that K y 1 < (K r 1) K r > K y .
The simple spin satellite is stable in the dashed regions of the following figure, while for the dual
spin satellite the stability holds if:
x = K y z +
Ir
r > 0
Ix
y = K r z +
Ir
r > 0
Iy
Ky >
I r r
I x z
Kr >
I r r
I y z
If the satellite angular velocity and the rotor angular velocity have the same sign, the stability region
is increased as shown in the figure.
56
Course notes
Simple spin
Dual spin
If the angular velocity of satellite and rotor have opposite signs, then the stability region is reduced.
57
Course notes
Disturbing torques
Now we can analyze the disturbing torques that act on the satellite:
Dynamics
Kinematics
Start with the torque due to gravity gradient:

Gravity gradient torque
The gravity field is not uniform, therefore there could be a torque acting on the satellite. This is
mainly true for large satellites, and even if the resulting torque is small the effect can be
considerable due to the long time of action.
Z=Pitch
Y=Roll
X=Yaw
r
dm
f
We can evaluate the torque generated by the elementary force f, due to the gravity acting on the
elementary mass dm:
dM = r
M = r
B
Gm t dm
R+r
Gm t
R+r
(R + r )
(R + r )dm
r is much smaller than R, therefore it can be considered as a perturbation:

58
Course notes
3
2
r2
R r 2
R r 2
3
R + r = R 2 + r 2 + 2R r
= R 3 1 + 2 + 2 2 R 3 1 + 2 2
R
R
5 R r
3
Rr
taking the series expansion at r = 0 R 3 1 (1) 2 2 2 r = R 3 1 3 2

R
R
2
Then:
M=
G mt
R r
r 1 3 2 (R + r )dm
3
R B
R
If the reference system has origin in the center of mass:
r (r + R )dm = (r r ) + (r R )dm = R S
=0
so that:
M=
G mt
Gm
R r
r 3 2 (R + r )dm = 5 t r (R + r )( 3R r )dm
3
R B
R
R B
Finally, we get to:

M=
3G m t
R5
(r R )(r R )dm
B
Taking as reference system the LVLH frame (x-yaw, y-roll, z-pitch), we have:
r = xi + y j + z k
R = Ri
So that:
M=
3G m t
3G m t
3G m t
Rx (z j y k )Rdm =
x (z j y k )dm =
5
3
R B
R B
R3
(xz j xyk )dm =

B
3G m t
( I xz j + I xy k )
R3
We therefore have a torque with components in roll and pitch, and in case one principal axis is
aligned with the yaw axis then the torque will vanish, since in this case Ixz e Ixy are zero.
Furthermore the torque is inversely proportional to the third power of the distance from the
attracting body (Earth).
In order to evaluate the effect of the torque on the satellite dynamics, this has to be evaluated in the
principal axis frame and inserted in the Euler equations.
Taking as reference the principal inertia axes, the expression of r does not change but:
R = R (c1 i + c 2 j + c3 k )
where c1, c2, c3 are the direction cosines of the radial direction in the principal axes. Then:
59
3G m t
M=
R3
Course notes
yc3 zc 2
B (xc1 + yc2 + zc 3 ) zc1 xc 3 dm

xc yc
1
2
Evaluating all the terms under the integral sign, considering that the reference is principal inertia,
we have:
(y 2 z 2 )c 2c 3
3G m t 2
3G m t
2
(
)
M=
z
x
c
c
1 3 dm =
3
R B 2
R3
2
(
)
x
y
c
c
1 2
(I z I y )c 2 c 3
(I x I z )c1c 3
(I I )c c
y x 1 2
Therefore if one of the principal axes is aligned with the radial direction the torque is zero because
only one of the direction cosines is non-zero.
Stability of simple spin satellites subject to gravity gradient torque
In this case the Euler equations become:
3Gm t
&
I x x + (I z I y )z y = R 3 (I z I y )c 3c 2
3Gm t
& y + (I x I z )x z =
(I x I z )c1c3
I y
R3
3Gm t
&
I z z + (I y I x )y x = R 3 (I y I x )c 2 c1
This torque is generated by the same force field that causes the orbital motion, so it is acting
continuously, and it depends on the attitude of the satellite (the orientation of the radial direction in
the principal inertia frame). We can introduce a set of three small Euler angles to define the relative
orientation of the principal axes and the LVLH frame:
x 1

y = z

z y
z
1
x
y & x
x & y
1 & z + n
c1 1

c 2 = z
c
3 y
z
1
x
y 1

x 0
1 0
In this way we can write the system dynamics as a function of the Euler angles and their
derivatives, including the gravity gradient torque that now becomes an integral part of the system
dynamics. Assuming that n is equal to one rotation per orbit, then:
60
Course notes
2
V2
1 K
K Gm
= 3 = 3t
n = 2 = 2
R
R R
R
R
2
Therefore, in case of circular orbit, the attitude dynamics including gravity gradient becomes:
& x + (I z I y )z y = 3n 2 (I z I y )c 3c 2
I x
& y + (I x I z )x z = 3n 2 (I x I z )c1c 3
I y
& z + (I y I x )y x = 3n 2 (I y I x )c 2 c1
I z
where n is the nominal angular velocity along the orbit.

In this set of equations we have a twofold coupling between angular velocities and angles. Attitude
is represented by the direction cosines c1, c2, c3.
Assuming the principal inertia axes are sufficiently close to the corresponding axes of the LVLH
frame, we can write:
Y
Z
x 1

y = z

z y
z
1
x
y & x
x & y
1 & z + n
c1 1

c 2 = z
c
3 y
z
1
x
y 1

x 0
1 0
We can now substitute angular velocities and direction cosines with the corresponding terms
depending on angles and their derivatives. Neglecting the terms that include two angles or
derivatives (small terms) we get to the linearized form:
&& x + (I z I y I x )n& y + (I z I y )n 2 x = 0
I x
&& y + (I x + I y I z )n& x + (I z I x )n 2 y = 3n 2 (I x I z ) y
I y
&& z = 3n 2 (I y I x ) z
I z
That can be simplified into:
61
Course notes
&& x + (I z I y I x )n& y + (I z I y )n 2 x = 0
I x
&& y + (I x + I y I z )n& x + 4 n 2 (I z I x ) y = 0
I y
&& z + 3n 2 (I y I x ) z = 0
I z
The third equation is decoupled from the first two. We can now look at the stability of the system.
Starting from the z axis, the stability condition is:
Iy > Ix
therefore
Kp > 0 => Kr > Ky

Ky
Pitch instability
Kr
Consider now the first two equations. Divide the first by Ix and the second by Iy:
&& x + (K y 1)n& y + K y n 2 x = 0
&& y + (1 K r )n& x + 4 K r n 2 y = 0
The characteristic equation is:
(s
)(
) [
+ n 2 K y s 2 + 4n 2 K r ns(K y 1) [ns(1 K r )] = 0
s 4 + n 2s 2 (K y + 4K r + 1 K r K y + K r K y ) + 4n 2 K r K y = 0
s 4 + n 2s 2 (1 + 3K r + K r K y ) + 4n 2 K r K y = 0
The conditions for stability are:
x 2 + bx + c = 0
c > 0
b b 2 4c
<0
b 2 4c > 0
(1 + 3K r + K r K y )2 > 16K r K y
K rK y > 0
That is:
62
Course notes
1 + 3K r + K r K y > 4 K r K y
K r K y > 0
The presence of gravity gradient therefore reduces the stability region. In detail, the first condition
can be analyzed by evaluating a few solutions for particular values of coefficient Ky:
1
3
K y = 1 1 + 2 K r = 4 K r
Ky = 0 Kr =
1 + 3K + K 2 = 4 K
Ky = Kr
1
Ky
8
1
-1 6
6
5
Kr
2
4
3
-1
The unmarked regions represent the stable regions. In fact, in region (1) we have:
Iz > Iy > Ix
Ip > Ir > Iy
always
In region (2) we have:

Iy > Ix > Iz
Ir > Iy > Ip
limited by the additional curve
In the remaining regions we have some kind of instability. In regions (3) and (4) we have yaw and
roll instability, in regions (5) and (7) yaw, roll and pitch instability while in regions (6) and (8) only
pitch instability. Furthermore in region (8) we have Ip > Iy > Ir while in region (7) Iy > Ir > Ip.
Now assume we have an orbiting satellite with three different inertia moments as in the following
figure:
63
Course notes
Im
IM
II
Im = I minimum
IM = I maximum
II = I intermediate
To have stability identified by the region (1), the satellite must be oriented in orbit as follows:
IM
II
Im
To have stability identified by the region (2) instead orientation must be:
Im
IM
II
In order to stabilize a generic configuration, we can have one mass positioned at an appropriate
distance from the main body of the satellite, so to modify the inertia moments, but with the
limitation due to proper orientation of the satellite, on the contrary we could generate instability.
In this case we could even solve the characteristic equation to evaluate the frequency of natural
oscillation of the system. For the pitch equation we have:
s 2 + 3K p n 2 = 0
p = n 3K p
For the roll/yaw equations the solution is not trivial, in fact the characteristic equation is:
64
Course notes
s 4 + n 2s 2 1 + 3K r + K r K y + 4n 4 K r K y = 0
2 2
ry = (1 + 3K r + K r K y )
n2
(1 + 3K
+ K r K y ) 16K r K y
2
In the special case for which the satellite mass tends to be aligned with the yaw axis, we have Ip=Ir
and:
Iy 0 Kr 1
Kp 1
Ky = 0
The solution of the characteristic equation is then:
2 2
ry = 8
n2
ry = 2n
p = n 3
Disturbing torques acting with frequency close to 2n can exist for some geocentric inclined orbits.
As example, in two orbit positions symmetric with respect to Earth it is possible to face the same
atmospheric conditions and magnetic field conditions, so that resonant motion can be generated.
Dynamics of dual spin satellites subject to gravity gradient
A dual spin satellite can be subject to gravity gradient. In such case, its dynamics becomes:
3Gm t
&
I x x + (I z I y )z y + I r r y = R 3 (I z I y )c 3c 2
3Gm t
& y + (I x I z )x z I r r x =
(I x I z )c1c 3
I y
3
R
3Gm t
&
&r =
(I y I x )c2 c1
I z z + (I y I x )y x + I r
R3
The rotor could be aligned with an axis not coincident with any of the principal inertia axes, and in
this case the equations of rotational motion are written starting from the expression of the angular
momentum:
I x x + I r r rx
h = I + I r r r = I y y + I r r ry
I + I r
r r z
z z
where r is the direction of the rotor axis.
Adopting this procedure it is straightforward to extend the case to a general configuration with n
rotors having distinct rotation axis.
Assuming the direction r is fixed (design parameter), by taking time derivatives we have, for the
case of single rotor:
65
Course notes
dh
=M
dt
dh &
= h + h
dt
& x + (I z I y )z y + I r
& r rx + I r r (y rz z ry ) = 0
I x
& y + (I x I z )x z + I r
& r ry + I r r (z rx x rz ) = 0
I y
I
& r rz + I r r (x ry y rx ) = 0
z & z + (I y I x )y x + I r
We now seek equilibrium configurations characterized by x and y different from zero.

I r r y rz = 0
I r r x rz = 0
(I I ) + I ( r r ) = 0
x
y x
r r
x y
y x
y
Solution of the first two equations leads to rz = 0 (Ir, r, x, y, are all non-zero).
From the last equation we see that the rotor axis must lie on the plane in which we want a non-zero
angular velocity.
Adding now the gravity gradient:
3Gm t
&
& r rx + I r r (y rz z ry ) =
(I z I y )c 2 c3
I x x + (I z I y )z y + I r
R3
3Gm t
& y + (I x I z )x z + I r
& r ry + I r r (z rx x rz ) =
(I x I z )c1c 3
I y
R3
3Gm t
&
& r rz + I r r (x ry y rx ) =
(I y I x )c 2 c1
I z z + (I y I x )y x + I r
R3
Consider all the angular velocity components as non-zero, and analyze equilibrium:
3Gm t
(I z I y )z y + I r r (y rz z ry ) = R 3 (I z I y )c 2 c 3
3Gm t
(I x I z )c1c 3
(I x I z )x z + I r r (z rx x rz ) =
R3
3Gm t
(I y I x )y x + I r r (x ry y rx ) = R 3 (I y I x )c 2 c1
This system represents equilibrium in the LVLH frame. Adopting a generic attitude
parameterization, non-necessarily linearized since in principle the relative attitude can be a large
rotation, we get to three equations that allow evaluating the equilibrium configurations in the LVLH
frame.
66
Course notes
f1 (, , , rx , ry , rz ) = 0
f 2 (, , , rx , ry , rz ) = 0
f (, , , r , r , r ) = 0
x y z
3
The solution of the system of equations can lead to equilibrium configurations with the principal
axes not aligned with the LVLH frame, with appropriate orientation of the rotor. This allows having
Earth pointing satellites whose principal axes are not aligned with the radial direction.
Magnetic torques
The magnetic torque is generated according to the general law:

M =mB
where m is the residual magnetic induction due to parasitic currents in the satellite and B is the
Earths magnetic field. Normally, m is an undesired effect, while B is always somehow present.
There are models that, given the satellite position, allow evaluating its components. Magnetic
torques on a satellite therefore do not depend on its inertia properties but rather on its position and
attitude.
Magnetic field model
The Earths magnetic field is conceptually similar to that generated by a dipole inclined with
respect to the Earths axis by about 10 degrees. It is not a fixed field, it slowly rotates and decreases
its amplitude in time. The field is more intense at the poles, along the equator its intensity is about
half of the polar value, and decreases with the inverse cubic power of the distance to the ground.
A uniform magnetic field would generate sinusoidal iso-intensity curves on the ground, but this is
not the case due to perturbations. The magnetic field can be considered similar to a dipole field only
above 7000 km from ground. For distances from ground beyond 10 Earth radii (more than the
Geosynchronous distance) the magnetic field is deformed by the effect of the solar radiation.
south magnetic pole
10
north magnetic pole
67
Course notes
The magnetic field B can be modeled in precise way as the gradient of a scalar potential V, that is
B=-V, where V is the potential function, normally modeled as a series expansion of spherical
harmonics
k R

V(r, , ) = R
n =1 r
n +1 n
m
m
gm
n cos(m ) + h n sin (m ) Pn ( )
m=0
R is the Earths equatorial radius (6371.2 km, IGRF standard), gnm and hnm are called Gaussian
(available in tabular form), r, and are the spherical coordinates of the position of the satellite
(distance from the center of the Earth, colatitude and East longitude from Greenwich). Coefficients
g and h are evaluated from experimental data and are known up to order 13. These coefficients are
subject to time variation. The following table reports as example the coefficients for years 1995 and
2000, expressed in nT.
n
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
m
0
1
0
1
2
0
1
2
3
0
1
2
3
4
n m
7 0
7 1
7 2
7 3
7 4
7 5
7 6
7 7
8 0
8 1
8 2
8 3
8 4
8 5
IGRF 1995
IGRF 2000
gnm
hnm
gnm
hnm
-29682
- -29615
-1789
5318 -1728
5186
-2197
- -2267
3074 -2356
3072 -2478
1685
-425
1672
-458
1329
1341
-2268
-263 -2290
-227
1249
302
1253
296
769
-406
715
-492
941
935
782
262
787
272
291
-232
251
-232
-421
98
-405
119
116
-301
110
-304
IGRF 1995
gnm
hnm
78
-67
-77
1
-25
29
3
4
22
8
16
10
-23
-2
-3
24
4
12
-1
-20
-9
7
-14
-21
4
12
IGRF 2000
gnm
hnm
79
-74
-65
0
-24
33
6
9
24
7
15
8
-25
-2
-6
25
6
12
-9
-22
-8
8
-17
-21
9
15
68
n
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
m
0
1
2
3
4
5
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
IGRF 1995
gnm
hnm
-210
352
44
237
157
-122
-152
-167
-64
-26
99
66
64
-16
65
77
-172
67
2
-57
17
4
-94
28
IGRF 2000
gnm
hnm
-217
351
44
222
172
-131
-134
-169
-40
-12
107
72
68
-17
74
64
-161
65
-5
-61
17
1
-91
44
n
8
8
8
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
m
6
7
8
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
IGRF 1995
gnm
hnm
5
10
0
-17
-7
-10
4
9
-19
1
15
-12
11
9
-7
-4
-7
-2
9
7
7
0
-8
-6
1
IGRF 2000
gnm
hnm
7
9
-8
-16
-7
-3
5
9
-20
3
13
-8
12
6
-6
-9
-8
-2
9
9
4
-4
-8
-8
5
Course notes
The components of B are then
V
r
1 V
B =
r
1 V
B =
rsin
Br =
where Br represents the radial component, positive outward, B the coelevation component, positive
if directed towards south, and B the azimuth component, positive towards east. Coefficients gnm
and hnm are evaluated in the assumption that polynomials Pnm are normalized according to
(Schmidt)
2(2 )
[P ( )] sin d = 2n + 1
0
m
m
n
where m0 is the Kronecker delta, ij=1 if i=j, =0 if ij. In alternative, a normalization due to Gauss
is possible, according to which
Pnm = S n, m P n, m
with
S n, m
2 0m (n m )! 2 (2n 1)!!
=
(n + m )! (n m )!
Coefficients Sn,m are independent from r, and and can be evaluated from the Gaussian
coefficients gnm and hnm, following the rule:
g n, m = S n, m g m
n
h n, m = S n, m h m
n
S0,0 = 1
S n,0 = S n -1,0
S n, m
(2n 1)
n
per n 1
1
1m + 1 (n m + 1) 2
= S n, m -1
(n + m )
per m 1
In a similar way it is possible to get recursive formulas for polynomials Pn,m

P 0,0 = 1
P n, n = sin P n 1, n 1
P n, m = cos P n 1, m K n, m P n 2, m
with
69
Course notes
K n, m = 0
K n, m =
per n = 1
(n - 1) m 2
(2n 1)(2n 3)
per n > 1
With these models, the components of magnetic field B are
Br =
B =
B =
k
V
R
=
r
n =1 r
n +2
(n + 1) (g n,m cos(m ) + h n,m sin (m ))P n,m ( )

m =0
k
1 V
R
=
r
n =1 r
n +2 n
n,m
P ( )
(g n,m cos(m ) + h n,m sin (m ))
m =0
n+2 n
1 V
1 k R
=

rsin sin n =1 r
m( g n,m sin (m ) + h n,m cos(m ))P n,m ( )
m =0
In a geocentric inertial reference, the components of B are then

B1 = (B r cos( ) + B sin ( ))cos( ) B sin ( )
B2 = (B r cos( ) + B sin ( ))sin ( ) + B cos( )
B3 = (B r sin ( ) B cos( ))
where is the satellite declination (=/2-) and is the right ascension, linked to the longitude
by the relation =+G, where G is the Greenwich meridian right ascension.
Dipole model
As the distance from ground increases, the magnetic field can be more and more approximated to a
dipole, obtained by taking only the first term of the series expansion.
R3
[g P () + (g cos() + h sin()P ()]=

r
1
= [g R cos( ) + g R cos( )sin ( ) + h R sin( )sin( )]
r
V(r, , ) =
0 0
1 1
0
1
1
1
1
1
1 3
1
1
1
1 3
1
We then have:
3
R
B r = 2 g10 cos( ) + g11cos( )sin ( ) + h11sin ( )sin ()
r
3
R
B = g10sin( ) g11cos( )cos( ) h11sin( )cos( )
r
3
R 1
B = g1sin ( ) h11cos( )
r
[
[
70
Course notes
An alternative form considers the vector B as a dipole of given amplitude and orientation, both
evaluated from the previous expression, so that
1/ 2
1 2
h1
( ) +( ) +( )
H 0 = g10
B( r ) =
R 3H 0
r3
2
g11
[3(m r )r m]
(^indicates unit vector)
where r is the position vector at the point where vector B is evaluated. In the geocentric inertial
frame, the components of B can be calculated starting from a unit dipole vector, as
sin 'm cos m
= sin 'msin m
m
cos '
with m = G0 +
d G
(t t 0 ) + m'
dt
where G0 is the right ascension of the Greenwich meridian at the reference time t0, dG/dt the
average rotation speed of the Earth, m and m give the orientation of the magnetic dipole. Then
we have
g0
h1
'
'm = acos 1 ; m
= atan 1
H0
g1
1
'
'
r = rx sin m cos m + ry sin m sin m + rz cos 'm
m
As a consequence, the projection into the geocentric inertial frame gives:

Bx =
By =
Bz =
R 3H 0
r
R 3H 0
r
R 3H 0
r
[3(m r)r
sin 'm cos m
[3(m r)r
sin 'm sin m
[3(m r)r
cos 'm
Next follow some figures reporting the contour plots of the magnitude of the magnetic field for
different altitudes from ground and for different orders of expansion of the magnetic field model.
The images have been created using a software developed by the Finnish Meteorological Institute
(http://www.ava.fmi.fi/MAGN/igrf/applet.html). It can be noticed that, as height from ground
increases, the minimum expansion order that well approximates the true field decreases. At low
altitude a fourth order expansion might not be sufficient, while above 20000 km even the dipole
model can be acceptable.
71
Course notes
Height = 500 km
Order 13
Height = 500 km
Order 4
72
Course notes
Height = 500 km
Dipole model
Height = 1500 km
Order 13
73
Course notes
Height = 1500 km
Order 4
Height = 1500 km
Dipole model
74
Course notes
Height = 8000 km
Order 13
Height = 8000 km
Order 2
75
Course notes
Height = 8000 km
Dipole model
Height = 20000 km
Order 13
76
Course notes
Height = 20000 km
Dipole model
Torque due to atmospheric drag
The interaction between satellite and upper atmosphere generates aerodynamic forces, that in turn
can generate a torque about the center of mass. Aerodynamic torques represent the major
disturbance for satellites orbiting at altitudes lower than 400 Km.
To have an approximated mathematical model of the forces, we assume that air particles hit the
external surface of the satellite and their kinetic energy is totally transferred to the satellite. The
aerodynamic force acting on the elementary area dA defined by its perpendicular direction N is:
dFi =
1
C D v 2 N v u v dA
2
where is the air density, v is the relative velocity and CD is the drag coefficient that is evaluated
experimentally. It is a constant parameter that depends on the type of surface and on the local angle
of attack.
The aerodynamic torque is then:
M aero = ri dFi .
S
The integral is evaluated for all the surfaces of the satellites for which N v > 0 : surfaces defined
by a negative scalar product are not exposed to aerodynamic flow. The relative velocity of the
elementary area dA is:
v = v0 + r
77
Course notes
where v0 is the relative velocity of the center of mass and is the angular velocity of the satellite.
After substitution we obtain:
M aero =
( (
} )
1
C D v 2 N v0 (v0 ri )dA + v0 N (ri )(v0 ri ) + N v0 [(ri )ri ] dA
S
S
2
where the first term represents the torque due to the misalignment between satellite center of mass
and center of pressure, while the second term represents the torque produced by the rotation of the
satellite. It is possible to decompose the outer surface of the satellite into a larger series of simple
geometric shape, in order to evaluate the aerodynamic forces and torque as a sum of elementary
terms.
1
Fai = C D v 2 N v u v Ai
2
M = ri Fa i
To perform all the calculations it is necessary to evaluate correctly the aerodynamic coefficient and
the air density as a function of the distance from Earth. To make the simplified expression
compatible with the experimental data, the air density can be made dependent upon the altitude as
well as other parameters, such as temperature, solar activity (F10.7 constant), surface and material
properties, and for ease of use the drag coefficient is taken as the flat plate drag coefficient. One
example of tabular data of atmospheric density as a function of altitude is reported here below.
altit. (km)
density
(g/cm3)
altit. (km)
density
(g/cm3)
altit. (km)
density
(g/cm3)
altit. (km)
density
(g/cm3)
altit. (km)
density
(g/cm3)
altit. (km)
density
(g/cm3)
altit. (km)
density
(g/cm3)
altit. (km)
density
(g/cm3)
altit. (km)
density
(g/cm3)
altit. (km)
density
(g/cm3)
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
4,02e-04 8,34e-05 1,57e-05 3,18e-06 8,37e-07 2,33e-07 5,86e-08 1,40e-08 2,99e-09 5,17e-10
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
8,42e-11 1,84e-11 7,36e-12 3,78e-12 2,19e-12 1,37e-12 9,00e-13 6,15e-13 4,32e-13 3,10e-13
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
2,27e-13 1,68e-13 1,26e-13 9,58e-14 7,35e-14 5,68e-14 4,43e-14 3,48e-14 2,75e-14 2,18e-14
310
320
330
340
350
360
370
380
390
400
1,74e-14 1,40e-14 1,13e-14 9,10e-15 7,39e-15 6,02e-15 4,92e-15 4,03e-15 3,31e-15 2,72e-15
410
420
430
440
450
460
470
480
490
500
2,25e-15 1,86e-15 1,54e-15 1,28e-15 1,07e-15 8,89e-16 7,43e-16 6,22e-16 5,22e-16 4,39e-16
510
520
530
540
550
560
570
580
590
600
3,71e-16 3,13e-16 2,66e-16 2,26e-16 1,93e-16 1,65e-16 1,41e-16 1,22e-16 1,05e-16 9,14e-17
610
620
630
640
650
660
670
680
690
700
7,96e-17 6,97e-17 6,12e-17 5,41e-17 4,79e-17 4,27e-17 3,82e-17 3,44e-17 3,10e-17 2,82e-17
710
720
730
740
750
760
770
780
790
800
2,57e-17 2,35e-17 2,16e-17 1,99e-17 1,84e-17 1,71e-17 1,59e-17 1,49e-17 1,39e-17 1,31e-17
810
820
830
840
850
860
870
880
890
900
1,23e-17 1,16e-17 1,10e-17 1,04e-17 9,86e-18 9,37e-18 8,91e-18 8,48e-18 8,09e-18 7,72e-18
910
920
930
940
950
960
970
980
990
1000
7,37e-18 7,04e-18 6,74e-18 6,45e-18 6,18e-18 5,92e-18 5,68e-18 5,44e-18 5,22e-18 5,02e-18
78
Course notes
Aerodynamic torques are never used to control the satellite rotation, and their effect is totally
negligible above 700 km altitude.
Solar radiation torque
Solar radiation illuminating the outer surface of a satellite generates a pressure, that in turn
generates a force and a torque around the center of mass of the satellite.
The main sources of electromagnetic radiation are the direct solar radiation, the solar radiation
reflected by the Earth (or by any other planet) and the radiation directly emitted by the Earth. Solar
radiation intensity varies with the inverse square distance from the source, so that direct solar
radiation is almost constant for geocentric orbits, independent from the orbit radius since the
distance to the Sun does not change significantly. On the contrary, the reflected radiation and the
Earth radiation intensity are strongly dependent on the orbit radius.
Altitude
(Km)
500
1000
2000
4000
8000
15000
30000
60000
Direct solar radiation

(W/m2)
1358
1358
1358
1358
1358
1358
1358
1358
Radiation reflected
by the Earth (W/m2)
600
500
300
180
75
30
12
7
Earth radiation
(W/m2)
150
117
89
62
38
14
3
2
The average pressure due to radiation can be evaluated as

P=
Fe
c
where c is the speed of light and Fe is the power per unit surface.
Radiation forces can be modeled assuming that part of the incident radiation is absorbed, part is
reflected specularly and part reflected with diffusion.
)
)
)
N
N
N
)
)
)
S
S
S
Specular reflection
Diffuse reflection
Absorption
Therefore the three components of the resulting force acting on a surface element dA having
orthogonal direction N will be:
79
Course notes
dFassorbita = Pc a cos SdA

(0 90)
dFdiffusa = Pc d cos N cos S dA (0 90)

3
(0 90)
dFspeculare = 2 Pc s cos 2 N dA
with S denoting the unit direction of the satellite-Sun vector and is the angle between the
surface orthogonal direction and direction S .
When is greater than 90, so that cos is negative, the surface is not illuminated and not subject
to radiation forces.
Coefficients ca, cd, cs are respectively the coefficient of absorption, diffuse reflection and specular
reflection, and are constrained by the following equality:
ca + cd + c s = 1
Merging the three components due to the three possible effects, the total force due to radiation is
evaluated as:
dFi = P (1 c s )S + 2 c s cos + c d N cos dA

S
3
The torque due to radiation will then be:

M sol = ri dFi
S
where the integral has to be evaluated for all surfaces illuminated by radiation. In many cases it is
advisable to decompose the external surface into several simple planar surfaces, so that the resulting
torque will be the sum of the contributions of each surface element:
N
M sol = ri Fi .
i =1
Taking the case of a flat panel of area A, the resulting force is
Fi = A P (1 c s )S + 2 c s cos + c d N cos
3
= cos 1 S N .
In the case of a cylindrical surface, the effects can be divided into forces acting on the base of the
cylinder and forces acting on the lateral surface.
)
1 ) 4

Flateral = PA sin 1 + cs + cd S + cs cd cos N
6
3
3 6
1 )
Fbase = PA cos (1 cs ) S + 2 cs cos + cd N
3
80
Course notes
Suggested readings
M.H. Kaplan: Modern Spacecraft Dynamics and Control, Ed. Wiley & Sons.
J.Wertz: Spacecraft Attitude Determination and Control, D.Reidel Publishing Company.
K.J. Ball, G.F. Osborne: Space Vehicle Dynamics, Clarendon Press.
M.D. Griffin, J.R. French: Space Vehicle Design, AIAA Educational Series.
B.Friedland: Control System Design: an Introduction to State-Space Methods, McGraw Hill.
F.P.J. Rimrott: Introductory Attitude Dynamics, Springer-Verlag.
M.J. Sidi: Spacecraft dynamics and control: a practical engineering approach, Cambridge
University Press.
81

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Course Notes

Spacecraft Attitude Dynamics and Control

Spacecraft Attitude Dynamics and Control

Note for the reader

Spacecraft Attitude Dynamics and Control

Spacecraft Attitude Dynamics and Control

Angular momentum of a rigid body

Considering an infinitesimal point mass, it is defined as:

The velocity is expressed as:

We must now evaluate the vector cross products:

Spacecraft Attitude Dynamics and Control

Spacecraft Attitude Dynamics and Control

Kinetic energy is defined as:

Expanding the term to be integrated we have:

Principal axes and principal inertia moments

Spacecraft Attitude Dynamics and Control

2T = ' a I a T ' = ' I' '

a I aT = diag I x' , I 'y , I z'

Spacecraft Attitude Dynamics and Control

Spacecraft Attitude Dynamics and Control

Representing this ellipsoid in a Cartesian space, in a principal inertia frame, it is possible to

Spacecraft Attitude Dynamics and Control

that can be written as:

Spacecraft Attitude Dynamics and Control

Geometrical/graphical description of torque-free motion

Polhode and herpolhode

We can observe that the projection of over h is constant:

Spacecraft Attitude Dynamics and Control

Assuming Ix > Iy > Iz we obtain the conditions for a sign change:

that guarantees the possibility of having a real rotational motion.

Spacecraft Attitude Dynamics and Control

Spacecraft Attitude Dynamics and Control

Spacecraft Attitude Dynamics and Control

X is the satellite local vertical direction

x,y,z are the satellites principal inertia axes

Spacecraft Attitude Dynamics and Control

Spacecraft Attitude Dynamics and Control

We can now see how to treat a sequence of two rotations:

Spacecraft Attitude Dynamics and Control

In each case, the trace of matrix A is the same and equals:

Given matrix A it is possible to evaluate e and with simple operations.

A = e1e 2 (1 cos ) e3sin

Spacecraft Attitude Dynamics and Control

Spacecraft Attitude Dynamics and Control

The inverse transformation, from matrix A to quaternion, is represented as:

Spacecraft Attitude Dynamics and Control

Spacecraft Attitude Dynamics and Control

The inverse transformation is given by:

The inverse transformation becomes singular when = (2n + 1) .

Spacecraft Attitude Dynamics and Control

cos sin + sin cos cos sin sin

Spacecraft Attitude Dynamics and Control

all different indexes

cos sinsin + sin cos

- cos sin cos + sin sin

cos sinsin sin cos

sin sinsin + cos cos

sin cos - sin sin sin + cos cos

Spacecraft Attitude Dynamics and Control

A121 = sin sin cos cos sin sin cos

sin sin + cos cos cos

cos sin + sin cos cos

sin cos cos sin cos

cos cos sin sin cos