Power Inverters

14
Power Inverters
Inversion is the conversion of dc power to ac power at a desired output voltage or current and
frequency. A static semiconductor inverter circuit performs this electrical energy inverting transformation.
The terms voltage-fed and current-fed are used in connection with the output from inverter circuits.
A voltage-source inverter (VSI) is one in which the dc input voltage is essentially constant and
independent of the load current drawn. The inverter specifies the load voltage while the drawn current
shape is dictated by the load.
A current-source inverter (CSI) is one in which the source, hence the load current is predetermined and
the load impedance determines the output voltage. The supply current cannot change quickly. This
current is controlled by series dc supply inductance which prevents sudden changes in current. The load
current magnitude is controlled by varying the input dc voltage to the large inductance, hence inverter
response to load changes is slow. Being a current source, the inverter can survive an output short circuit
thereby offering fault ride-through properties.
Voltage control may be required to maintain a fixed output voltage when the dc input voltage regulation
is poor, or to control power to a load. The inverter and its output can be single-phase, three-phase or
multi-phase. Variable output frequency may be required for ac motor speed control where, in conjunction with voltage or current control, constant motor flux can be maintained.
Inverter output waveforms (either voltage or current) are usually rectilinear in nature and as such contain
harmonics which may lead to reduced load efficiency and performance. Load harmonic reduction can be
achieved by either filtering, selected harmonic-reduction chopping or pulse-width modulation.
The quality of an inverter output is normally evaluated in terms of its harmonic factor, , distortion factor,
, and total harmonic distortion, thd. In section 12.6.2 these first two factors were defined in terms of the
supply current. For VSI inverters the factors are redefined in terms of the output voltage harmonics as
follows
V
n >1
n = n = nn
(14.1)
V1
The distortion factor for an individual harmonic is

V
n = n = n
nV1
n

14.1

14.1.1i - Square-wave (bipolar) output

Figure 14.1b shows waveforms for a square-wave output (2t1 = t2) where each device is turned on as
appropriate for 180, (that is ) of the output voltage cycle (state sequence 10, 01, 10, ..).
The load current iL grows exponentially through T1 and T2 (state 10) according to
di
(V)
(14.4)
Vs = L L + iL R
dt
When T1 and T2 are turned off, T3 and T4 are turned on (state 01), thereby reversing the load voltage
polarity. Because of the inductive nature of the load, the load current cannot reverse instantaneously
and load reactive energy flows back into the supply via diodes D3 and D4 (which are in parallel with T3
and T4 respectively) according to
di
Vs = L L + iL R
(V)
(14.5)
dt
The load current falls exponentially and at zero, T3 and T4 become forward-biased and conduct load
current, thereby feeding power to the load.
The output voltage is a square wave of magnitude Vs, figure 14.1b, and has an rms value of Vs.
For a simple R-L load, with time constant = L /R, during the first cycle with no initial load current,
solving equation (14.4) yields a load current
t
V

(A)
(14.6)
iL (t ) = s 1 e
R

Under steady-state load conditions, the initial current is I as shown in figure 14.1b, and equation (14.4)
yields
iL (t ) =

Vs Vs t

I e
(A)
R R

0 t t1 = T

(14.7)
(s)

Vab

VL

+Vs

1
-Vs

(14.2)

V 2
n
n2 =
(14.3)
n / V1 =

n2
n2 n
n 2 n
The factor Vn /n is used since the harmonic currents produced in an inductive load attenuate with
frequency. The harmonic currents produce unwanted heating and torque oscillations in ac motors,
although such harmonic currents are not a drawback to the power delivered to a resistive heating load or
incandescent lighting load.

thd =

424

T
T

I1

dc-to-ac voltage-source inverter bridge topologies

14.1.1 Single-phase voltage-source inverter bridge

Figure 14.1a shows an H-bridge inverter (VSI) for producing an ac voltage and employing switches
which may be transistors (MOSFET or IGBT), or at high powers, thyristors (GTO or GCT). Device
conduction patterns are also shown in figures 14.1b and c. With inductive loads (not purely resistive),
stored energy at turn-off is fed through the bridge reactive feedback or freewheel diodes D1 to D4. These
four diodes clamp the load voltage to within the dc supply voltage rails (0 to Vs).

BWW

Figure 14.1. GCT thyristor single-phase bridge inverter:

(a) circuit diagram; (b) square-wave output voltage; and (c) quasi-square-wave output voltage.

Power Electronics

425

for vL = Vs

Power Inverters

(V)

I 0

(A)

During the second half-cycle (t1 t t2) when the supply is effectively reversed across the load, equation
(14.5) yields
V V t
V
t t
iL (t ) = s + s + I e = s 1 1 + tanh 1 e
(A)

R R
R
(14.8)
2

0 t t2 t1 = T
(V)

for vL = Vs

(s)

I 0
(A)
A new time axis
has
been used in equation (14.8) starting
at t = t1 in figure 14.1b. Since in steady-state

by symmetry,
I = - I , the initial steady-state current I can be found from equation (14.7) when, at t = t1,

iL = I yielding
t1

Vs 1 e
V
t
= s tanh 1
(14.9)
(A)
t1
R
R
2
1+ e
The zero current cross-over point tx, shown on figure 14.1b, can be found by solving equation (14.7) for t
= tx when iL = 0, which yields
I R

t x = An 1

Vs

(14.10)

IR
= An 1 +
(s)
Vs

The average thyristor current, I T , average diode current, I D , and mean source current, I s can be found
by integration of the load current over the appropriated bounds.
1 t1
IT =
iL ( t ) dt
t2 tx
(14.11)
to
1 V
V
t1

= s ( t1 to ) + s + I e e
t2 R

where iL is given by equation (14.7) and

1 tx
ID =
iL ( t ) dt
t2 0
(14.12)
1 V
V
tx

= s t x s + I e 1
t2 R
R

where iL is given by equation (14.8).

Inspection of the source current waveform in figure 14.1b shows that the average dc voltage source
current is related to the average semiconductor device currents by

I = -I =

Is = 2 I T I D
=

1
t2

(14.13)

Vs
Vs  t

t1 + + I e 1
R
R

The steady-state mean power delivered by the dc supply and absorbed by the resistive load component
R is given by
1 t
2
PL = Vs iL( t ) dt = Vs I s ( = I Lrms
R)
(14.14)
(W)
t1 0
where iL(t) is given by equation (14.7). Rather than integration involving equations (14.7) and (14.8), the
mean load power can be used to determine the rms load current:
1

VI
= s s
(A)
R
R
The rms output voltage is Vs and the output fundamental frequency fo is f o = 1 T =
iLrms =

PL

(14.15)
1

2t1 =

t2 .

426

The instantaneous output voltage expressed as a Fourier series is given by

1
4
VL = Vs sin no t
(V)
n odd n
where o = 2 f o = 2 / t2 and for n = 1 the magnitude of the fundament frequency fo is
output rms fundamental voltage vo1 of
vo1 =

2 2

Vs = 0.90Vs

(14.16)
4

Vs which is an

(14.17)

(V)

The load current can be expressed in terms of the Fourier voltage waveform series, that is

4
1
sin ( no t n )
iL (t ) = Vs
n =1, 3, 5 nZ n

I n sin ( no t n )

(14.18)

n 1, 3, 5

where I n =

I
4 Vs
whence I n rms = n
nZ n
2

n = tan 1 no L R

Z n = R 2 + (no L) 2

such that

cos 1 = R

Z1

The fundamental output power is

2

v o1
V s2 2 2
2

cos 1
R =
Z
R
1
The load power is given by the sum of each harmonic i2R power component, that is

P1 = I 12R =

In
R=
I n2 R
= Vs I s

rms
2
n=1, 3, 5
n=1, 3, 5
Alternately, after integrating equation (14.14), with the load current from equation (14.8)
t

1
V2
t
2 1 e V s2
2
=
tanh 1
PL = s 1
1
t
1
R
t1
R
t1
2

1+e

PL =

(14.19)

(14.20)

(14.21)

2
R the rms loads current is
From PL = i rms

i L rms =

Vs
R

t1

t
tanh 1
2

(14.22)

The load power factor is given by

i L rsm R
t
P
2
tanh 1
=
= 1
S i L rmsv rms
t1
2
2

pf =

(14.23)

14.1.1ii - Quasi-square-wave (multilevel) output

The rms output voltage form a H-bridge can be varied by producing a quasi-square output voltage (2t1 =
t2, t0 < t1) as shown in figure 14.1c. After T1 and T2 have been turned on (state 10), at the angle one
device is turned off. If T1 is turned off (and T4 is turned on after a short delay), the load current slowly
freewheels through T2 and D4 (state 00) in a zero voltage loop according to
di
(14.24)
0 = L L + iL R
(V)
dt
When T2 is turned off and T3 turned on (state 01), the remaining load current rapidly reduces to zero
back into the dc supply Vs, through diodes D3 and D4. When the load current reaches zero, T3 and T4
become forward biased and the output current reverses, through T3 and T4.
The output voltage shown in figure 14.1c consists of a sequence of non-zero voltages Vs, alternated
with zero output voltage periods. During the zero output voltage period a diode and switch conduct,
firstly T1 and D3 in the first period, and T3 and D1 in the second zero output period. In each case, a zero
voltage loop is formed by a switch, diode, and the load. The next two zero output sequences would be
T2 and D4 then T4 and D2, forming alternating zero voltage loops (sequence 10, 00, 01, 11, 10, ..) rather
than repeating a continuous T1 and D3 then T3 and D1 sequence of zero voltage loops (sequence 10, 11,
01, 11, 10, .. or sequence 10, 00, 01, 00, 10, ..). By alternating the zero voltage loops (between states
00 and 11), losses are uniformly distributed between the semiconductors, device switching frequency is
half that experienced by the load, and a finer output voltage resolution is achievable.

Power Electronics

427

Power Inverters

With reference to figure 14.1c, the load current iL for an applied quasi square-wave voltage is defined as
follows.
(i) vL > 0
V V
t
iL (t ) = s s I o e
0 t to
(14.25)
R R

for I o 0
(ii) vL = 0

0 t t1 to

II

for I 0
(iii) vL < 0

(14.26)

(A)

V V
t
iL (t ) = s + s + I1 e = iL (t )
R R

for I1 0
(A)

0 t to

the n harmonic can be eliminated when cosn = 0 , that is for = / n . In so eliminating the nth
harmonic, from equation (14.38), the magnitude of the fundamental is reduced to 4 Vs cos n .
The output voltage VL in its Fourier coefficient series form is given by

4
cos n
sin no t
(V)
VL = Vs
(14.38)

(14.27)

t
o

Vs 1 e
(A)
(14.29)
t
1
R
1+ e
I1 = I o
(A)
(14.30)
The zero current cross-over instant, tx, shown in figure 14.1c, is found by solving equation (14.25) for t
when iL equals zero current.
I R
I R
t x = An 1 o = An 1 + 1
(14.31)
Vs
Vs

I =

The average thyristor current, I T , average diode current, I D , and mean source current, I s can be found
by integration of the load current over the appropriated bounds (assuming alternating zero volt loops).
1 t
1 t t
I T = iL ( t ) dt +
iL ( t ) dt
(14.32)
2t2 0
t2 t
where iL is given by equations (14.25) and (14.26) for the respective integrals, and
1 t
1 t t
I D = iL ( t ) dt +
iL ( t ) dt
(14.33)
2t2 0
t2 0
where iL is given by equations (14.25) and (14.26) for the respective integrals.
1

II

II

Inspection of the source current waveform in figure 14.1c shows that the average source current is
related to the average semiconductor device currents by
1 to
I s = iL (t )dt = 2 I T I D
(14.34)
t1 0
The steady-state mean load and dc source powers are
1 t
2
(W)
PL = Vs iL( t ) dt = Vs I s
R)
(14.35)
( = I Lrms
t1 0
where iL(t) is given by equation (14.25). The mean load power can be used to determine the rms load
current:

I Lrms =

PL

Vs I s

The output fundamental frequency fo is f o =

(14.36)

(A)

R
1

2t1 =

t2

The variable rms output voltage, for 0 , is

1 t 2
vrms =
Vs dt = 1 Vs
t1 0
o

and the output fundamental frequency fo is f o =

t2

(14.37)

. This equation for rms output voltage shows that only

(14.40)

In
2

n = tan 1 no L R

(14.28)

(A)

t1

1+ e

cos n whence I n rms =

The load power is given by the sum of each harmonic i2R power component, that is
2

I
R=
PL = n
I n2 R
= Vs I s

rms
2
n = 1, 3, 5
n =1, 3, 5,...

(14.41)

1
Vrms
0.9
V1
0.8

per unit

4 Vs

nZ n

Z n = R 2 + (no L) 2

t1

1
squarewave
=0

0.6

Output Voltage

Vs e
R

(14.39)

The load current can be expressed in terms of the Fourier voltage waveform series, that is

V
4
cos n
sin ( no t n ) = I n sin ( no t n )
iL (t ) = L = Vs
Z L n =1,3,.. nZ n
n =1, 3, 5,..

The currents I o , I , and I1 are given by

Io =

The characteristics of these load voltage harmonics are shown in figure 14.2.

where I n =

t1 +to

n odd

and for n = 1, the rms fundamental of the output voltage vo1 is given by
2 2
vo1 =
Vs cos = 0.90 Vs cos
(V)

(A)

iL (t ) = I e

428

th

Vrms

V1

0.4

0.9 cosn

V3

V3

V5

0.2

V5
V7

V7

0
0
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

delay angle

140

160

180

Figure 14.2. Full bridge inverter output voltage harmonics

normalised with respect to square wave rms output voltage, Vrms=Vs.

The load power and rms current can be evaluated from equations (14.21) and (14.22) provided the rms
voltage given by equation (14.37) replaces Vs. That is

V2
t
2
tanh 1
PL = s 1 1
(14.42)

R
t1
2

Power Electronics

429

i L rms =

Vs
R

t1

t
tanh 1
2

Power Inverters

(14.43)

The load power factor is independent of and is given by equation (14.23), that is

pf =

i L2rsm R
t
P
2
tanh 1
=
= 1
S i L rmsv rms
t1
2

(14.44)

A variation of the basic four-switch dc to ac single-phase H-bridge is the half-bridge version where two
series switches (one pole or leg) and diodes are replaced by a split two-capacitor voltage source, as
shown in figure 14.3. This reduces the number of semiconductors and gate circuit requirements, but at
the expense of halving the maximum output voltage. Example 14.3 illustrates the half-bridge and its
essential features. Behaviour characteristics are as for the full-bridge, square-wave, single-phase
inverter but Vs is replaced by Vs in the appropriate equations. Only a rectangular-wave bipolar output
voltage can be obtained. Since zero volt loops cannot be created, no rms voltage control is possible.
The rms output voltage is Vs, while the output power is a quarter that of the full H-bridge.
Example 14.1a:

Single-phase H-bridge with an L-R load

A single-phase H-bridge inverter, as shown in figure 14.1a, supplies a 10 ohm resistance with
inductance 50 mH, from a 340 V dc source. If the bridge is operating at 50 Hz (output), determine the
average supply current and the load rms voltage and current and steady-state current waveforms with
i.
a square-wave output
ii.
a symmetrical quasi-square-wave output with a 50 per cent on-time.
Solution

The time constant of the load, = 0.05mH/10 = 5 ms, t1 = 10ms and t2 = 20ms.
i. The output voltage rms value is 340 V ac.
Equation (14.9) gives the load current at the time when the supply polarity is reversed across the load,
as shown in figure 14.1b, that is
to

I = I =

Vs 1 e
t
R
1+ e

(A)

where t1 = 10 ms. Therefore

340V 1 e 2

(A)
10 1 + e 2
= 25.9A
When vL = +340 V, from equation (14.7) the load current is given by
iL = 34 - (34 + 25.9) e -200 t = 34 - 59.9e-200 t
0 t 10 ms

I = I =

From equation (14.10) the zero current cross-over time, tx, occurs 5ms An (1 + 25.9A10/340V ) =
2.83ms after load voltage reversal.
When vL = -340 V, from equation (14.8) the load current is given by
iL = -34 + (34 + 25.9) e-200 t = -34 + 59.9e-200 t
0 t 10 ms
The mean power delivered to the load is given by equation (14.14), that is
10 ms
1
340V {34 - 59.9 e-200t } dt
PL =
10ms 0
= 2755 W
From P = i 2 R , the load rms current is
P
P
= 16.60A and I s = L = 2755W
= 8.1A
iLrms = L = 2755W
10
340V
R
Vs
These power and rms current results can be confirmed with equations (14.21) and (14.22).
ii. The quasi-square output voltage has a 5 ms on-time, to, and a 5 ms period of zero volts.
From equation (14.37) the rms output voltage is
Vs 1 5ms /10ms = Vs 2 = 240V rms .
The current during the different intervals is specified by equations (14.25) to (14.30). Alternately, the
steady-state load current equations can be specified by determining the load current equations for the

430

first few cycles at start-up until steady-state conditions are attained.

First 5 ms on-period when vL = 340 V and initially iL = 0 A
iL = 34 - 34 e-200 t
and at 5ms, iL = 21.5A
First 5 ms zero-period when vL = 0 V
iL = 21.5 e-200 t
and at 5ms, iL =7.9A
Second 5 ms on-period when vL = -340 V
iL = -34 + (34+7.9) e-200 t
with iL = 0 at 1 ms and ending with iL = -18.6 A
Second 5 ms zero-period when vL = 0 V
iL = -18.6 e-200 t
ending with iL = -6.8A
Third 5 ms on-period when vL = 340 V
iL = 34 - (34+6.8) e-200 t
with iL = 0 at 0.9 ms and ending with iL = 19.0 A
Third 5 ms zero-period when vL = 0 V
iL = 19.0 e-200 t
ending with iL = 7.0A
Fourth 5 ms on-period when vL = -340 V
iL = -34 + (34+7.0) e-200 t
with iL = 0 at 0.93 ms and ending with iL = -18.9 A
Fourth 5 ms zero-period when vL = 0 V
iL = -18.9 e-200 t
ending with iL = -7.0A
Steady-state load current conditions have been reached and the load current waveform is as shown in
figure 14.1c. Convergence of an iterative solution is more rapid if the periods considered are much
longer than the load time constant (and vice versa).
The mean load power for the quasi-square wave is given by
5ms
1
340V {34 - 41 e-200 t } dt
PL =
10ms 0
= 1378 W
The load rms and supply currents are
P
P
= 11.74A
= 4.05A
iLrms = L = 1378W
I s = L = 1378W
10
340V
R
Vs

Example 14.1b:

H-bridge inverter ac output factors

In each waveform case (square and quasi-square) of example 14.1a calculate

i.
the average and peak current in the switches
ii.
the average and peak current in the diodes
iii.
the peak blocking voltage of each semiconductor type
iv.
the average source current
v.
the harmonic factor and distortion factor of the lowest order harmonic
vi.
the total harmonic distortion
Solution
Square-wave

i. The peak current in the switch is I = 25.9 A and the current zero cross-over occurs at tx =2.83ms. The
average switch current, from equation (14.11) is
10ms
1
(34 - 59.9 e 200 t ) dt
IT =
20ms 2.83ms
= 5.71 A

Power Electronics

431

ii. The peak diode current is 25.9 A. The average diode current from equation (14.12) is
2.83ms
1
(34 - 59.9 e 200 t ) dt
ID =
20ms 0
= 1.66 A
iii. The maximum blocking voltage of each device is 340 V dc.
iv. The average supply current is

Is = 2 I T I D = 2 ( 5.71A - 1.66A ) = 8.10A

This results in the supply delivery power of 340Vdc 8.10A = 2754W

v. From equation (14.16), with the third as the lowest harmonic, the distortion factors are
V
hf = 3 = 3 = 1 , that is, 33 1 3 per cent
3
V1
df = 3 =

V3
3V1

= 1 , that is, 11.11 per cent

9

vi. From equation (14.16)

Vn

thd =

/ V1

( ) +( ) +( )

1
3

1
5

1
7

Quasi-square-wave, = (5 ms) and from equation (14.31) tx = 0.93ms

i. The peak switch current is 18.9 A.
From equation (14.32) the average switch current, using alternating zero volt loops, is
5ms
5ms
1
1
IT =
(34 - 41e-200 t ) dt +
19e-200 t dt
20ms 0.93ms
40ms 0
= 2.18 + 1.50 = 3.68 A
ii. The peak diode current (and peak switch current) is 18.9 A. The average diode current, from
equation (14.33), when using alternating zero volt loops, is given by
0.93ms
5ms
1
1
ID =
( 34 + 41e200t ) dt + 40ms 0 19e-200t dt
20ms 0
= 0.16 + 1.50 = 1.66 A
iii. The maximum blocking voltage of each device type is 340 V.

I s = 2 I T I D = 2 ( 3.68A - 1.66A ) = 4.04A

This results in the supply delivery power of 340Vdc 4.04A = 1374W

v. The harmonics are given by equations (14.1) to (14.3)
V
hf = 3 = 3 = 1
= 1 , that is, 33 1 3 per cent
/ 1
3
3 2
2
V1
V3
nV1

, that is, 11.11 per cent

vi.
thd =

For each delay case ( = 0 and = 90) in example 14.1, using Fourier voltage analysis, determine
(ignore harmonics above the 10th):
i.
the magnitude of the fundamental and first four harmonics
ii.
the load rms voltage and current
iii.
load power
iv.
load power factor
Solution
The appropriate harmonic analysis is outline in the following table, for = 0 and = 90.
n

Zn

harmonic

Vn (=0)

R + ( 2 50nL )

18.62

48.17

102

2.12

-72.12

-1.50

79.17

61.2

0.77

-43.28

-0.55

110.41

43.71

0.40

30.91

0.28

141.72

34

0.24

24.04

0.17

332.95V

16.59A

235.43V

11.73A

0.9Vs
n
V
306

In (=0)

Vn

Zn

A
16.43

Vn (=90)

0.9Vs
cos ( n )
n
V
216.37

In (=90)

Vn

Zn

A
11.62

i. The magnitude of the fundamental voltage is 306V for the square wave and is reduced to 216V when
a phase delay angle of 90 is introduced. The table shows that the harmonics magnitudes reduce ( 1 n ) as
the harmonic order increases.
ii. The rms load current and voltage can be derived by the square root of the sum of the squares of the
fundamental and harmonic components, that is, for the current
irms = I12 + I 32 + I 52 + .....

The load rms currents, from the table, are 16.59A and 11.73A, which agree with the values obtained in
example 14.1a. Notice that the predicted rms voltages of 333V and 235V differ significantly from the
values in example 14.1a, given by Vs 1 , namely 340V and 240.4V respectively. This is because
the magnitude of the harmonics higher in order than 10 are not insignificant. The error introduced into
the rms current value by ignoring these higher order voltages is insignificant because the impedance
increases approximately proportionally with harmonic number, hence the resultant current becomes
much smaller (insignificant) as the order increases.
iii. The load power is the load i2R loss, that is
2
PL = irms
R = 16.592 10 = 2752W for = 0

iv. The load power factor is the ratio of real power dissipated to apparent power, that is
i2 R
2752W
P
= 0.488 for = 0
pf = = rms =
S irms vrms 16.59A 340V
i2 R
1376W
P
= rms =
= 0.486 for = 90
S irms vrms 11.79A 240.4V
Equations (14.23) and (14.44) confirm the load power factor is 0.488, independent of .

pf =

Example 14.3: Single-phase half-bridge inverter with an L-R load

Vn 2

n2 n

Example 14.2: Harmonic analysis of H-bridge inverter with an L-R load

2
PL = irms
R = 11.732 10 = 1376W for = 90

iv. The average supply current is

df = 3 =

432

+ ......

= 46.2 per cent

Power Inverters

/ V1
2

1 1 1 1
3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + ...

= 46.2 per cent

A single-phase half-bridge inverter as shown in the figure 14.3, supplies a 10 ohm resistance with
inductance 50 mH from a 340 V dc source. If the bridge is operating at 50 Hz, determine for the squarewave output
i.
steady-state current waveforms
ii.
the load rms voltage
iii.
the peak load current and its time domain solution, iL(t)

Power Electronics

433

Cl

Cl

Cl
Cu

Cupper

vi. When a switch or diode of a parallel pair conduct, the complementary pair of devices experience a
voltage Vs, 340V dc. Thus although the load experiences half the supply voltage, the semiconductors
experience twice that voltage, the same voltage experienced by the switches in the full bridge inverter.

Cu
VL

Vs

+Vs

Vs

170V

Vs

Vs

tx

Clower

-170V

t1
12.95A

(a)

vii. The load power (whence various currents) is found by averaging the instantaneous load power
10 ms
1
P
P
170V (17 - 29.95 e-200t ) dt
PL =
irms = L
Is = L
R
Vs
10ms 0
= 638.5W

= 638.5 W

-12.95A

(b)

(c)

Figure 14.3. GCT thyristor single-phase half-bridge inverter:

(a) circuit diagram; (b) square-wave output voltage; and (c) output voltage transfer function.

Solution
From examples 14.1 and 14.2, = 5ms.
i. Figure 14.3 shows the output voltage and current waveforms, with various circuit component current
waveforms superimposed. Note that no zero voltage loops can be created with the half-bridge. Only
load voltages Vs , that is 170V dc, are possible.
ii. The output voltage swing is Vs, 170V, thus the rms output voltage is Vs, 170V. This is, half that
of the full-bridge inverter using the same magnitude source voltage Vs, 340V dc.
iii. The peak load current is half that given by equation (14.9), that is

10

= 638.5W

= 8A

340V

= 1.88A

-Vs

t2

2.83ms

434

The average diode current is given by

t
2.83ms
1

5ms
ID =
17 29.95e dt
20ms 0

= 0.83 A

the average and peak current in the switches

the average and peak current in the diodes
the peak blocking voltage of each semiconductor type
the power delivered to the load, rms load current, and average supply current

iv.
v.
vi.
vii.

Power Inverters

14.1.1iii - PWM-wave output

The output voltage and frequency of a single-phase voltage- source inverter bridge can be control using
one of two forms of pulse-width modulation, termed:
bipolar
multi-level, usually called unipolar

Both pwm techniques have been analysed extensively for dc voltage outputs when applied to the two
quadrant and four quadrant dc choppers considered in Chapter 13, sections 13.5 and 13.6. It will be
seen that the same triangular modulation principles can be applied and extended, when producing lowharmonic single-phase ac output voltages and currents. The main voltage output difference between the
two methods is the harmonic content near the carrier frequency and its harmonics. Three-phase pwm is
a naturally extension to the single-phase case, except single-phase pwm offers more degrees of
flexibility than its application to three phase inverters, although three-phase pwm does have the attribute
of triplen harmonic cancellation, due to the use of one (co-phasal) triangular carrier.

t1

Vs 1 e
Vs
t
=
tanh 1
t
R
R
2
1+ e
340V
10ms
=
tanh
= 12.95A
10
25ms
The load current waveform is defined by equations (14.7) and (14.8), specifically
Vs Vs t
iL (t ) =

I e
R R

t
340V 340V

+ 12.95A e 5ms
10
10

I =

+1

-1

= 17 29.95 e

t
5ms

for

Vref

(a)

0 t 10ms

and
Vs Vs t
+
+ I e
R R

t
340V 340V

=
+
+ 12.95 e 5ms
10
10

iL (t ) =
II

Vs
T1
T2
ON

VL

iv. The peak switch current is I = 12.95A .

The average switch current is given by
t
10ms
1
(17 29.95e 5ms ) dt
IT =
20ms 2.83ms
= 2.86 A
v. The peak diode current is I = 12.95A .

T1
T2
ON

T1
T2
ON

T1
T2
ON

T3
T4
ON

t
5ms

= 17 + 29.95 e
for
0 t 10ms
By halving the effective supply voltage, the current swing is also halved.

T1
T2
ON

T3
T4
ON

T3
T4
ON

T3
T4
ON

T3
T4
ON

(b)

-Vs

Figure 14.4. Bipolar pulse width modulation:

(a) carrier and modulation waveforms and (b) resultant load pwm waveform.

Bipolar pulse width modulation

Bipolar modulation is the simplest pwm method and involves comparing a fixed frequency and
magnitude triangular carrier with the ac waveform desired, called the modulation waveform. The
modulation is usually a sinusoid of magnitude (modulation index) M such that 0 M 1.

Power Electronics

435

Power Inverters

The waveforms in figure 14.4 shown that the load voltage VL swings between the two voltage levels, +Vs
and -Vs, (hence the term bipolar output voltage), according to
T1 and T2 are on when vref > v (T3 and T4 are off ) such that VL = +Vs
T3 and T4 are on when vref < v (T1 and T2 are off ) such that VL = -Vs
Multi-level pulse width modulation
Two multilevel output voltage techniques can be use with single-phase voltage fed ac bridges. In both
case, two triangular carries displaced by 180 give the same output for the same switching frequency.
i. The waveforms in figure 14.5 show that the load voltage VL swings between the two voltage levels,
+Vs and -Vs, with interspaced zero periods (hence the term multilevel, specifically three-level in this
case, 0V and Vs ), according to
T1 is on when vref > v such that Vao = +Vs
T4 is on when vref < v such that Vao = 0V

T3 is on when vref < -v such that Vbo = Vs

T2 is on when vref > -v such that Vbo = 0V

The multilevel load output voltage is the difference between the two leg voltage waveforms and can be
defines as follows:
T1 and T2 are on such that Vao = +Vs, Vbo = 0V, Vab = +Vs
T2 and T3 are on such that Vao = 0V, Vbo = +Vs, Vab = -Vs
T1 and T3 are on such that Vao = +Vs, Vbo = +Vs, Vab = 0V
T2 and T4 are on such that Vao = 0V, Vbo = 0V, Vab = 0V
The two zero output states are interleaved to balance switching losses between all four bridge switches.
Device switching is at the carrier frequency, but the bridge load voltage (hence load current)
experiences twice the leg switching frequency since the two carriers are displaced by 180.
ii. A second multilevel output voltage approach is shown in figure 14.15, where the triangular carriers
are not only displaced by 180 in time, but are vertically displaced, as for multilevel inverter pwm
generation, which is considered in section 14.4. The upper triangle modulates reference values
greater than zero, while the lower triangle modulates when the reference is less than zero.
+1

436

Spectral comparison between bipolar and multilevel pwm waveforms

The key features of the H-bridge inverter output voltage with bipolar pwm are (fig 14.6a):
a triangular carrier has only odd Fourier components, so the output spectrum only has carrier
components at odd harmonics of the carrier frequency
the first carrier components occur at the carrier frequency, fc
side-band components occur spaced by 2fo from other components, around all multiples of the
carrier frequency fc
From figure 14.6b, the key features of the H-bridge inverter output voltage with multilevel pwm are:
the output switching frequency is double 2fc each leg switching frequency fc, since the switching
of each leg is time shifted (by 180), hence the first carrier related components in the output
occur at 2fc and then at multiples of 2fc
no triangular carrier Fourier components exist in the output voltage since the two carriers are in
anti-phase (180 apart), effectively cancelling one another in spectrum terms
side-band components occur spaced by 2fo from other components, around each multiple of the
carrier frequency 2fc
M-

fc- 2fo
fc- 4fo

fc

fc+ 2fo
fc+ 4fo

with single-phase bipolar pwm

nfc = 0 for n even

2fc-3fo

fo

2fc- fo

1fc

2fc+ fo
2fc+3fo

2fc

2 fo

3fc

4fc

(a)

Mwith single-phase multilevel pwm

nfc = 0 for all n
2fc-3fo

fo

2fc- fo

1fc

(suppressed carrier)

2fc+ fo
2fc+3fo

2fc

2 fo

3fc

4fc

(b)

-1

-V

Vref

Vs

(a)

Figure 14.6. Typical phase output frequency spectrum, at a give switch commutation frequency, for:
(a) bipolar pwm and (b) multilevel pwm.

T1 on (T4 off)

14.1.2 Three-phase voltage-source inverter bridge

Vao
T4 on (T1 off)
T3 on (T2 off)

Vs
Vbo

T2 on (T3 off)

The basic dc to three-phase voltage-source inverter (VSI) bridge is shown in figure 14.7. It comprises
six power switches together with six associated reactive energy feedback diodes. Each of the three
inverter legs operates at a relative time displacement (phase) of , 120.
Table 14.1. Quasi-square-wave six conduction states - 180 conduction.

(b)

Three conducting switches

Interval

Vs
Vab
VL

Vab=Vao-Vbo

1
2
3
4

-Vs

Figure 14.5. Multilevel (3 level) pulse width modulation:

(a) carriers and modulation waveforms and (b) resultant load pwm waveforms.

5
6

T1

T2

T3

T2

T3

T4

T3

T4

T5

T4

T5

T6

T5

T6

T1

T6

T1

T2

leg state

voltage vector

101

v5

001

v1

011

v3

010

v2

110

v6

100

v4

Power Electronics

437

Power Inverters

14.1.2i - 180 () conduction

Figure 14.8 shows inverter bridge quasi-square output voltage waveforms for a 180 switch conduction
pattern. Each switch conducts for 180, such that no two series connected (leg or arm) semiconductor
switches across the voltage rail conduct simultaneously. Six patterns exist for one output cycle and the
rate of sequencing these patterns, 6fo, specifies the bridge output frequency, fo. The conducting switches
during the six distinct intervals are shown and can be summarised as in Table 14.1.

T1

T5

T4

438

T3

T2

T6

0V
VRo

VBo

VYo

110

100

101

001

011

010

VRB

VBY

Figure 14.7. Three-phase VSI inverter circuit:

(a) GCT thyristor bridge inverter; (b) star-type load; and (c) delta-type load.

VYR

The three output voltage waveforms can be derived by analysing a balanced resistive star load and
considering each of the six connection patterns, as shown in figure 14.9, using the maxtrix in figure
14.8c. Effectively the resistors representing the three-phase load are sequentially cycled anticlockwise
one at a time, being alternately connected to each supply rail. The output voltage is independent of the
load, as it is for all voltage source inverters.
Alternatively, the generation of the three-phase voltages can be analysed analytically by using the
rotating voltage space vector technique. With this approach, the output voltage state from each of the
three inverter legs (or poles) is encoded as summarised in table 14.1, where a 1 signifies the upper
switch in the leg is on, while a 0 means the lower switch is on in that leg. The resultant binary number
(one bit for each of the three inverter legs), represents the output voltage vector number (when
converted to decimal). The six voltage vectors are shown in figure 14.10 forming sextant boundaries,
where the quasi-square output waveform in figure 14.8b is generated by stepping instantaneously from
one vector position to another in an anticlockwise direction. Note that the rotational stepping sequence
is arranged such that when rotating in either direction, only one leg changes state, that is, one device
turns off and then the complementary switch of that leg turns on, at each step. This minimises the
inverter switching losses. The dwell time of the created rotating vector at each of the six vector
positions, is (T) of the cycle period (T). Note that the line-to-line zero voltage states 000 and 111
are not used. These represent the condition when either all the upper switches (T1, T3, T5) are on or all
the lower switches (T2, T4, T5) are switched on. Phase reversal can be obtained by interchanging two
phase outputs, or as is the preferred method, the direction of the rotating vector sequence is reversed.
Reversing is therefore effectively achieved by back-tracking along each output waveform.

VRN

With reference to figure 14.8b, the line-to-load neutral voltage Fourier coefficients are given by

n
2n
cos
2 + cos

2
3
3
(14.45)
Vn =
Vs
n
3
The line-to-load neutral voltage is therefore

2
sin n t
Vn = Vs
r = 1, 2, 3, ..
(14.46)
n =1, 6 r 1 n
L N

L N

that is
vRN =

v RB

v BY

v YR

=0
-1

(iR)
VBN

(V)

similarly for vYN and vBN, where t is substituted by t+ and t- respectively.

(14.47)

-1
1
0

v RN

v BN

1
v YN
0

-1

(iB)
(c)
VYN
(iY)

v6

v4

v5

v1

v3

v2

(b)

Figure 14.8. A three-phase bridge inverter employing 180 switch conduction with a resistive load:
(a) the bridge circuit showing T1, T5, and T6 conducting (leg state v6 : 110); (b) circuit voltage and
current waveforms with each of six sequential output voltage vectors identified; and
(c) phase voltage to line voltage conversion matrix.

The line-to-line voltage, from equation (14.38) with = , gives Fourier coefficients defined by

n
cos
6
4
(14.48)
Vn = Vs
n

The line-to-line voltage is thus

2 3
sin n t
Vn =
Vs cos n
r = 1, 2, 3, .
(14.49)
n
6

n=1, 6 r 1
L L

L L

(the

symbol provides the sign), that is

2 3

(14.50)
V [sin t - 15 sin 5t - 17 sin 7t + 111 sin11t + . . .] (V)
s
and similarly for vBY and vYR. Figure 14.8b shows that vRB is shifted with respect to vRN, hence to
obtain the three line voltages while maintaining a vRN reference, t should be substituted with t + ,
t- and t+, respectively.
vRB =

Vs [sin t + 15 sin 5t + 71 sin 7t + 111 sin11t + . . .]

v RN v BN

= v BN v YN

v YN v RN

Power Electronics

439

Power Inverters

Since the interphase voltages consist of two square waves displaced by , no triplen harmonics (3, 6,
9, . . .) exist. The outputs comprise harmonics given by the series n = 6r 1 where r 0 and is an
integer. The nth harmonic has a magnitude of 1/n relative to the fundamental.
By examination of the interphase output voltages in figure 14.8 it can be established that the mean halfcycle voltage is Vs and the rms value is Vs, namely 0.816 Vs. From equation (14.50) the rms value
of the fundamental is 6 Vs /, namely 0.78 Vs, that is 3/ times the total rms voltage value.
The three-phase inverter output voltage properties are summarised in Table 14.2.

Interval 3
T 3 T 4 T 5 on
leg state 011
v 3 = V s e j

Interval 4
T 4 T 5 T 6 on
leg state 010
v 2 = V s e j

Interval # 5
T 1 T 5 T 6 on
leg state 110
v6 = V s e j

T1 / T4

Interval # 2
T 2 T 3 T 4 on
leg state 001
v1 = V s e 0 j

Interval # 6
T 1 T 2 T 6 on
leg state 100
v 4 = V s e j

T5 / T2

440
#

Interval # 1
T 1 T 2 T 3 on
leg state 101
v 5 = V s e - j

T3 / T6

R
T5

T1

T1
VRN = Vs /3
VBN = -2Vs /3
VYN = Vs /3

VRN = 2Vs /3
VBN = -Vs /3
VYN = -Vs /3

T2

T6
B

010
v2

110
v6

100
v4

101
v5

B
T1

011
v3

T6

001
v1

T3

T3
VRN = -Vs /3
VBN = 2Vs /3
VYN = -Vs /3

VRN = Vs /3
VBN = Vs /3
VYN = -2Vs /3

T4
T2

Table 14.2. Quasi-squarewave voltage properties for a resistive load

Conduction
period

T5

T5

T3

T2

Figure 14.10. Generation and arrangement of the six quasi-square inverter output voltage states.

VRN = -2Vs/3
VBN = Vs/3
VYN = Vs/3

VRN = -Vs /3
VBN = -Vs /3
VYN = 2Vs /3

T6

T4

180
Phase
Voltage
V L- N

T4
R

Figure 14.9. Determination of the line-to-neutral voltage waveforms for a balanced resistive load
and 180 conduction as illustrated in figure 14.8.

14.1.2ii - 120 () conduction

The basic three-phase inverter bridge in figure 14.7 can be controlled with each switch conducting for
120. As a result, at any instant only two switches (one upper and one non-complementary lower)
conduct and the resultant quasi-square output voltage waveforms are shown in figure 14.11. A 60
(), dead time exists between two series switches conducting, thereby providing a safety margin
against simultaneous conduction of the two series devices (for example T1 and T4) across the dc supply
rail. This safety margin is obtained at the expense of a lower semi-conductor device utilisation and rms
output voltage than with 180 device conduction. The device conduction pattern is summarised in Table
14.3. A feature with conduction is that the phase currents can be measured from the dc link current.

Fundamental voltage
peak
rms

Total rms

Characteristic
Distortion Factor

THD

thd

Vl1

V1

Vrms

(V)

(V)

(V)

Vs

2
V
3 s

= 0.450 Vs

= 0.471Vs

= 0.955

Vs

= 0.637Vs
2 3

2
V
3 s

Line
Voltage
V L- L

= 1.10 Vs

= 0.78 Vs

= 0.816Vs

120

(V)

(V)

(V)

6
V
2 s

Phase
Voltage
V L- N
Line
Voltage
V L- L

Vs

Vs

= 0.551 Vs
3

Vs

= 0.955Vs

Vs

= 0.390 Vs
3
V
2 s
= 0.673 Vs

Vs
6
= 0.408Vs
1
2

Vs

= 0.707 Vs

= 0.955
3

= 0.955
3

= 0.955

1
9
= 0.311

2
9

= 0.311

2
9

= 0.311

1
9
= 0.311

Power Electronics

441

Power Inverters

442

Figure 14.8b for 180 conduction and 14.11b for 120 conduction show that the line to neutral voltage of
one conduction pattern is proportional to the line-to-line voltage of the other. That is, from equation
(14.38) with =

2
n
vRN ( 2 3 ) = vRY ( ) =
Vs cos
sin nt
6
n =1,3,5 n
(14.51)
3
Vs [sin t - 15 sin 5t - 17 sin 7t + 111 sin11t + . . .]
(V)
=

and
vRY ( 2 3 ) = 3 2 vRN ( ) =

n=1,3,5

2 3
n
Vs cos
sin n t
n
6

Vs [sin t + 15 sin 5t + 17 sin 7t +

1
11

(14.52)
sin11t + . . .]

(V)

Also vRY = 3 vRN and the phase relationship between these line and phase voltages, of , has not
been retained. That is, with respect to figure 14.11b, substitute t with t + in equation (14.51) and
t + in equation (14.52).
The output voltage properties for both 120 and 180 conduction are summarised in the Table 14.2.
Table 14.3. Quasi-squarewave conduction states - 120 conduction.
Two conducting devices

Interval
1

T1

T2
T2

3
4
5
6

T3
T3

T4
T4

T5
T5

T6
T6

T1
v RB

v BY

v YR

Independent of the conduction angle (120, 180 or even 150), quasi-square 180 conduction occurs
with inductive loads, producing the six hexagon states shown in the upper part of figure 14.10. The
resistive load assumptions made in this section for explanation purposes can be misleading.

=0
-1

14.1.3 Inverter ac output voltage and frequency control techniques

It is a common requirement that the output voltage and/or frequency of an inverter be varied in order to
control the load power or, in the case of an induction motor, to control the shaft speed and torque by
maintaining a constant V / f ratio. The six VSI modulation control techniques to be considered are:

Variable voltage dc link

Single-pulse width modulation
Multi-pulse width modulation
Multi-pulse, selected notching modulation
Sinusoidal pulse width modulation
Triplen injection
Triplens injected into the modulation waveform
Voltage space vector modulation

14.1.3i - Variable voltage dc link

The rms voltage of a square-wave can be changed and controlled by varying the dc link source voltage.
A variable dc link voltage can be achieved with a dc chopper as considered in chapter 13 or an ac
phase-controlled thyristor bridge as considered in sections 11.2 and 11.5. A dc link L-C smoothing filter
may be necessary.
14.1.3ii - Single-pulse width modulation

Simple pulse-width control can be employed as considered in section 14.1.1b, where a single-phase
bridge is used to produce a quasi-square-wave output voltage as shown in figure 14.1c.
An alternative method of producing a quasi-square wave of controllable pulse width is to transformeradd the square-wave outputs from two push-pull bridge inverters as shown in figure 14.12a. By phaseshifting the output by , a quasi-square sum results as shown in figure 14.12b.

v RN v BN

= v BN v YN

v YN v RN
-1
1
0

v RN

v BN

1
v YN
0

-1

(c)

Figure 14.11. A three-phase bridge inverter employing 120 switch conduction with a resistive star
load: (a) the bridge circuit showing T1 and T2 conducting; (b) circuit voltage and current waveforms;
and (c) phase voltage to line voltage conversion matrix.

The output voltage can be described by

Vo =

an

sin nt

(14.53)

(V)

n odd

where
van = 2

Vs cos n d =

4
V cos( n )
n s

(V)

(14.54)

The rms output voltage is

Vr = Vs 1-

(V)

(14.55)

Power Electronics

443

and the rms value of the fundamental is

2 2
V1 =
Vs cos

(V)

Power Inverters

(14.56)

As increases, the magnitude of the harmonics, particularly the third, becomes significant compared
with the fundamental magnitude. This type of control may be used in high power applications.

444

ii. The rms output voltage is given by equation (14.55), that is

V = V 1- = 340V 1- 1.34 = 257.5V
rms

iii. The peak values of the first four harmonics are given in the table below.

harmonic
n

van =

4
V cos( n )
n s

van2

-61.4

3765.0

-84.7

7175.3

-1.4

1.9

46.6

2168.5
.

2
an

114.50

The rms value of the ac of the first four harmonics is 114.5/2 = 81.0V.
iv. The ac component of the harmonics above the 9th is given by
2
2
Vrms n>9 = Vrms
Vrms
n9
= 257.5V 2 ( 240V 2 + 81.0V 2 ) = 46.3V

v. The total harmonic voltage distortion is given by

THDv =

V 2 V 2
rms

a1

Va1

100 =

Vrms

1 100
Va1

257.5V
240V 1 100 = 38.9%

14.1.3iii - Multi-pulse width modulation

Figure 14.12. Voltage control by combining phase-shifted push-pull inverters:

(a) two inverters with two transformers for summing and (b) circuit voltage waveforms for a phase
displacement of .

An extension of the single-pulse modulation technique is multiple-notching as shown in figure 14.13. The
bridge switches are controlled so as to vary the on to off time of each notch, , thereby varying the
output rms voltage which is given by Vrms = Vs . Alternatively, the number of notches can be varied.
+Vs

fo
Example 14.4: Single-pulse width modulation

Two single-phase H-bridge inverter outputs are transformer added, as shown in figure 14.12. Each
inverter operates at 50Hz but phase shifted so as to produce 240V rms fundamental output when the rail
voltage of each inverter is 340V dc and the transformers turns ratios are 2:2:1.
Determine
i.
the phase shift between the two single phase inverters
ii.
the rms output voltage
iii.
the frequency and magnitude of the first 4 harmonics of 50Hz and their rms ac
contribution to the rms output
iv.
rms voltage of higher order harmonics (higher frequencies than those in part iii.)
v.
the total harmonic distortion of the output voltage.
Solution
i. The output is a quasi-square waveform of magnitude 340V dc. The magnitude of the
50Hz fundamental is given by equation (14.54), for n =1:
4
va1 = Vs cos( )

2 240V =

340V cos( )

from which the phase shift is 76.7, 1.34 radians.

1
-Vs
1 < 2
Carrier frequency
+Vs

fc

fo

2
-Vs

Figure 14.13. Inverter control giving variable duty cycle of five notches per half cycle:
(a) low duty cycle, 1, hence low fundamental magnitude and
(b) higher duty cycle, 2, for a high fundamental voltage output.

Power Electronics

Power Inverters

The harmonic content at lower output voltages is significantly lower than that obtained with single-pulse
modulation. The increased switching frequency does increase the magnitude of higher order harmonics
and the switching losses. The Fourier coefficients of the output voltage in figure 14.13 are given by
fc
fo

fo
fo
4
Vn =
(14.57)
cos 2 n ( 2 j 1 + ) cos 2 n ( 2 j 1 )

n j =1,2,3,..
fc
fc

where fo is the fundamental frequency, fc the triangular carrier frequency and 0 1 is the duty cycle.

In figure 14.14b two notches per half cycle are introduced; hence any two selected harmonics can be
eliminated. The more notches, the lower is the output fundamental. For example, with two notches, the
third and fifth harmonics are eliminated. From

445

14.1.3iv - Multi-pulse, selected notching modulation

If a multi-level waveform (Vs, 0) is used with quarter wave symmetry, as shown in figure 14.14a, then
both the harmonics and total rms output voltage can be controlled. With one pulse per quarter wave, the
kth harmonic is eliminated from the output voltage if the centre of the pulse is located such that
sin k = 0
(14.58)
that is =

Independent of the pulse width , the kth harmonic is eliminated and the other Fourier components are
given by
8

sin n
Vn =
V s sin n
(14.59)

The output voltage total rms is solely dependent on the pulse width and is given by
2
Vo rms = V s

(14.60)

On the other hand, the bipolar waveform (Vs) in figure 14.14b has an rms value of Vs, independent of
the harmonics eliminated.
Selected elimination of lower-order harmonics can be achieved by producing an output voltage
waveform as shown in figure 14.14b. The exact switching points are calculated off-line so as to eliminate
the required harmonics. For n switchings per half cycle, n selected harmonics can be eliminated.

bn =

f ( ) sin n d

for

n = 1, 2, 3, ....

446

(14.61)

b3 = 4 Vs (1 2 cos 3 + 2 cos 3 ) = 0
3
and
b5 = 4 Vs (1 2 cos 5 + 2 cos 5 ) = 0
5
Solving yields 1 = 23.6 and 1 = 33.3. The total rms output voltage is Vs, independent of the
harmonics eliminated. The magnitude (whence rms) of each harmonic component is
4
Vn =
V s (1 4 sin n sin n )
(14.62)

The maximum fundamental rms component of the output voltage waveform is 0.84 of a square wave,
which is (22/)Vs when = which produces a square wave.
Ten switching intervals exist compared with two per cycle for a squarewave, hence switching losses and
control circuit complexity are increased.
In the case of a three-phase inverter bridge, the third harmonic does not exist, hence the fifth and
seventh (b5 and b7) can be eliminated with 1 = 16.3 and 1 = 22.1. The 5th, 7th, 11th, and 13th can be
eliminated with the angles 10.55, 16.09, 30.91, and 32.87 respectively. Because the waveforms
have quarter wave symmetry, only angles for 90 need be stored.
The output rms voltage magnitude can be varied by controlling the dc link voltage or by transformeradding two phase-displaced bridge outputs as demonstrated in figure 14.12. The output voltage Fourier
components in equation (14.62) are modified by equation(14.54) given
4
Vn =
V s (1 4 sin n sin n ) cos n
(14.63)

vL

And the total rms output voltage is reduced from Vs , as given by equation (14.55), that is

Vo rms = Vs 1 -

Vs

(V)

(14.64)

Thus the fundamental rms magnitude can be changed by introducing an extra constraint to be satisfied,
along with the harmonic eliminating constraints (as a result of the extra constraint, one fewer harmonic
can now be eliminated for a given number of switchings per quarter cycle).

t
(a)

-Vs

(b)

The multi-pulse selected notching modulation technique can be extended to the optimal pulse-width
modulation method, where harmonics may not be eliminated, but minimised according to a specific
criterion. In this method, the quarter wave output is considered to have a number of switching angles.
These angles are selected so as, for example, to eliminate certain harmonics, minimise the rms of the
ripple current, or any other desired performance index. The resultant non-linear equations are solved
using numerical methods off-line. The computed angles are then stored in a ROM look-up table for use.
A set of angles must be computed and stored for each desired level of the voltage fundamental and
output frequency.
The optimal pwm approach is particularly useful for high-power, high-voltage GCT thyristor inverters,
which tend to be limited in switching frequency by device switching losses.
14.1.3v - Sinusoidal pulse-width modulation (pwm)

1
1
1

Figure 14.14. Output voltage harmonic reduction for a single-phase bridge using selected notching:
(a) multilevel output voltage and (b) bipolar output voltage.

1 - Natural sampling
(a) Synchronous carrier
The output voltage waveform and method of generation for synchronous carrier, natural sampling
sinusoidal pwm, suitable for the single-phase bridge of figure 14.1, are illustrated in figure 14.15. The
switching points are determined by the intersection of the triangular carrier wave fc and the reference
modulation sine wave, fo. The output frequency is at the sine-wave frequency fo and the output voltage is
proportional to the magnitude of the sine wave. The amplitude M (0 M 1) is called the modulation
index. For example, figure 14.15a shows maximum voltage output (M = 1), while in figure 14.15b where
the sine-wave magnitude is halved (M = 0.5), the output voltage is halved.
If the frequency of the modulation sinewave, fo, is an integer multiple of the triangular wave carrierfrequency, fc that is, fc = nfo where n is integer, then the modulation is synchronous, as shown in figure

Power Electronics

Power Inverters

14.15. If n is odd then the positive and negative output half cycles are symmetrical and the output
voltage contains no even harmonics. In a three-phase system if n is a multiple of 3 (and odd), the carrier
is a triplen of the modulating frequency and the spectrum does not contain the carrier or its harmonics.
f c = (6q + 3) f o = nf o
(14.65)
for q = 1, 2, 3.
The Fourier harmonic magnitudes of the line to line voltages are given by
n
n
a n = V A cos
cos

2
3
(14.66)
n n
bn = V A sin
sin

2 3
where V is proportional to the dc supply voltage Vs and the modulation index M.

Rather than using two offset triangular carriers, as shown in figure 14.15, a triangular carrier without an
offset can be used. Now the output only approximates the ideal. Figure 14.16 shows this pwm
generation technique and voltage bipolar output waveform, when applied to the three-phase VSI
inverter in figure 14.7. Two offset carriers are not applicable to six-switch, three-phase pwm generation
since complementary switch action is required. That is, one switch in the inverter leg must always be on.
It will be noticed that, unlike the output in figure 14.15, no zero voltage output periods exist. This has the
effect that, in the case of GCT thyristor bridges, a large number of commutation cycles is required. When
zero output periods exist, as in figure 14.11, one GCT thyristor is commutated and the complementary
device in that leg is not turned on. The previously commutated device can be turned back on without the
need to commutate the complementary device, as would be required with the pwm technique illustrated
in figure 14.16. Commutation losses are reduced, control circuitry simplified and the likelihood of
simultaneous conduction of two series leg devices is reduced.
The alternating zero voltage loop concept can be used, where in figure 14.16b, rather than T1 being on
continuously during the first half of the output cycle, T2 is turned off leaving T1 on, then when either T1 or
T2 must be turned off, T1 is turned off leaving T2 on.

447

448

upper triangular carrier wave

fc

lower triangular carrier wave

fc

reference modulation sinewave fo

Figure 14.15. Derivation of trigger signals for multi-level naturally sampled pulse-width modulation
waveforms: (a) for a high fundamental output voltage (M = 1) and
(b) for a lower output voltage (M = 0.5), with conducting devices shown.

Sinusoidal pwm requires a carrier of much higher frequency than the modulation frequency. The
generated rectilinear output voltage pulses are modulated such that their duration is proportional to the
instantaneous value of the sinusoidal waveform at the centre of the pulse; that is, the pulse area is
proportional to the corresponding value of the modulating sine wave.
If the carrier frequency is very high, an averaging effect occurs, resulting in a sinusoidal fundamental
output with high-frequency harmonics, but minimal low-frequency harmonics.

Figure 14.16. Naturally sampled pulse-width modulation waveforms suitable for a three-phase
bridge inverter: (a) reference signals; (b) conducting devices and fundamental sine waves; and (c)
one output line-to-line voltage waveform.

(b) Asynchronous carrier

When the carrier is not an integer multiple of the modulation waveform, asynchronous modulation
results. Because the output frequency, fo, is usually variable over a wide range, it is difficult to ensure fc
= nfo. To achieve synchronism, the carrier frequency must vary with frequency fo. Simpler generating
systems result if a fixed carrier frequency is used, resulting in asynchronism between fo and fc at most

Power Electronics

Power Inverters

output frequencies. Left over, incomplete carrier cycles create slowly varying output voltages, called
subharmonics, which may be troublesome with low carrier frequencies, as found in high-power drives.
Natural sampling, asynchronous sinusoidal pwm is usually restricted to analogue or ASIC
implementation. The harmonic consequences of asynchronous-carrier natural-sampling are similar to
asynchronous-carrier regular-sampling in 2 to follow.
2 - Regular sampling
(a) Asynchronous carrier
When a fixed carrier frequency is used, usually no attempt is made to synchronise the modulation
frequency. The output waveforms do not have quarter-wave symmetry which produces subharmonics.
These subharmonics are insignificant if fc >> fo, usually, fc > 20 fo.
The implementation of sinusoidal pwm with microprocessors or digital signal processors is common
because of flexibility and the elimination of analogue circuitry associated problems. The digital pwm
generation process involves scaling, by multiplication, of the per unit sine-wave samples stored in ROM.

Symmetrical modulation
Figure 14.17a illustrates the process of symmetrical modulation, where sampling is at the carrier
frequency. The quantised sine-wave is stepped and held at each sample point. The triangular carrier is
then compared with the step sine-wave sample. The modulation process is termed symmetrical
modulation because the intersection of adjacent sides of the triangular carrier with the stepped sinewave, about the non-sampled carrier peak, are equidistant about the carrier peak. The pulse width,
independent of the modulation index M, is symmetrical about the triangular carrier peak not associated
with sampling, as illustrated by the upper pulse in figure 14.18. The pulse width is given by
1
t ps =
(14.67)
(1- M sin 2 fo t1 )
2 fc
where t1 is the time of sampling.

449

450

Asymmetrical modulation
Asymmetrical modulation is produced when the carrier is compared with a stepped sine wave produced
by sampling and holding at twice the carrier frequency, as shown in figure 14.17b. Each side of the
triangular carrier about a sampling point intersects the stepped waveform at different step levels. The
resultant pulse width is asymmetrical about the sampling point, as illustrated by the lower pulse in figure
14.18 for two modulation waveform magnitudes. The pulse width is given by
1
t pa =
(14.68)
(1- M ( sin 2 fo t1 + sin 2 fo t2 ) )
2 fc

where t1 and t2 are the times at sampling such that t2 = t1 + 1/2fc.

Figure 14.18 shows that a change in the modulation index M varies the pulse width on each edge,
termed double edge modulation. A triangular carrier produces double edge modulation, while a sawtooth
carrier produces single edge modulation, independent of the sampling technique.
t p 2s
t p1s

M2

M1
t1

Triangular carrier

fc

Reference f o2

Reference f o1

t2
M2

Line of
sym m etry

M1
t p1a
t p2a

Figure 14.17. Regular sampling, asynchronous, sinusoidal pulse-width-modulation:

(a) symmetrical modulation and (b) asymmetrical modulation.

The multiplication process is time-consuming, hence natural sampling is not possible. In order to
minimise the multiplication rate, the sinusoidal sine-wave reference is replaced by a quantised stepped
representation of the sine-wave. Figure 14.17 shows two methods used. Sampling is synchronised to
the carrier frequency and the multiplication process is performed at twice the sampling rate for threephase pwm generation (the third phase can be expressed in terms of two phases, since v1 + v2 + v3 = 0).

Figure 14.18. Regular sampling, asynchronous, sinusoidal pulse-width-modulation, showing double

edge: (upper) asymmetrical modulation and (lower) symmetrical modulation.

Power Electronics

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Power Inverters

452

3 - Frequency spectra of pwm waveforms

The most common form of sinusoidal modulation for three-phase inverters is regular sampling,
asynchronous, fixed frequency carrier, pwm. If fc > 20fo, low frequency subharmonics can be ignored.
The output spectra consists of the modulation frequency fo with magnitude M. Also present are the
spectra components associated with the triangular carrier, fc. For any sampling, these are fc and the odd
harmonics of fc. (The triangular carrier fc contains only odd harmonics). These decrease in magnitude
with increasing frequency. About the frequency nfc are components of fo spaced at 2fo, which generally
decrease in magnitude when further away from nfc. That is, at fc the harmonics present are fc, fc 2fo, fc
4fo, while about 2fc, the harmonics present are 2fc f0, 2fc 3fo,..., but 2fc is not present. The typical
output spectrum is shown in figure 14.19. The relative magnitudes of the sidebands vary with modulation
depth and the carrier related frequencies present, fh, are given by

f h = 1 + ( 1)

n+1

) n f ( 2k (1 + ( 1) )) f
n

where k = 1, 2, 3,.... (sidebands) and

m = 0

m =

m =

(14.69)

n = 1, 2, 3,.... (carrier )
m =

Mwith single-phase unipolar pwm

fh = 0 for n odd

2fo

(suppressed carrier and n - odd side bands)

m = 1

2fo

t
o
fo

1 fc

2 fc

3 fc

4 fc

Figure 14.19. Location of carrier harmonics and modulation frequency sidebands,

showing all sideband separated by 2fm.

Although the various pwm techniques produce other less predominate spectra components, the main
difference is seen in the magnitude of the carrier harmonics and sidebands. The magnitudes increase as
the pwm type changes from naturally sampling to regular sampling, then from asymmetrical to symmetrical modulation, and finally from double edge to single edge. With a three-phase inverter, the
carrier fc and its harmonics do not appear in the line-to-line voltages since the carrier fc and in particular
its harmonics, are co-phase to the three modulation waveforms.
14.1.3vi - Phase dead-banding

Dead banding is when one phase (leg) is in a fixed on state, and the remaining phases are appropriately
modulated so that the phase currents remain sinusoidal. The dead banding occurs for 60 periods of
each cycle with the phase with the largest magnitude voltage being permanently turned on. Sequentially
each switch is clamped to the appropriate link rail. The leg output is in a high state if it is associated with
the largest positive phase voltage magnitude, while the phase output is zero if it is associated with the
largest negative phase magnitude. Thus the phase outputs are cycled, being alternately clamped high
and low for 60 every 180 as shown in figure 14.20. A consequence of dead banding is reduced
switching losses since each leg is not switched at the carrier frequency for 120 (two 60 periods 180
apart). A consequence of dead banding is increased ripple current. Dead banding is achieved with
discontinuous modulating reference signals. Dead banding for a continuous 120 per phase leg is also
possible but the switching loss savings are not uniformly distributed amongst the six inverter switches.
The magnitude of the fundamental when using standard PWM can be increased from 0.827pu to
0.955pu without introducing output voltage distortion, by the injection of triplen components, which are
co-phasal in a three-phase system, and therefore do not appear in the line currents. Two basic
approaches can be used to affect this undistorted output voltage magnitude increase.
Triplen injection into the modulation waveform or
Voltage space vector modulation

2
3

5
3

Figure 14.20. Modulation reference waveform for phase dead banding.

14.1.3vii - Triplen Injection modulation

1 - Triplens injected into the modulation waveform

An inverter reconstitutes three-phase voltages with a maximum magnitude of 0.827 (33/2) of the fixed
three-phase input ac supply. A motor designed for the fixed mains supply is therefore under-fluxed at
rated frequency and not fully utilised on an inverter. As will be shown, by using third harmonic voltage
injection, the flux level can be increased to 0.955 (3/) of that produced on the three-phase ac mains
supply.
If overmodulation (M > 1) is not allowed, then the modulation wave M sin t is restricted in magnitude to
M = 1, as shown in figure 14.21a.
If VRN = M sint 1pu
and
VYN = M sin(t + ) 1 pu
then
VRY = 3 M sin(t - )
where 0 M 1
In a three-phase pwm generator, the fact that harmonics at 3fo (and odd multiplies of 3fo) vectorally
cancel can be utilised effectively to increase M beyond 1, yet still ensure modulation occurs for every
carrier frequency cycle.
Let
VRN = M sint+ sin3t) 1 pu
and
VYN = M ( sin(t +) + sin 3(t + )) 1 pu
then
VRY = 3 M sin(t - )
VRN has a maximum instantaneous value of 1 pu at t = , as shown in figure 14.21b. Therefore
3
VRN (t = 13 ) =
M ' =1
2
that is
m'= 2 M
m = 1.155M
m
M
(14.70)
3
Thus the fundamental of the phase voltage is M sin t = 1.155 M sin t. That is, if the modulation
reference sin t + sin 3t is used, the fundamental output voltage is 15.5 per cent larger than when
sin t is used as a reference. The increased fundamental is shown in figure 14.21b.

453

Power Electronics

Power Inverters

454

rotation, determines the inverter output frequency. The sequence of voltage vectors {v1, v3, v2, v6, v4, v5}
is arranged such that stepping from one state to the next involves only one of the three poles changing
state. Thus the number of inverter devices needing to change states (switch) at each transition, is
minimised.

1.155

[If the inverter switches are relabelled, upper switches T1, T2, T3 - right to left; and lower switches T4, T5,
T6 - right to left: then the rotating voltage sequence becomes {v1, v2, v3, v4, v5, v6}]
Rather than stepping radians per step, from one voltage space vector position to the next, thereby
producing a six-step quasi-square fixed magnitude voltage output, the rotating vector is rotated in
smaller steps based on the position being updated at a constant rate (carrier frequency). Furthermore,
the vector length can be varied, modulated, to a magnitude less than Vs.
2 V sin 1
(3
)
o/ p
Va
ta
3
=
=
Tc
v1
Vs
Vb
tb
=
=
Tc
v3

2
Vo / p sin
3
Vs

where v1 = v3

(14.73)
#

Interval 4
T4 T5 T6 on
leg state 010
j
v2 = V s e

Interval 3
T3 T4 T5 on
leg state 011
j
v3 = V s e
SECTOR

II

SECTOR

SECTOR

III

Interval 5
T1 T5 T6 on
leg state 110
j
v6 = V s e

Interval 2
T2 T3 T4 on
leg state 001
0j
v1 = V s e

000
111
SECTOR

SECTOR

IV

VI

SECTOR

Figure 14.21. Modulation reference waveforms: (a) sinusoidal reference, sin t; (b) third harmonic
injection reference, sin t + sin 3t; and (c) triplen injection reference, sin t + (1/3){9/8 sin3t 80/81 sin9t + . ..} where the near triangular waveform b is half the magnitude of the shaded area.

The spatial voltage vector technique injects the triplens according to

r
1
( 1)

VRN = M ' sin t +

(14.71)
sin ( 2r + 1) 3t

1
3 r =0 ( 2r + 1) 3 ( 2r + 1) + 13

The Fourier triplen series represents half the magnitude of the shaded area in figure 14.21c (the
waveform marked b), which is formed by the three-phase sinusoidal waveforms. The spatial voltage
vector waveform is defined by
3
sin(t )
0 t 16
2
(14.72)
3
1
sin(t + 16 )
6 t
2
The use of this reference increases the duration of the zero volt loops, thereby decreasing inverter
output current ripple. The maximum modulation index is 1.155. Third harmonic injection, yielding M =
1.155, is a satisfactory approximation to spatial voltage vector injection.

Interval 6
T1 T2 T6 on
leg state 100
j
v4 = V s e

Interval 1
T1 T2 T3 on
leg state 101
- j
v5 = V s e

001
v1

011
v3

010
v2

110
v6

100
v4

101
v5

2 - Voltage space vector pwm

When generating three-phase quasi-square output voltages, the inverter switches step progressively to
each of the six switch output possibilities (states). In figure 14.10, when producing the quasi-square
output, each of these six states is represented by an output voltage space vector. Each vector has a
displacement from its two adjacent states, and each has a length Vs which is the pole output voltage
relative to the inverter 0V rail. Effectively, the quasi-square three-phase output is generated by a
rotating vector of length Vs, jumping successively from one output state to the next in the sequence, and
in so doing creating six voltage output sectors. The speed of rotation, in particular the time for one

111
v7

000
v0

Figure 14.22. Instantaneous output voltage states for the three legs of an inverter.

455

Power Electronics

Power Inverters
V 3 =V s e

To incorporate a variable rotating vector length (modulation depth), it is necessary to vary the average
voltage in each carrier period. Hence pulse width modulation is used in the period between each finite
step of the rotating vector. Pulse width modulation requires the introduction of zero voltage output
states, namely all the top switches on (state 111, v7) or all the lower switches on (state 000, v0). These
two extra states are shown in figure 14.22, at the centre of the hexagon. Now the pole-to-pole output
voltage can be zero, which allows duty cycle variation to achieve variable average output voltage for
each phase, within each carrier period, proportional to the magnitude of the position vector.
To facilitate vector positions (angles) that do not lie on one of the six quasi-square output vectors, an
intermediate vector Vo/p e j is resolved into the vector sum of the two quasi-square vectors adjacent to
the rotating vector. This process is shown in figure 14.23 for a voltage vector Vo/p that lies in sector I,
between output states v1 (001) and v3 (011). The voltage vector has been resolved into the two
components Va and Vb as shown.
The time represented by quasi-square vectors v1 and v3 is the carrier period Tc, in each case. Therefore
the portion of Tc associated with va and vb is scaled proportionally to v1 and v3, giving ta and tb.

j?

011

j?

Tc

011

SECTOR I

SECTOR I

Tc

Vo / p

tb
Vb = 2 VO / P sin
3

V s cos30

VoV/ pO/P
e j

v 3 = V s

000
111

ta

Va = 2 VO / P sin ( 13 )
3

v 1 =V s e

Tc

30

000
111

v 1 = V s

j0

v 1 =V s e

j0

001

001

(a)

(b)
V 3 =V s e

The two sine terms in equation (14.73) generate two sine waves displaced by 120, identical to that
generated with standard carrier based sinusoidal pwm.
The sum of ta and tb cannot be greater than the carrier period Tc, thus
ta + tb Tc
(14.74)
ta + tb + to = Tc
where the slack variable to has been included to form an equality. The equality dictates that vector v1 is
used for a period ta, v3 is used for a period tb, and during period to, the null vector, v0 or v7, at the centre
of the hexagon is used, which do not affect the average voltage during the carrier interval Tc.
A further constraint is imposed in the time domain. The rotating voltage vector is a fixed length for all
rotating angles, for a given inverter output voltage. Its length is restricted in both time and space.
Obviously the resolved component lengths cannot exceed the pole vector length, Vs. Additionally, the
two vector magnitudes are each a portion of the carrier period, where ta and tb could be both equal to Tc,
that is, they both have a maximum length Vs. The anomaly is that voltages va and vb are added
vectorially but their scalar durations (times ta and tb) are added linearly. The longest time ta + tb possible
is when to is zero, as shown in figures 14.23a and 14.22a, by the hexagon boundary. The shortest
vector to the boundary is where both resolving vectors have a length Vs, as shown in figure 14.23b.
For such a condition, ta = tb = Tc, that is ta + tb = Tc. Thus for a constant inverter output voltage, when
the rotating voltage vector has a constant length, Vlo /p , the locus of allowable rotating reference voltage
vectors must be within the circle scribed by the maximum length vector shown in figure 14.23b. As
shown, this vector has a length v1 cos30, specifically 0.866Vs. Thus the full quasi-square vectors v1, v2,
etc., which have a magnitude of 1Vs, cannot be used for generating a sinusoidal output voltage. The
excess length of each quasi-square voltage (which represents time) is accounted for by using zero state
voltage vectors for a period corresponding to that extra length (1- cos 30 at maximum output voltage).
Having calculated the necessary periods for the inverter poles (ta, tb, and to), the carrier period switching
pattern can be assigned in two ways.
Minimised current ripple
Minimised switching losses, using dead banding

456

V 3 =V s e

j?

tb + ta < T c
reduced to

Tc

011

60-

tb + ta > T c
no to

V o /p > Vo /p

TTcc

Vlo / p

000
111

Tc
v 1 =V s e

tb + ta < T c
reduced to

j0

001

(c)

Figure 14.23. First sector of inverter operational area involving pole outputs 001 and 011:
(a) general rotating voltage vector; (b) maximum allowable voltage vector length for undistorted
output voltages; and (c) over modulation.
v0

v1

v3

v7

v7

v3

v1

v0

0 00

0 01

011

111

1 11

01 1

001

0 00

to

ta

tb

to to

tb

ta

to

Tc

Each approach is shown in figure 14.24, using single edged modulation. The waveforms are based on
the equivalent of symmetrical modulation where the pulses are symmetrical about the carrier trough. By
minimising the current ripple, seven switching states are used per carrier cycle, while for loss
minimisation (dead banding) only five switching states occur, but at the expense of increased ripple
current in the output current. When dead banding, the zero voltage state v0 is used in even numbered
sextants and v7 is used in odd numbered sextants.
Sideband and harmonic component magnitudes can be decreased if double-edged modulation
placement of the states is used, which requires recalculation of ta, tb, and to at the carrier crest, as well
as at the trough.
Over-modulation is when the magnitude of the demanded rotating vector is greater than Vlo /p such that
the zero voltage time reduces to zero, to = 0, during a portion of the time of one rotation of the output
vector. Initially this occurs at 30 ( 16 ( 2 N sector 1) ) when the output vector length reaches Vlo /p , as shown in
figure 14.23b. As the demand voltage magnitude increases further, the region around the 30 vector
position where to ceases to occur, increases as shown in figure 14.23c. When the output rotational
vector magnitude increases to Vs, the maximum possible, angle reduces to zero, and to ceases to
occur at any rotational angle. The values of ta, tb, and to (if greater than zero), are calculated as usual,
but pulse times are assigned pro rata to fit within the carrier period Tc.

(a )

v1

v3

v7

v7

v3

v1

001

01 1

111

111

011

001

ta

tb

to

to

tb

ta

Tc
(b )

Figure 14.24. Assignment of pole periods ta and tb based on:

(a) minimum current ripple and (b) minimum switching transitions per carrier cycle, Tc.

Power Electronics

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14.2

Power Inverters

dc-to-ac controlled current-source inverters

In the current source inverter, CSI, the dc supply is of high reactance, being inductive so as to maintain
the required inverter output bidirectional current independent of the inverter load.

458

Phase II
When both capacitors are discharged, the load current transfers from D1 to D2 and from D3 to D4, which
connects the capacitors in parallel with the load via diodes D1 to D2. The plates X and Y now charge
negative, ready for the next commutation cycle, as shown in figure 14.26b. Thyristors T1 and T2 are
now forward biased and must have attained forward blocking ability before the start of phase 2.

14.2.1 Single-phase current source inverter

A single-phase, controlled current-sourced bridge is shown in figure 14.25a and its near square-wave
output current is shown in figure 14.25b. No freewheel diodes are required and the thyristors required
forced commutation and have to withstand reverse voltages. An inverter current path must be
maintained at all times for the source controlled current.
Consider thyristors T1 and T2 on and conducting the constant load current. The capacitors are charged
with plates X and Y positive as a result of the previous commutation cycle.
Phase I
Thyristors T1 and T2 are commutated by triggering thyristors T3 and T4. The capacitors impress
negative voltages across the respective thyristors to be commutated off, as shown in figure 14.26a.
The load current is displaced from T1 and T2 via the path T3-C1-D1, the load and D2-C2-T4. The two
capacitors discharge in series with the load, each capacitor reverse biasing the thyristor to be
commutated, T1 and T2 as well as diodes D3 to D4. The capacitors discharge linearly (due to the
constant current source).

The on-going thyristor automatically commutates the outgoing thyristor. This repeated commutation
sequencing is a processed termed auto-sequential thyristor commutation. The load voltage is load
dependent and usually has controlled voltage spikes during commutation.
Since the GTO and GCT both can be commutated from the gate, the two commutation capacitors C1 and
C2 are not necessary. Commutation overlap is still essential. Also, if the thyristors have reverse
blocking capability, the four diodes D1 to D4 are not necessary. IGBTs require series blocking diodes,
which increases on-state losses. In practice, the current source inverter is only used in very high-power
applications (>1MVA), and the ratings of the self-commutating thyristor devices can be greatly extended
if the simple external capacitive commutation circuits shown in figure 14.25 are used to reduce thyristor
turn-off stresses.
14.2.2 Three-phase current source inverter

A three-phase controlled current-source inverter is shown in figure 14.27a. Only two thyristors can be on
at any instant, that is, the 120 thyristor conduction principle shown in figure 14.11 is used. A quasisquare line current results, as illustrated in figure 14.27b. There is a 60 phase displacement between
commutation of an upper device followed by commutation of a lower device. An upper device (T1, T3, T5)
is turned on to commutate another upper device, and a lower device (T2, T4, T6) commutates another
lower device. The three upper capacitors are all involved with each upper device commutation, whilst
the same constraint applies to the lower capacitors. Thyristor commutation occurs in two distinct phases.

Figure 14.25. Single-phase controlled-current sourced bridge inverter:

(a) bridge circuit with a current source input and (b) load current waveform.

(a)

(b)

Figure 14.26. Controlled-current sourced bridge inverter showing commutation of T1 and T2 by T3 and
T4: (a) capacitors C1 and C2 discharging and T1, T2, D3, and D4 reversed biased and
(b) C1, C2, and the load in parallel with C1 and C2 charging.

Figure 14.27. Three-phase controlled-current sourced bridge inverter:

(a) bridge circuit with a current source input and (b) load current waveform for one phase
showing 120 conduction.

Phase I
In figure 14.28a the capacitors C13, C35, C51 are charged with the shown polarities as a result of the
earlier commutation of T5. T1 is commutated by turning on T3. During commutation, the capacitor

Power Electronics

459

Power Inverters

between the two commutating switches is in parallel with the two remaining capacitors which are
effectively connected in series. Capacitor C13 provides displacement current whilst in parallel, C35
and C151 in series also provide thyristor T1 displacement current, thereby reverse biasing T1.
Phase II
When the capacitors have discharged, T1 becomes forward biased, as shown in figure 14.28b, and
must have regained forward blocking capability before the applied positive dv/dt. The capacitor
voltages reverse as shown in figure 14.28b and when fully charged, diode D1 ceases to conduct.
Independent of this commutation, lower thyristor T2 is commutated by turning on T4, 60 later.
As with the single-phase current sourced inverter, assisted capacitor commutation can greatly improve
the capabilities of self-commutating thyristors, such as the GTO thyristor and GCT. The output capacitors
stiffen the output ac voltage.
A typical application for a three-phase current-sourced inverter would be to feed and control a threephase induction motor. Varying load requirements are met by changing the source current level over a
number of cycles by varying the link inductor input voltage.
An important advantage of the controlled current source concept, as opposed to the constant voltage
link, is good fault tolerance and protection. An output short circuit or simultaneous conduction in an
inverter leg is controlled by the current source. Its time constant is usually longer than that of the input
converter, hence converter shut-down can be initiated before the link current can rise to a catastrophic
level.

Io

+
+

C35

D1

C51

Commutation capability is load current dependent and a minimum load is required. This limits
the operating frequency and precludes use in UPS systems. The limited operating
frequency can result in torque pulsations.
The inverter can recover from an output short circuit hence the system is rugged and reliable
fault tolerant.
The converter-inverter configuration has inherent four quadrant capability without extra power
components. Power inversion is achieved by reversing the converter average voltage output
with a delay angle of > , as in the three-phase fully controlled converter shown in figure
11.18 (or 14.5.3). In the event of a power supply failure, mechanical braking is necessary.
Dynamic braking is possible with voltage source systems.
Current source inverter systems have sluggish performance and stability problems on light loads
and at high frequency. On the other hand, voltage source systems have minimal stability
problems and can operate open loop.
Each machine must have its own controlled rectifier and inverter. The dc link of the voltage
source scheme can be used by many inverters or many machines can utilise one inverter. A
dc link offers limited ride-through.
Current feed inverters tend to be larger in size and weight, because of the link inductor and
filtering requirements.
T1

T5

T3

T4

T2

T6

Tupper

Io

D1

CR
C35

C13

C13

460

CY
D3

+
C51

CB

Io
Tlower
Io
Io

Io

(a)

IR

Io

(a)

+Io
t

Io

(b)

Figure 14.28. Controlled-current sourced bridge three-phase inverter showing commutation of T1

and T3: (a) capacitors C13 discharging in parallel with C35 and C51 discharging in series, with T1 and D3
reversed biased (b) C13, C35, and C51 charging in series with the load , with T1 forward biased.

PWM techniques are applicable to current source inverters in order to reduce current harmonics,
thereby reducing load losses and pulsating motor shaft torques. Since current source inverters are most
attractive in very high-power applications, inverter switching is minimised by using optimal pwm. The
central 60 portion about the maximums of each phase cannot be modulated, since link current must
flow and during such periods both the other phases require the opposite current direction. Attempts to
over come such pwm restrictions include using a current sourced inverter with additional parallel current
displacement paths as shown in figure 14.29. The auxiliary thyristors, Tupper and Tlower, and capacitors,
CR, CY, and CB, provide alternative current paths (extra control states) and temporary energy storage.
The auxiliary thyristor can be commutated by the extra capacitors.
Characteristics and features of current source inverters
The inverter is simple and can utilise rectifier grade thyristors. The switching devices must have
reverse blocking capability and experience high voltages (both forward and reverse) during
commutation.

-Io
(b)

Figure 14.29. Three-phase controlled-current sourced bridge inverter with alternative commutation
current paths: (a) bridge circuit with a current source input and two extra thyristors and
(b) load current waveform for one phase showing 180 conduction involving pwm switching.

14.3

Resonant dc-ac inverters

The voltage source inverters considered in 14.1 involve inductive loads and the use of switches that are
hard switched. That is, the switches experience simultaneous maximum voltage and current during
turn-on and turn-off with an inductive load. The current source inverters considered in 14.2 required
capacitive circuits to commutate the bridge switches. When self-commutatable devices are used in
current source inverters, hard switching occurs. In resonant inverters, the load enables commutation of
the bridge switches with near zero voltage or current switch conditions, resulting in low switching losses.
A characteristic of L-C-R resonant circuits is that at regular, definable instants
for a step load voltage, the series L-C-R load current sinusoidally reverses or
for a step load current, the parallel L-C-R load voltage sinusoidally reverses.
If the load can be resonated, as considered in chapter 6.2.3, then switching stresses can be significantly
reduced for a given power through put, provided switching is synchronised to the V or I zero crossing.

Power Electronics

Power Inverters

Three types of resonant converters utilise zero voltage or zero current switching.
load-resonant converters
resonant-switch dc-to-dc converters
resonant dc link and forced commutated converters
The single-phase load-resonant converter, which is extensively used in induction heating applications, is
presented and analysed in this chapter. Such resonant load converters use an L-C load which
oscillates, thereby providing load zero current or voltage intervals at which the converter switches can
be commutated with minimal electrical stress. Resonant switch dc-to-dc converters are presented in
chapter 15.9.

is the damping factor. The capacitor voltage is important because it specifies the energy retained in the
L-C-R circuit at the end of each half cycle.

i
vc (t ) = Vs (Vs vo ) o e t cos (t ) + o e t sin t
(14.76)

461

Two basic resonant-load single-phase inverters are used, depending on the L-C load arrangement:
current source inverter with a parallel L-C resonant (tank) load circuit:
switch turn-off at zero load voltage instants and turn-on with zero voltage
switch overlap is essential (a continuous source current path is required)
voltage source inverter with a series connected L-C resonant load:
switch turn-off at zero load current instants and turn-on with zero current
switch under lap is essential (to avoid dc voltage source short circuiting)
Each load circuit type can be fed from a single leg (or arm) circuit or H-bridge circuit depending on the
load Q factor. This classification is divided according to
symmetrical full bridge for low Q load circuits (class D)
single bridge leg circuit for a high Q load circuit (class E)
High Q circuits can also use a full bridge inverter configuration, if desired, for higher through-put power.
In induction heating applications, the resistive part of the resonant load, called the work-piece, is the
active load to be heated - melted, where the heating load is usually transformer coupled. Energy
transfer control complication is usually associated with the fact that the resistance of the load work-piece
changes as it heats up and melts, since resistivity is temperature dependant. However, control is
essentially independent of the voltage and current levels and is related to the resonant frequency which
is L and C dependant. Inverter bridge operation is near the load resonant frequency so that the output
waveform is essentially sinusoidal. By ensuring operation is below the resonant frequency, such that
the load is capacitive, the resultant leading current can be used to self commutate thyristor converters
which may be used in high power series resonant circuits. This same capacitive load commutation effect
is obtained for parallel resonant circuits with thyristor current source inverters operating just above
resonance. The output power is controlled by controlling the converter output frequency.

At the series circuit resonance frequency o, the lowest possible circuit impedance results, Z = R, hence
it can be termed, low-impedance resonance. The series circuit quality factor or figure of merit, Qs, is
defined by
reactive power 2 maximum stored energy
=
Qs =
average power
energy dissipated per cycle
(14.77)
Z
2 Li 2 o L 1
=
=
=
= o
2
Ri / f o
2
R
R
Where the characteristic impedance is
L
Zo =
()
C
j

jL

i
Vs

Is

high
Q

high
Q
low
Q

low
Q

Is
vcapacitor

iseries

iinductor

vparallel

ideal commutation

instants

|Z()|
R

|Z()|
R

Qs

decreasing

BWs

+90

1
Qp

1
2
+90

decreasing

BWp

Z
inductive

capacitive

ideal commutation

instants

Z()

The series L-C-R circuit current for a step input voltage Vs, with initial capacitor voltage vo and series
inductor current io is given by
V v

i (t ) = s o e t sin t + io e t o cos (t + )
(14.75)

L
where
1
R
1
R
tan =
2 = o2 (1 2 ) = o2 2
o =
=
= =
and

2L
2Qs
2o L
LC

j
C

Vs

14.3.1i - Series resonant L-C-R circuit

jL

Is

14.3.1 L-C resonant circuits

L-C-R resonant circuits, whether parallel or series connected are characterised by the load impedance
being capacitive at low frequency and inductive at high frequency for the series circuit, and visa versa
for the parallel case. The transition frequency between being capacitive and inductive is the resonant
frequency, o, at which frequency the L-C-R load circuit appears purely resistive and maximum power is
transferred to the load, R. L-C-R circuits are classified according to circuit quality factor Q, resonant
frequency, o, and bandwidth, BW, for both parallel and series circuits. The characteristics for the
parallel and series resonant circuits are related since every practical series L-C-R circuit has a parallel
equivalent, and vice versa. The parallel circuit can be series R-L in parallel with the capacitor C.
As shown in figure 14.30 each resonant half cycle is characterised by

the series resonant circuit current is zero at maximum capacitor stored energy

the parallel resonant circuit voltage is zero at maximum inductor stored energy
The capacitor in a series resonant circuit must have an external path through which to release its stored
energy. The parallel resonant circuit can release its stored inductive energy within its parallel circuit,
without an external circuit. The stored energy can internally resonate, transferring energy back and forth
between the L and C, gradually dissipating in the circuit R, as heat.

462

Z()
=2f

Z
inductive

u
o

=2f
Z
capacitive

-90

-90
(a)

(b)

Figure 14.30. Resonant circuits, step response, and frequency characteristics:

(a) series L-C-R circuit and (b) parallel L-C-R circuit.

Power Electronics

463

Power Inverters

The series circuit half-power bandwidth BWs is given by

2 f o
BWs = o =
Qs
Qs
and upper and lower half-power frequencies are related by = A u .
Au = o

(14.78)

(14.79)
R
4 L
Figure 14.30a shows the time-domain step-response of the series L-C-R circuit for a high Q load and a
low Q case. In the low Q case, to maintain and transfer sufficient energy to the load R, the circuit
requires re-enforcement every half sine cycle, while with a high circuit Q, re-enforcement is only
necessary once per sinusoidal cycle. Thus for a high circuit Q, full bridge excitation is not necessary,
yielding a simpler power circuit as shown in figure 14.31a and b.
The energy transferred to the load resistance R, per half cycle 1/2fr, is
f Au = f o

W =

i ( t ) R d t
2

(14.80)

The active power transferred to the load depends on the repetition rate of the excitation, fr.
P = W f r
(W)

(14.81)

characteristic

series
s

Resonant angular frequency

rad/s

Damping factor

pu

Damping constant

/s

Characteristic impedance

s =

= o 1 = o

Quality factor

Bandwidth

Qs =

Qp

R
= o C R
o L
s =

pu

o CR

L
L
C = o
R
R
2 (LI p2 )

(RI )

BW s = o
Qs

T3 D3
T1 D1

Vs

2CR

T1 D1

R
1
R
=
=
= o CR
L
2 p Z o
2 (CV p2 )
R
=
o L
V p2


R

BW p = o
Qp

C R

VSI

T2 D2

(b)

CSI

I constant

I constant
L large

L large
C

Vs

T4D4

(a)

T4 D4

= o 1 p
Qp =

(14.87)

o L
1
=
R
o C R

Z
1
= o =
2s
R
1

L
1
= o L =
C
o C

= o 1 s

Qs =

(14.86)

LC

p =

rad/s

The active power to the load depends on the repetition rate of the excitation, fr.
P = W f r
(W)

p =
Zo =

The inductor current is important since it specifies the tank circuit stored energy at the end of each half
cycle.

v
(14.83)
iL (t ) = I s ( I s io ) o e t cos (t ) + o e t sin t

L
where
1
=
2CR
The parallel circuit Q for a parallel resonant circuit is
R
R
1
=
=
(14.84)
Qp = o RC =
o L Z o Qs
where Zo and o are defined as in equations (14.75) and (14.77), except L, C, and R refer to the parallel
circuit values.
The half-power bandwidth BWp is given by

2 f o
BWp = o =
(14.85)
Qp
Qp

R
2L

rad/s

(14.82)

W = v ( t ) / R d t

= LC

Damped resonant angular frequency

2

parallel

o = 2 f o =

I s io t

e sin t + vco e t o cos (t + )

C

and upper and lower half power frequencies are related by = Au .

At the parallel circuit resonance frequency o, the highest possible circuit impedance results, Z = R,
hence it can be termed, high-impedance resonance.
The energy transferred to the load resistance R, per half cycle 1/2fr, is

Table 14.4 Characteristics and parameters of parallel and series resonant circuits

Resonant period/time constant

v (t ) = vc (t ) =

464

T1 D1

Vs

T3 D3

14.3.1ii - Parallel resonant L-C-R circuit

The load for the parallel case is a parallel L-C circuit, where the active load is represented by series
resistance in the inductive path. For analysis, the series L-R circuit is converted into its parallel R-L
equivalent circuit, thus forming the equivalent parallel L-C-R circuit shown in figure 14.30b. A parallel
resonant circuit is used in conjunction with a current source inverter, thus the parallel circuit is excited
with a step input current. The voltage across a parallel L-C-R circuit for a step input current Is, with initial
capacitor voltage vo and initial inductor current io is given by

T1 D1

T3 D3

(c)

T4 D4

T2 D2

(d)

Figure 14.31. Resonant converter circuits: (a) series L-C-R with a high Q; (b) low Q series L-C-R;
(c) parallel L-C-R and high Q; and (d) low Q parallel L-C-R circuit.

Power Electronics

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Power Inverters

14.3.2 Series-resonant voltage-source inverters

Series resonant circuits use a voltage source inverter (class D series) as considered in 14.1.1 and
shown in figure 14.31a and b. If the load Q is high, then the resonance of energy from the energy
source, Vs, need only be re-enforced every second half-cycle, thereby simplifying converter and control
requirements. A high Q circuit is characterised by successive half-cycle capacitor voltage peak
magnitudes being of similar magnitude, that is the decay rate is

vc
= e 2 Q 1 for Q  1
(14.88)
vc
n

n +1

Thus there is sufficient energy stored in C to be transferred to the load R, without need to involve the
supply Vs. The circuit in figure 14.31a is simpler and control is easier.
Also, for any Q, each converter can be used with or without the shown freewheel diodes. Without
freewheel diodes, the switches have to block high reverse voltages due to the energy stored by the
capacitor. MOSFET and IGBTs require series diodes to achieve the reverse voltage blocking
requirements. In high power resonant applications, the reverse blocking abilities of the GTO and GCT
make them ideal converter switches. Better load resonant control is obtained if freewheel diodes are not
used.
D4

T4

D1

T1

D4

symmetrical H-bridge conducting devices

T1 T2

D3 D4

T3 T4

D1 D2

T1 T2

D3 D4

lagging

IT1

H-bridge output
voltage

IT1
t

0
IT4

Zero for half

bridge

switch T1/T2
hard turn-off

IT1

Vref

Vref
IT4

Operation and switch timing are as follows:

Diode D4 is conducting when switch T1 is turned on, which provides a step input voltage Vs to the
series L-C-R load circuit, and the current continues to oscillate. The capacitor charges to a maximum
voltage and the current reverses through D1, feeding energy back into the supply. T1 is then turned off
with zero current.
The switch T4 is turned on, commutating D1, and the current oscillates through the zero volt loop
created through T4 and the load. The oscillation current reverses through diode D4, when T4 is
turned off with zero current.
T1 is turned on and the process continues.

Analysis single inverter leg

For a square wave input voltage, 0 to Vs, of frequency o , the input voltage fundament of magnitude
2 Vs / produces the dominant load current component, since higher frequency components are
attenuated by second order L-C filtering action. That is, the resonant circuit excitation voltage is
V i = 2Vs .

Vref

Operation and switch timing are as follows:

Switch T1 is turned on while its anti-parallel diode is conducting and the current in the diode reaches
zero and the current transfers to, and begins to oscillate through the switch T1. The capacitor charges
to a maximum voltage and before the current reverses, the switch T1 is hard turned off. The current is
diverted through diode D4. T4 is turned on which allows the oscillation to reverse. Before the current in
T4 reaches zero, it is turned off and current is diverted to diode D1, which returns energy to the
supply. The resonant cycle is repeated when T1 is turned on before the current in diode D1 reaches
zero and the process continues.

Without the freewheel diodes the half oscillation cycles are controlled completely by the switches. On
the other hand, with freewheel diodes, the timing of switch turn-on and turn-off is determined by the load
current zeros, if maximum energy transfer to the load is to be gained.

lagging

IT1

1 - Lagging operation (advancing the switch turn-off angle, f > fo)

If the converter is operated at a frequency above resonance (effected by commutating the switches
before the end of an oscillation cycle), the inductor reactance dominates and the load appears inductive.
The load current lags the voltage as shown in figure 14.32. This figure shows the conducting devices
and that a switch is turned on when its parallel connected diode is conducting. Turn-on therefore occurs
at a low voltage (hence low switch turn-on loss and no need for fast recovery diodes), while turn-off is as
with a hard switched inductive load (associated with switch high turn-off loss and turn-off Miller
capacitance effects).

2 - Leading operation (delaying the switch turn-on angle, f < fo)

By operating the converter at a frequency below resonance (effectively by delaying switch turn-on until
after the end of an oscillation cycle), the capacitor reactance dominates and the load appears capacitive.
The load current leads the voltage as shown in figure 14.33. This figure shows the conducting devices
and that a switch is turned off when its parallel diode is conducting. Turn-off therefore occurs at a low
current, while turn-on is as with a hard switched inductive load. Fast recovery diodes are therefore
essential. Switch output capacitance charging and discharge (CV2) and the Miller effect at turn-on
(requiring increased gate power) are factors to be accounted for.

asymmetrical bridge conducting devices

T1

466

switch T4/T3
hard turn-off
t

Figure 14.32. Series L-C-R high Q resonance using the converter circuit in figure 14.31a and b,
with a lagging power factor .

14.3.2i Series-resonant voltage-source inverter single inverter leg

Operation of the series load single leg circuit in figure 14.31a depends on the timing of the switches.

The series circuit steady-state current at resonance for the single-leg half-bridge can be approximated
by assuming o, such that in equation (14.75) io = 0:
V
1
s e t sin t
(14.89)
0 t
i (t ) =

1 e
which is valid for the + Vs loop (through T1) and zero voltage loop (through T4) modes of cycle operation
at resonance, provided the time reference is moved to the beginning of each half-cycle.
In steady-state the successive capacitor voltage absolute maxima are

1
e /
Vc = Vs
and Vc = Vs
1 e /
1 e /
The peak-to-peak capacitor voltage is therefore
1 + e /
2
Vs = Vs coth ( / 2 )
Vs
Vc =

1 e /
p p

(14.90)

(14.91)

Power Electronics

467

Power Inverters

The magnitude of the resistor voltage is therefore

R
1
= Vi
vR ( ) = Vi
2
2
1

1
1+

R2 + L

C
R RC

1
= Vi
2
o

1 + Q2
o

asymmetrical bridge conducting devices

T1

D1

T4

D4

T1

D1

T1 T2

D1 D2

symmetrical H-bridge conducting devices

T1 T2

D1 D2

T3 T4

D3 D4

leading

IT1

IT1

H-bridge output
voltage

0
Zero for half
bridge

IT4

leading

IT1

switch T1/T2
hard turn-on

IT1
t

Vref

Vref

Vref

IT4

switch T4/T3
hard turn-on

468

t
0

Figure 14.33. Series L-C-R high Q resonance using the converter circuit in figure 14.31a and b,
with a leading power factor .

(14.95)

14.3.2ii Series-resonant voltage-source inverter H-bridge voltage-source inverter

When the load Q is not high, the capacitor voltage between successive absolute peaks decays
significantly, leaving insufficient energy to maintain high efficiency energy transfer to the load R. In such
cases the resonant circuit is re-enforced with energy from the dc source Vs every half-resonant cycle, by
using a full H-bridge as shown in figure 14.31b.
Operation is characterised by turning on switches T1 and T2 to provide energy from the source during
one half of the cycle, then having turned T1 and T2 off, T3 and T4 are turned on for the second resonant
half cycle. Energy is again drawn from the supply Vs, and when the current reaches zero, T3 and T4 are
turned off.
Without bridge freewheel diodes, the switches support high reverse bias voltages, but the switches
control the start of each oscillation half cycle. With freewheel diodes the oscillations can continue
independent of the switch states. The diodes return energy to the supply, hence reducing the energy
transferred to the load. Correct timing of the switches minimises currents in the freewheel diodes, hence
minimises the energy needlessly being returned to the supply. Energy to the load is maximised. As with
the single-leg half-bridge, the switches can be used to control the effective load power factor. By
advancing turn-off to before the switch current reaches zero, the load can be made to appear inductive,
while delaying switch turn-on produces a capacitive load effect. The timing sequencing of the
conducting devices, for load power factor control, are shown in figures 14.32 and 14.33.
The series circuit steady-state current at resonance for the symmetrical H-bridge can be approximated
by assuming o , such that in equation (14.75) io = 0:
V
2
s e t sin t
(14.96)
0 t
i (t ) =

L
1 e
which is valid for the Vs voltage loops of cycle operation at resonance, provided the time reference is
moved to the beginning of each half-cycle.
In steady-state the capacitor voltage absolute maxima are

1 + e /
(14.97)
Vc = Vs
= Vs coth ( / 2 ) = Vc
1 e /
The peak-to-peak capacitor voltage is therefore
1 + e /
4
(14.98)
Vc = 2
Vs = 2Vs coth ( / 2 )
Vs

1 e /
The energy transferred to the load R, per half sine cycle (per current pulse) is
p p

The energy transferred to the load R, per half sine cycle (per current pulse) is

W=

/
0

i 2 Rdt =

/
0

= CVs2 coth

s e t sin t R dt

1 e

W =

(14.92)

The input impedance of the series circuit is

o
1

= R 1 + jQ s

Z s = Ze j = R + j L

(14.93)
o

where = tan1 Q s

o
The frequency ratio terms in the equation for the input phase angle show that the resonant circuit is
inductive ( > 0, lagging current) when > o and capacitive ( < 0, leading current) when <o.
From the series ac circuit, the voltage across the resistor, vR, at a given frequency, , is given by
R
(14.94)
vR ( ) = Vi
1

R + j L

/
0

i 2 R dt =

= 2CVs2 coth

/
0

s e t sin t R dt

1 e

(14.99)

2
Notice the voltage swing is twice that with the single-leg half-bridge, hence importantly, the power
delivered to the load is increased by a factor of four.
From the series ac circuit, the voltage across the resistor, vR, at a given frequency, , is given by
R
(14.100)
vR ( ) = Vi
1

R + j L

The magnitude of the resistor voltage is therefore

Power Electronics

469

vR ( ) = Vi

1
R2 + L

= Vi

= Vi

Power Inverters

14.3.3i Parallel-resonant current-source inverter single inverter leg

1
L

1+

R RC

(14.101)

o
1 + Q2

o
The frequency ratio terms in the equation for the input phase angle show that the resonant circuit is
inductive ( > 0, lagging current) when > o and capacitive ( < 0, leading current) when <o.
These resonant circuit resistor expressions are the same as for the half bridge case except the input
voltage Vi for the full bridge is twice that of the half bridge case, for the same supply voltage Vs.

If the input voltage Vi is expressed as a Fourier series then the resistor current can be derived in terms
of the summation of all the harmonic component according to

470

i ( n ) = n=1 vR ( n ) / R

(14.102)

n=1 R

For a square wave input voltage, Vs, of frequency o , the input voltage fundament of magnitude
4Vs / produces the dominant load current component, since higher frequency components are
attenuated by second order L-C filtering action. That is, V i = 4Vs .

Figure 14.31c shows a single-leg half-bridge converter for high Q parallel load circuits. Energy is
provided from the constant current source every second half cycle by turning on switch T1. When T1 is
turned on (and T3 is then turned off) the voltage across the L-C-R circuit resonates from zero to a
maximum and back to zero volts. The energy in the inductor reaches a maximum at each zero voltage
instant. T3 is turned on (at zero volts) to divert current from T1, which is then turned off with zero
terminal voltage. The energy in the load inductor resonates within the load circuit, with the load in an
open circuit state, since T1 is off. The sequence continues when the load voltage resonates back to
zero as shown in figure 14.30b.
The parallel circuit steady-state voltage at resonance for the single-leg half-bridge can be approximated
by assuming o , such that in equation (14.82) vo = 0:
I
1
0 t
s e t sin t
(14.103)
v ( t ) =

C
1 e
which is valid for both the +Is loop and open circuit load modes of cycle operation, provided the time
reference is moved to the beginning of each half-cycle.
In steady-state the successive inductor current absolute maxima are

1
e /
I L = Is
and I L = I s
(14.104)
1 e /
1 e /
The energy transferred to the load R, per half sine cycle (per voltage pulse) is
2

C
T1

D1
L

Vs
C

D4
T4

(b)

Cs
C

(a)
(c)

Figure 14.34. Different resonant load arrangements: (a) switch turn-off snubber capacitor Cs;
(b) split capacitor; and (c) series coupled circuit for induction heating.

14.3.2iii - Circuit variations

Figure 14.34a shows an single-leg half-bridge with a turn-off snubber Cs, where Cs << C, hence
resonant circuit properties are not affected. The capacitive turn-off snubber is only effective if switch
turn-off is advanced such that switch hard turn-off would normally result, that is, the resonant circuit
appears capacitive. The snubber acts on both switches since small signal wise (short dc sources),
switches T1 and T4 are in parallel.
Figure 14.34b shows a series resonant load used with split resonant capacitance. Resonance reenforcement occurs every half cycle as with the full H-bridge topology, but only two switches are used.
Figure 14.35c shows a transformer-coupled series circuit which equally could be a parallel circuit with C
in parallel with the coupled circuit, as shown. Under light loads, the transformer magnetising current
influences operation.
14.3.3 Parallel-resonant current-source inverters

Parallel resonant circuits use a current source inverter (class D, parallel) as considered in 14.2.1 and
shown in figure 14.31 parts c and d. If the load Q is high, then resonance need only be re-enforced
every second half-cycle, thereby simplifying converter and control requirements. A common feature of
parallel resonant circuits fed from a current source, is that commutation of the switches involves overlap
where the output of the current source can be briefly shorted.

W =

/
0

v2

dt =

/
0

s e t sin t
dt

/R
C

1 e

(14.105)

= LI s2 coth

2
To drive a parallel circuit from a voltage source inverter leg the resonant circuit inductance is series
connected to the parallel R-C circuit. The input impedance of the series plus parallel circuit is
2

1
1 + j

p o
o
Z p = Ze j = R

1 + jQ p
(14.106)
o

1
2 1
where = tan1 Q p

o o Q p

For a voltage source inverter leg, from the series plus parallel ac circuit, the voltage across the resistor,
vR, at a given frequency, , is given by
R
jC
1
R+
1
jC
(14.107)
= Vi
vR ( ) = Ve j = Vi
2
R

1

+
1
j

jC
Qp o
j L +
o
1
R+
jC
The magnitude of the resistor voltage is therefore
1
vR ( ) = Vi
2
2
2
1
1 + 2
o Qp o
(14.108)
1
where = tan 1

Q p o

1
o
The maximum resistor voltage is Q p / 1 1 / 4Q p2 at f = f o 1 1 / 2Q 2 . The effective input voltage Vi is
2Vs /.

Power Electronics

471

Power Inverters

14.3.3ii Parallel-resonant current-source inverter H-bridge current-source inverter

Solution

If the load Q is low, or maximum energy transfer to the load is required, the full bridge converter shown
in figure 14.30d is used.
Operation involves T1 and T2 directing the constant source current to the load and when the load
voltage falls to zero, T3 and T4 are turned on (and T1 and T2 then turned off). Overlapping the
switching sequence ensures a path always exists for the source current. At the next half sinusoidal cycle
voltage zero, T1 and T2 are turned on and then T3 and T4 are turned off.
The parallel circuit steady-state voltage for the symmetrical H-bridge can be approximated by assuming
o , such that in equation (14.82) vo = 0:
I
2
v ( t ) =
0 t
s e t sin t
(14.109)

1 e
which is valid for both the + Is loops of cycle operation, provided the time reference is moved to the
beginning of each half-cycle.
In steady-state the successive inductor current absolute maxima are

1 + e /
= I s coth ( / 2 ) = I L
I L = Is
(14.110)
1 e /
The energy transferred to the load R, per half sine cycle (per voltage pulse) is

i.

W =

/
0

v2

dt =

/
0

s e t sin t / R dt

C
1 e

From o = 2 f o = 1/ LC the necessary capacitance for resonance at 10kHz with 100H is

1
C=
= 2.5F
2
( 2 10kHz ) 100H

The circuit quality factor Q is given by

Z
L
100H
Q= o =
/R=
/1 = 6.3
R
C
2.5F
Therefore
= 5103 /H
= 62.6 krad/s (9.968 kHz)
= 0.079
BWs = 9.97 krad/s (1.587kHz)
ii.

472

Zo = 6.3

The steady-state current is given by equation (14.89)

V
1
i (t ) =
s e t sin t

1 e
= 245.5 e 5000 t sin ( 2 10kHz t )

Since the Q is high (6.3), a reasonably accurate estimate of the peak current results if the current
expression is evaluated at sin(), that is t =25s, which yields i = 216.7A. The rms load current is
216.7A/2 = 153.2A rms.

= 2 LI s2 coth

2
As with a series resonant circuit, the full bridge delivers four times more power to the load than the
single-leg half-bridge circuit. Similarly, the load power and power factor can be controlled by operating
above or below the resonant frequency, by delaying or advancing the appropriate switching instances.
In the case of a voltage source, the expressions for the voltage across the load resistor are the same as
equations (14.106) to (14.108), except the input voltage Vi is doubled, from 2Vs / to 4Vs /.

From equation (14.90) the maximum capacitor voltage extremes are

1
e /
Vc = Vs
and Vc = Vs
1 e /
1 e /
340V
340Ve 0.25
=
=
0.25
1 e
1 e 0.25
= 1537V
= 1197V

Example 14.5: Single-leg half-bridge with a series L-C-R load

iii.
The bridge output voltage is a square wave of magnitude 340V and 0V, with a 50% duty cycle.
The rms output voltage is therefore 340/2=240.4V.
Since the load is at resonance, the current is in phase with the fundamental of the bridge output voltage.

An single-leg half-bridge inverter as shown in the figure 14.31a, with the dc rail L-C decoupling shown in
figure 14.36, supplies a 1 ohm resistance load with series inductance 100 H from a 340 V dc source. If
the bridge is to operating at 10kHz, determine:
i.
the necessary series C for resonance at 10kHz and the resultant Q
ii.
the peak load current, its steady-state time domain solution, and peak capacitor voltages
iii.
the bridge rms voltage and fundamental voltage across the series L-C-R load
iv.
the power delivered to the load and the frequency when half power is delivered to the load.
What is the switching advance/delay time?
v.
the peak blocking voltage of each semiconductor type (and for the case when the freewheel
diodes are not employed)
vi.
the average, rms, and peak current in the switches and diodes
vii. the resonant capacitor specification
viii. the dc supply current and the dc link capacitor rms current
ix.
summarise conditions if the load is supplied from an H-bridge and also calculate the load
power supplied at the third harmonic frequency, 3.
Ldc
Idc

iC
Cdc

T1

D1

Vs
340V

D4

100H

T4

Figure 14.36.

Single-leg half-bridge series-resonance circuit.

The fundament voltage magnitude is given by

2V
1
b1 = Vs sin1t = s = 216.5V peak

2V
s = 153V rms

The rms load current results because of the fundamental voltage, that is, the peak sine current is
216.5V/1 = 216.5A peak or 153V/1 = 153A rms. This agrees with the current values calculated in
part b.
iv.

The power delivered to the load is given by

2
P = irms
R = ib21 R

= 153A 2 1 = 23.41kW
Substitution into equation (14.92) gives 23.15kW at a pulse rate of 210kHz. Alternately
P = Vs I = Vs 0.45 I rms
= 340V0.45 153A=23.42kW
The half-power frequencies are when the reactive voltage magnitude equals the resistive voltage
magnitude.
R
f Au = f o
4 L
= 10kHz 796Hz
Thus at 9204 Hz and 10796 Hz the voltage across the resistive part of the load is reduced to 1/2 of the
inverter output voltage, since the voltage vectors are perpendicular. The power (proportional to voltage
squared) is therefore halved (11.71kW) at the half-power frequencies.

Operating above resonance, f > fo produces an inductive load and this is achieved by turning T1 and T4
off prematurely. Zero current turn-on occurs, but hard switching results at turn-off. To operate at the

Power Electronics

Power Inverters

10796Hz (92.6s) upper half-power frequency the period has to be reduced from 100s (10kHz) to
92.6s. The period of each half cycle has to be reduced by (100s - 92.6s) = 3.7s

1 + e /
= Vc
1 e /
1 + e 0.25
= 340V
= 2734V
1 e 0.25
The power delivered to the load is four times the single-leg half-bridge case and is
2
P = irms
R = 306.4A 2 1 = 93.88kW
The average switch current is 194.8A, but the average supply current is four times the single-leg halfbridge case and is 275.5.6A.

473

Operating below resonance, f < fo produces a capacitive load and this is achieved by turning T1 and T4
on late. Zero current turn-off occurs, but hard switching results at turn-on. By delaying turn-on of each
switch by (109s - 100s), 4.5s, the effective oscillation frequency will be decreased to the lower
half-power frequency, 9204Hz.
v.
The bridge diodes, which do not conduct at resonance, clamp switch and diode maximum
supporting voltages to the rail voltage, 340V dc.
Note that if clamping diodes were not employed the device maximum off-state voltages would occur
during switch change over, when one switch has just been turned off, and just before the on-going
switch is turned on. The load current is zero, so the load terminal voltage is the capacitor voltage.
Switch T1 would need to support

a forward voltage of Vs - v = 340V + 1197V =1537V = v and

a reverse voltage of v - Vs = 1537V - 340V = 1197V = - v , while

Switch T4 supports

a forward voltage of v = 1537V and

a reverse voltage of - v = 1197V.

Thyristor family devices must be used, or devices with a series connected diode, which will increase the
converter on-state losses.
vi.
At resonance the two freewheel diodes do not conduct.
The rms load current is 153.2 A at 10 kHz, where switch T1 conducts half the cycle and T4 conducts the
other half which is the opposite polarity of the cycle. Each switch therefore has an rms current rating of
153.2/2 = 108.3A rms.
Since both switches conduct the same current shape, each has an average current rating of a half-wave
rectified sine of magnitude 216.5A, that is
1
1
I T1 =
216.5sint dt = 216.5A
2 0

= 0.45 216.5 / 2 = 68.9A

By Kirchhoffs current law, this current value for T1 is also equal to the average dc input current from the
supply Vs.
vii.
The 2.5F capacitor has a bipolar voltage and current requirement of 1537V and 216.7 A.
The rms ratings are therefore 1087V rms and 153A rms. A metallised polypropylene capacitor capable
of 10kHz ac operation, with a maximum dv/dt rating of approximately (1537+1197), that is
85.6V/s, is required.
viii.
The dc supply current is the average value of the half-wave rectified sinusoidal load current,
which is the average current in T1. That is
I dc = 0.45 153.1A rms
= 68.9A dc
The rms current in the dc link capacitor Cdc is related to the dc input current and switch T1 rms current
(as found in part vi.), by
2
I dc2
I c = I rms

= 108.32 68.92 = 83.6A rms

ix.
The load dependant parameters C, o, , , Q, BW, , and half power points remain
unchanged, being independent of switching frequency.
From equation (14.96) the steady-state current is double that for the asymmetrical bridge,
V
2
i (t ) =
s e t sin t

L
1 e
= 491 e 5000 t sin ( 2 10kHz t )

The peak current is i = 433.4A.

The rms load current is 433.4A/2 = 306.4A rms
From equation (14.97) both the maximum capacitor voltages are

474

Vc = Vs

For a square wave, the third harmonic is a third the magnitude of the fundamental. From equation
(14.101), for operation at the lower half power frequency 9204Hz, (which would result in the largest
harmonic component magnitude after L-C filtering attenuation) f3 = 27.6kHz.
4V
1
vR ( ) = 13 s
2

3 o
2
1+ Q

o 3
4 340V
1
1
= 3

2 10kHz
2 3 2 9.204 kHz
1 + 6.3

3 2 9.204kHz
2 10kHz
4 340V
1
= 13

10
3 9.204
1 + 6.32

10
3
9.204

= 144.3V 0.066 = 9.53V

The magnitude of the third harmonic current is therefore 9.5V/1 = 9.5A or 6.7A rms. The load power at
this frequency is 6.7V2/1 = 45.1W. This is clearly insignificant compared to the fundament power of
93.88kW being delivered to the 1 load.

14.3.4 Single-switch, current source, series resonant inverter

The single switch inverter in figure 14.35 is applicable to high Q load circuits such that the output is
essentially sinusoidal, with zero average current. Based on the operating mechanisms, a sinusoidal
current implies the switch has a 50% duty cycle. The switch turns on and off at zero volts so switch
losses are low, so the operating frequency can be high. The input inductor Llarge in conjunction with the
input voltage source, during steady state operation, act as a current source input, Is, for the resonant
circuit, such that Vs Is is equal to the power delivered to the load R.
When the switch T1 is turned on, with zero terminal voltage, it conducts both the constant current Is and
the current io resonating in the output circuit, as shown in the circuit waveforms in figure 14.35. The
resonating load current builds up. The switch T1, which is in parallel with Cs, is turned off. Current from
the switch is diverted to Cs, which charges from an initial voltage of zero. Cs thus forms a turn-off
snubber in parallel with T1. The charge on Cs eventually resonates back to zero at which instant the
switch is turned on, again, with zero turn-on loss.
The resonant frequency is o = 1/ Lo Co and because of the high Q, a small change in the switching
frequency significantly decreases the output current, hence output voltage.
As with any current source inverter, the peak switch voltage is in excess of Vs. Since the current is
sinusoidal, the average load voltage and inductor voltage are zero. Therefore the average voltage
across Co and Cs is the supply voltage Vs. The peak switch voltage can be estimated to be in excess of
Vs /0.45 which is based on a half-wave rectified average sinusoidal voltage.
If the load conditions change and the switch duty cycle is varied from = , circuit voltages increase
and capacitor Cs voltage discharges before the circuit current reaches zero. The capacitor and switch
are bypassed with current flowing through the diode D1. This diode prevents the switch from
experiencing a negative voltage and the capacitor from charging negatively.
Although such resonant converters offer features such as low switching losses and low radiated EMI,
optimal control and performance are difficult to maintain and extremely high circuit voltages occur at low
duty cycles.

Power Electronics

475

Power Inverters

Llarge
Vs

Vs

Vs
Vs

iD1

T1 D1

Vs
Vs /N-1

Is

iT

476

iCs

Lo

Co

Rload

Cs

io

Vs /N-1

Vs
Va0

Vs

Va0

Va0

Vs /N-1

0
switch conducting
=

io

switch off
1/2fo

+Vs

switch conducting
1/2fo
+Vs

Is

+Vs

+Vs

0V

0V

-Vs
-Vs
(a)

Is

iT1

(b)

-Vs
(c)

-Vs

IT1 = Is + io

Figure 14.37. One phase leg of a voltage-source bridge inverter with:

(a) two levels; (b) three levels; and (c) N-levels, with N-1 capacitors and waveform for five levels.
Is

A multilevel inverter allows higher output voltages with low distortion (due to the use of both pulse width
and amplitude modulation) and reduced output dv/dt.
There are three main types of multilevel converters
Diode clamped
Flying capacitor, and
Cascaded H-bridge

iCs = Is + io

iCs
iD1

14.4.1 Diode clamped multilevel inverter

VT1

io

io

Is

IT1

Rload

Is

ICs

Rload

Figure 14.35. Single-switch, current-source series resonant converter circuit and waveforms.

14.4

Multi-level voltage-source inverters

The conventional three-phase, six-switch dc to ac voltage-source inverter is shown in figure 14.7. Each
of the three inverter legs has an output which can provide one of two voltage levels, Vs, when the upper
switch (or diode) is on, and 0 when the lower switch (or diode) conducts. The quality of the output
waveform is determined by the resolution and switching frequency of the pwm technique used.
A multilevel inverter (directly or indirectly) divides the dc rail, so that the output of the leg can be more
than two discrete levels, as shown in figure 14.37 for a diode clamped multilevel inverter model. In this
way, the output quality is improved because both pulse width modulation and amplitude modulation can
be used. The output pole is made from more than two series connected, clamped switches, so the total
dc voltage rail can be the sum of the voltage rating of the individual switches. Very high output voltages
can be achieved, where each device does not experience a voltage in excess of its individual rating.

Figure 14.37 shows the basic principle of the diode clamped (or neutral point clamped, NPC) multilevel
inverter, where only one dc supply, Vs, is used and N is the number levels present in the output voltage
between the leg output and the inverter negative terminal, Va-neg. The capacitors split the dc rail voltage
into a number of lower voltage levels, each of which can be tapped and connected to the leg output
through switches (and diodes). Only one string of series connected capacitors is necessary for any
number of output phase legs.
The number of levels in the line-to-line voltage waveform will be
k = 2N 1
(14.111)
while the number of levels in the line to load neutral of a star (wye) load will be
p = 2k 1
(14.112)
The number of capacitors required, independent of the number of phase, is
(14.113)
N cap = N 1
while the number of clamping diodes per phase is
Dclamp = 2 ( N 1)
The number of possible switch states is
nstates = N phases
and the number of switches in each leg is
Sn = 2 ( N 1)

(14.114)
(14.115)
(14.116)

The basic three-level inverter (Vs, 0) is shown in figure 14.38, along with the basic three-level voltage
from the leg output to centre tap of the capacitor string, R (neutral point). When switch T1 is on, its
complement T1 is off, and visa versa. Similarly for the pair of switches T2 and T2. Specifically T1 and T2
on give the output +Vs, T1 and T2 on give the output -Vs, and T2 and T1 on give the output 0.
Essential to attaining these output levels, are the clamping diodes Du and D. These two diodes clamp
the outer switches to the capacitor string mid-point, which is half the dc rail voltage. In this way, no
switch experiences a voltage in excess of half the dc rail voltage. Inner switches must be turned on (or
off) before outer switches are turned on (or off).

Power Electronics

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Power Inverters

The five-level inverter uses four capacitors, and eight switches in each inverter leg. A set of clamping
diodes (three in total for each leg) clamp the complementary switches in each leg. The output is
characterised by having five levels, Vs, Vs, and zero. Some of the clamping diodes experience
voltages in excess of that experienced by the main switches. Series connection of some of the clamping
diodes avoids this limitation, but at the expense of increasing the number of clamping diodes from 2
(N-1) to (N-1)(N-2) per phase. Thus, depending on the diode position in the structure, two diodes have
blocking requirements of
N 1 k
VRB =
Vs
(14.117)
N 1
where 1 k N-2. These diodes require series connection of diodes, if all devices in the structure are to
support Vs /(N-1). For N > 2, capacitor imbalance occurs.
The general output voltage, to the centre of the capacitor string is given by
V
Van = s (T1 + T2 + .. .. + TN 1 ( N 1))
(14.118)
N 1

+Vs

D1

T2

D2

0
T1

D1

D2

T2

-Vs
iL > 0

Cu

Vs

T1

D1

T2

D2

+Vs

T1

vo
iL > 0

vo = Vs

T2

D2

T1

D1

D2

iL > 0

vo
iL > 0

D1

T2

D2

T1

D1

D2

T2

-Vs

vo = 0

vo
i >0

iL > 0

vo = -Vs
(c)

+Vs

T1

(b)

+Vs

Vs

D1

T2

-Vs

+Vs

T1

(a)

Dcu

478

+Vs

T1

D1

T1

D1

T1

D1

T2

D2

T2

D2

T2

D2

T1

D1

T1

D1

T1

D1

D2

D2

D2

C
C?

T1

Vs
Dc
D
c?

T2

D1

vo
iL < 0

vo
iL < 0

vo
iL < 0

D2

neg

T2

-Vs

ia

VaR

ib

ic

iL < 0

vo = Vs
(d)

+Vs
t

Vba

0
-Vs

T2

-Vs
iL < 0

vo = 0
(e)

T2

-Vs
iL < 0

vo = -Vs
(f)

Figure 14.39. The six output voltage and current combinations for the NPC bridge inverter:
(a), (b), (c) output current iL > 0; and (d), (e), (f) output current iL < 0.

Vao

14.4.2 Flying capacitor multilevel inverter

Figure 14.38. Three-phase, voltage-source, three-level, diode-clamped (NPC) bridge inverter.

Table 14.5. Conduction paths in the diode clamped three-level inverter

Vout

On
switches

Output current and path

I
- iL
+ iL

Active clamping
diodes

Vs

T1 T2

T1 T2

Fig 14.39a

D1 D2

Fig 14.39d

none

T1 T2

Dcu T2

Fig 14.39b

T1 Dc

Fig 14.39e

Dcu Dc

- Vs

T1 T2

D1 D2

Fig 14.39c

T 1 T2

Fig 14.39f

none

Table 14.5 in combination with the six parts of figure 14.39, show the conducting devices for the six
different output voltage and current combinations of the NPC inverter leg.

One leg of a fly-capacitor clamped five-level voltage source inverter is shown in figure 14.40b, where
capacitors are used to clamp the switch voltages to Vs. The available output voltages are Vs, Vs,
and 0, where the output is connected to the dc link (Vs and 0) indirectly via capacitors. Figure 14.40
shows that in general, switches Tn and Tn+1 connect to capacitor Cn. The configuration offers more
usable switch states than the clamped diode inverter, and this redundancy allows better, flexible control
of capacitor voltages. For example, Table 14.5 shows that there are six states for obtaining 0V output,
and four states for each of Vs. The output states Vs do not involve the capacitors, hence they offer
no redundant states. The basic switch restriction is that only one complementary switch (for example, T4
or T4 ) is on at any time, so as to prevent shorting of a flying capacitor (e.g., T4 and T4 would short C3).
The number of levels in the line-to-line voltage waveform will be
k = 2N 1
(14.119)
while the number of levels in the line to load neutral of a star (wye) load will be
p = 2k 1
(14.120)
The number of capacitors required, which is dependent of the number of phase, is for each phase
N cap = ( N 1)( N 2 )
(14.121)

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Power Inverters
Table 14.6. Five-level flying-capacitor inverter output states (phase A to R)

The number of possible switch states is

nstates = N phases
and the number of switches in each leg is
Sn = 2 ( N 1)

(14.122)
(14.123)

The current output paths in Table 14.6 are made up by the series (and parallel) connection of the flying
capacitors through the turn-on of the appropriate switches. Capacitors shown as negative are
discharging in the formed path, while those shown as positive are charging. Use of the shown
redundant states allows control to maintain the necessary voltage level on all the flying capacitors, while
providing the desired output voltages.
A feature of the flying capacitor multilevel inverter is its ride through capability due to the large
capacitance used. On the other hand, the capacitors have a high voltage rating and suffer from high
current ripple, since they conduct the full load current when connected into an active output voltage
state. Capacitor initial charging is also problematic, especially given the capacitors for each leg, and
between the different legs, are independent.

VC1
T1 D1

Vs

VC1

VCu

T2 D2

R
C
C
?

Cu

T1?D1?

VC
V
C?

C3

T4 D4

R
Vs
C
C?

Vs

Vs

phase
a

Vs

N-1
states

3
0

N -4N+1
states

-Vs

phase
a

-Vs

capacitors
C2
C3

paths

Vs

Vs

-VC3

Vs

-VC2+VC3

Vs-VC1+VC2

-Vs+VC1

Vs

Vs-VC1+VC2 -VC3

-Vs+VC1-VC3

Vs-VC1+-VC3

-Vs+VC1-VC2+VC3

-VC2

-Vs

Vs-VC1

-Vs+VC1-VC2

-Vs

-VC2 -VC3

-Vs

+VC3

-Vs

+VC2

(a)

(b)

The number of levels in the line-to-line voltage waveform will be

k = 2N 1
while the number of levels in the line to load neutral of a star (wye) load will be
p = 2k 1
The number of capacitors or isolated supplies required per phase is
N cap = ( N 1)

D4?
T4?
D3?
T3?

D2?
T2?

C1

The N-level cascaded H-bridge, multilevel inverter comprises (N-1) series connected single-phase Hbridges per phase, for which each H-bridge has its own isolated dc voltage source. For each bridge, as
shown in table 14.7, three output voltages are possible, Vs, and zero, giving a total number of states of
3( N 1) , where N is odd. Figure 14.41 shows one phase of a seven-level cascaded H-bridge inverter.
The cascaded H-bridge multilevel inverter is based on multiple two level inverter outputs (each Hbridge), with the output of each phase shifted. Despite four diodes and switches, it achieves the
greatest number of output voltage levels for the fewest switches.
Its main limitation lies in the need for isolated power sources for each H-bridge and for each phase,
although for VA compensation, capacitors replace the dc voltage supplies, and the necessary capacitor
energy is only to replace losses due to inverter losses. Its modular structure of identical H-bridges is a
positive design feature.

T3 D3

Vs
C2

Vs

switching states
T2
T3
T4

14.4.3 Cascaded H-bridge multilevel inverter

VC?

C1

T1

T2?D2?

VC

VC3

VAR

N-1
states

C1
T2 D2

mode

T1 D1

Cu

VCu
VC2

480

D1?
T1?

Figure 14.40. One leg of a voltage-source:

(a) three-level and (b) five-level, flying capacitor clamped bridge inverter.

The number of possible switch states is

nstates = N phases
and the number of switches in each leg is
S n = 2 ( N 1)

Vs

On
switches
T2 T3

(14.125)
(14.126)
(14.127)
(14.128)

Table 14.7. Three output states of H-bridges and their current paths.
V

(14.124)

Bidirectional current paths

+ iL
- iL
T2 T3
D2 D3

none

D4 D1

D2 D3

-Vs

T1 T4

T1 T4

D2 D3

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Power Inverters

482

Vs

Vs

Vs

D2 T2

T1 D1

-Vs

V1

D4 T4

T3 D3

-Vs

Vs

D2 T2

T1 D1
V1

D4 T4

T3 D3

-1
0
0
0

Vs

D2 T2

T1 D1

V1

Figure 14.42. Multi-carrier based pwm generation for 1 phase of a voltage-source, 5-level, inverter.

D4 T4

T3 D3

14.4.4i - Multiple offset triangular carriers

Figure 14.41. One leg of a voltage-source, seven-level, cascaded H-bridge inverter.

A comparison between the three basic multilevel inverters is possible from the numerical summary of
component numbers for each inverter, as in Table 14.8.
The diode clamped inverter requires many clamping diodes; the flying capacitor inverter requires many
independent capacitors; while the cascaded inverter requires many isolated dc voltage power supplies.
Table 14.8. Multilevel inverter component count, per phase.
Inverter type

VA-0V

levels
VA-B

VA-N

switches
& // diodes

diodes
clamping

flying
capacitors

Level
capacitors

Isolated
supplies

diode clamped

2N-1

4N-3

2(N-1)

(N-1)(N-2)

(N-1)

fly capacitor

2N-1

4N-3

2(N-1)

(N-1)(N-2)

(N-1)

cascade

2N-1

4N-3

2(N-1)

(N-1)*

(N-1)*

* either /or

14.4.4 PWM for multilevel inverters

Two basic approaches can be used to generate the necessary pwm signals for multilevel inverters.
Each approach is based on the extension of a two level equivalent.
Modulating waveform comparison with offset triangular carriers
Space vector modulation based on a rotating vector in multilevel space

Various sinusoidal pwm techniques were considered in sections 14.1.3v and 14.1.3vi of this chapter.
Figure 14.42 shows how a triangular carrier is associate with each complementary switch pair, four
carriers (N-1) for the five-level inverter as illustrated. The parts of figure 14.42 show how the four
individual carriers can be displaced with respect to one another. The figure also shows how triplen
injection is incorporated. The appropriate five-level switch states, as in tables 14.4 to 14.6, can be used
to decode the necessary switching sequences. To minimise losses, switching only occurs between
adjacent levels.
14.4.4ii - Multilevel rotating voltage space vector

Space vector modulation for the two-level inverter was considered in section 14.1.3vi of this chapter.
The basic hexagon shape for two levels is extended to higher levels as shown in figure 14.43, for three
levels. The number of triangles, vectors, and states increases rapidly as the level number increases.
Table 14.9. Properties of N-level vector spaces
levels

states

triangles
6(N-1)

vectors
3N(N-1)+1

vectors
in each hexagon

(1+6)

27

24

19

(1+6)+12

125

96

61

(1+6)+12+18+24

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Power Inverters

484

From table 14.9, the states for the two and three level inverters can be specified as follows.

The 2-level inverter

The zero state matrix is
[000 111]
The first and only hexagon is shown in figure 14.22a.
[100 110 010 011 001 101]

The three level inverter

The zero state matrix is
[000 111 222]
The first hexagon matrix is
100 110 010 011 001 101
211 221 121 122 112 212

The second hexagon matrix is

[ 200 210 220 120 020 021 022 012 002 102 202 201]

(a )

N
d c lin k

These pole states are shown figure 14.43.

(b )
120

020
010
121

021

110
221
000
111
222

011
122

022

001
112

012

002

220

100
211

200

201

202

(c )

Figure 14.43. Rotating voltage space vector approached applied to three phases of a voltage-source
three-level, inverter.

A 0 represents the minimum voltage obtainable from the multilevel converter and N-1 represents the
maximum value. For example, in a two-level converter, 0 is equivalent to 0V and 1 is equivalent to Vs,
where Vs is the converter DC link voltage. In a three-level converter 0 is equivalent to -Vs, 1 is
equivalent to 0 V, and 2 is equivalent to Vs where Vs is the dc link voltage of the multilevel converter.
When the rotating vector is drawn in the vector space, it is decomposed into vectors bordering the
triangle it lies in. When operating in the outer hexagon, the vectors states used in the inner most
hexagon mean that that level of the converter is operating with a six-step quasi-square output voltage
waveform, to which is added a modulated square waveform for the next higher level.
14.5

101
212
102

210

(d )

The dual or double converter circuit in figure 14.44a and b will accommodate four-quadrant dc machine
operation, where the circuit performs as two fully controlled converters in anti-parallel. Each converter is
able to rectify and invert, but because of their inverse parallel connection, one converter (the positive
converter P) operates in quadrants QI and QIV, while the other (the negative converter N) operates in
quadrants QII and QIII, as shown in figure 14.45.
The two converters can be operated synchronously, called simultaneous control or independently where
one is always blocking, called independent control.

d c lin k

in p u t L -C
filte r

o u tp u t
filte r
re ctifier/
co n ve rter

3
in p u t

Reversible dc link converters

Power inversion by phase angle control is attained with a fully controlled single-phase converter as
discussed in section 11.3.3. Power regeneration is also possible with the fully controlled three-phase
converter shown in figure 11.17. If a fully controlled converter supplies a dc machine, two-quadrant
control is possible (QI and QIV), motoring in one direction of rotation and generating in the other
direction. Power regeneration into the supply is achieved by reversing the dc output voltage by
controlling the converter phase delay angle. The converter current is uni-directional, that is, the
converter output current can not reverse.

in verte r

3
o u tp u t

Figure 14.44. Reversible converter allowing four-quadrant control of: (a) a dc machine with
independent converters; (b) a dc machine with simultaneously controlled converters; and (c)
voltage and (d) current fed induction machine.

14.5.1 Independent control

Simultaneous converter control can be used if continuous load current can be guaranteed. Otherwise
only one converter, depending on the quadrant, need operate at anyone time (the other is in a blocking
state), as shown in figure 14.44a. No circulating currents arise due to possible mismatched N and P
converter output voltages. The continuous current condition may be difficult to ensure at light load levels.
Additional series armature inductance, L in figure 14.44a and b, helps with current smoothing and
ensuring continuous machine current.

Power Electronics

Power Inverters

A machine rotational direction change is affected by the following converter operating procedure.
Initially the motor is operating in quadrant I, with 0 1 90 for the positive converter P. The
negative converter, N, is in the fully blocking state, with all thyristors turned off.
The positive converter is put into the inverting mode with 90 1 180, changing the average
output voltage from positive to negative. The machine current rapidly falls to zero. The machine
rotational speed slows, the rate depending on the load inertia.
After a dead time, the positive converter blocks and the negative converter N starts in a motor
braking mode in quadrant II. The motor speed falls rapidly to zero.
The second converter operates in quadrant III and rapidly accelerates the motor in the opposite
direction, with 0 2 90.
The dead time before turning on the negative converter N is to ensure the positive converter P is fully
off, otherwise the three-phase input voltage lines may short through the two converters. Such a current
condition cannot be controlled with line-commutated thyristors. Operation is characterised by transitions
from QI to QII to QIII for reversal, and transitions from QIII to QIV to QI for returning to the original
direction of rotation.

A machine rotational direction change is affected by the following converter operating procedure.
Initially the motor is operating in quadrant I for the rectifying, positive converter, with 0 1
90. The other converter is operating in the inverting mode with 90 2 180, such that 1 + 2
= 180. The output voltage for both converters is the same, and the negative converter N carries
only the circulating current.
For rotational direction reversal, 1 90 and 2 90, such that 1 + 2 = 180. The armature
back emf voltage now exceeds the converter output voltages, and current diverts to the negative
converter N and the machine regeneratively brakes, operating in quadrant II. The current rapidly
falls to zero and the positive converter P carries only the ac circulating current.
The speed rapidly falls to zero, with 1 = 2 = 90 giving zero output voltage, so as to control the
armature current since the back emf is zero. Then with 2 < 90 the machine rapidly accelerates
in quadrant III, in the reverse direction to the original rotation.

485

sp eed
vo

Ia

Ia
+

E
vo

2
rege nera tive brak in g
/in vers io n

II

m o to r/rectification

III

Ia

m o to r/rectification

to rq u e

IV

rege nera tive brak in g

/in versio n

Ia

vo

Ia

For reversing the direction of rotation from Q III the operation sequence is QIII to QIV to QI. Since no
converter dead time is introduced, a fast dynamic response can be attained. A small dc circulating
current is deliberately maintained, that is greater in magnitude than the peak of the ac ripple current. The
ac current can then flow continuously in both converters, both of which can operate in the continuous
conduction mode without the need for continuous converter current reversal operation.

14.5.3 Inverter regeneration

vo

486

vo

Figure 14.45. Four quadrants of reversible converter operation.

14.5.2 Simultaneous control

Simultaneous converter control, also called circulating current control, functions with both converters
always in operation which gives a faster dynamic response than when the converters are used mutually
exclusively. To avoid supply short circuits requires that the output voltage of both converters (rectifier Vr
and inverter Vi) be the same in order to minimise circulating currents.
Vr + Vi = 0
V cos 1 + V cos 2 = 0
(14.129)
cos 1 + cos 2 = 0
that is 1 + 2 = 180
Equation (14.129) implies that both converters operate with firing angles that sum to 180. Each
converter produces the opposite polarity output voltage, which is cancelled by reversing the relative
output connections. Under such conditions the load current can be maintained continuous. To minimize
any circulating current due to ripple voltage produced by instantaneous voltage differences between the
two converters, inductance is usually inserted between each converter and the dc machine load, as
shown in figure 14.44b. Adversely the cost and weight are increased, and the supply power factor and
drive efficiency are decreased, compared to that obtained with independently controlled converters.

The bridge freewheel diodes of a three-phase inverter restrict the dc rail or dc link voltage from
reversing. The dual or double converter circuit in figure 14.44c will allow inversion with a three-phase
voltage source inverter. One converter rectifies, the other converter inverts, functioning as a selfcommutated inverter, transferring power from the dc link to the ac supply. Complete four-quadrant
control of the three-phase ac machine on the inverter is achieved in conjunction with control of the dc to
ac inverter. That is, motor reversal is achieved by effectively interchanging the pwm control signals
associated with two phases. The real power flow back into the ac supply is controlled by the converter
phase delay angle, while the reactive power flow is controlled by the voltage magnitude. The angle and
voltage are not independent. In the case of a pwm controlled inverter fed ac machine, the ac to dc
converter can be uncontrolled, using all diodes, since dc output voltage reversal is not utilised.
Figure 14.44d shows a fully reversible current controlled converter/inverter configuration, using selfcommutating devices. The use of self-commutated switches (rather than mains commutated converter
thyristors) offers the possibility to minimise the input current distortion and to reduce the inductor size
hence improve the dynamic current response. The switch series diodes are essential since the shown
IGBTs have no useable reverse blocking capability. The use of reverse blocking GCTs avoids the need
for the series blocking diodes, which reduces the on-state voltage losses but increases gate drive
complexity and power rating. Series connection of devices is necessary above a few kV, and above 1
MVA the GCT dominates.
14.6

Standby inverters and uninterruptible power supplies

Standby inverters and uninterruptible power supplies (upss) provide a 50/60 Hz supply in the event of
an ac mains failure. An ups must provide ac output such that mains failure is undetected by the load. To
achieve this, an ups continually feeds the load from an inverter. A load that can tolerate a short
interruption of the ac supply is fed from a standby inverter which becomes operational within 1-5 ms
after the ac supply failure. In communications, computing, and automated production lines, upss are
essential for even brownouts (V and f outwith bounds for reliable equipment operation), while in lighting
and heating applications, standby inverters are used since a few missing ac cycles (due to a blackout
total interruption of the mains power) may be tolerated. In each power supply case, the alternative
energy source is a standby dc battery. The ups keeps the battery charged when the ac input is
supplying the output power.

14.6.1 Single-phase UPS

A basic single-phase UPS is shown in figure 14.46. A key safety objective is to retain the supply neutral
at both the supply input and the ac output, without resorting to any from of isolating transformer.
Consequently, the input ac mains is half-wave rectified by diodes DR+ and DR . Boost converters on the
positive and negative groups ensure supply sinusoidal input current and unity power factor. The output
H-bridge (T1-T4) uses pwm and feedback control to produce a fixed frequency and magnitude output

Power Electronics

487

Power Inverters

(and ac mains phase synchronisation if required), which is filtered by an L-C filter. In the event of a loss
of the ac supply, the backup batteries, V+ and V -, provide energy to the boost converters, hence to the
output inverter. The battery backup voltage magnitude is much less than the ac supply magnitude and
diodes, DB+ and DB , isolate the batteries from the rectified ac supply voltage. The shown ups has two
basic limitations that manufactures strive to overt.
If the battery is to be connected to neutral, then two batteries are necessary. Proprietary
attempts using only one battery involve circuit complications and limitations. At best, with one
battery, it is one forward biased diode voltage drop from neutral.
Because the batteries supplies are not isolated during normal operation, during part of the
mains cycle near zero voltage, the batteries alternately provide energy. This decreases their
lifetime and necessitates more complicated trickle charge circuits. The input current is also
distorted at the 0V crossover. Replacement of the blocking diodes DB by switches involves
complexity and battery backup operation requires detection and is not fail safe.
wave rectifier

DR
ac

boost converter

H-bridge inverter

T1

D1

D3

Lo

N
-

T4

D4

D2

DB

DR

Power filters

Co

Figure 14.47 shows a basic three-phase ups, used up to a few tens of kilowatts. The ac supply is
rectified and filtered. A forward converter controls the dc link voltage to just above the battery voltage
level. This dc voltage is boosted to a dc level such that after inversion it provides the required output
voltage magnitude. If the input ac fails or droops, the dc link power is provided by the battery via diode
DB. The output inverter is usually operational in a pwm mode, which allows precise frequency control,
voltage control, ac mains phase synchronisation, and minimisation of low frequency output harmonics.
With pwm control minimal filtering is required, which minimises the filter weight, cost, size, and losses. A
three-phase ups can utilise third harmonic injection (14.1.4(iv)).
A three-phase boost input converter can be used to maintain sinusoidal ac supply input currents at unity
power factor.

Power L-C filters are used to reduce harmonics or ripple from

the rectifier output (dc filter)
the inverter output (ac filter).

T3

DB

14.6.2 Three-phase UPS

14.7

L-C filter

488

T2

o/p

L-C low-pass, second-order filters are shown in figures 14.44, 14.46, and 14.47. In figure 14.47, the L-C
smoothing filter at the rectifier output, filters the ac mains frequency components leaving dc. The same
type of filter is used in the inverter output to filter pwm harmonics, leaving the relative low frequency
modulation frequency.
The L-C filter fundamental cut-off frequency is dependent on L, C, and the load impedance ZL
vo
1
1
=
=
(14.130)
vi 1 + j L ( Z1L + jC ) 1 2 LC + j Z LL

The simplest design approach is to assume a non-load condition, ZL , whence the filter cut-off
frequency is f o = 1/ 2 LC .
Frequency components below fo, including dc, are passed. Those components above fo are attenuated
by a second order fall-off in gain. Any frequency components inadvertently around the resonant
frequency, fo, will be amplified. For this reason, the filter may be damped with parallel connected R-C
snubbers.

Figure 14.46. Single-phase uninterruptible power supply.

Reading list

See chapter 11 reading list.

DB

Hart, D.W., Introduction to Power Electronics,

Prentice-Hall, Inc, 1994.
Mohan, N., Power Electronics, 3rd Edition,
Wiley International, 2003.

Figure 14.47. Three-phase uninterruptible power supply.

Power Electronics

489

Problems

14.1.

The inverter in figure 14.7 is supplied from a 340 V dc source. The load has a resistance of 10
ohms and an inductance of 10 mH. The basic operating frequency is 50 Hz, with three notches
per half cycle giving half the maximum output, similar to that shown in figure 14.13.
Determine the load current waveform over the first two cycles and determine the power
delivered to the load based on the current waveform of the final half cycle.

14.2.

The inverter and load in problem 14.1 are controlled so as to eliminate the third and fifth
harmonics in the output voltage.
Determine the load current waveform over the first two cycles and the power delivered to the
load based on the current waveform of the last half cycle.

14.3.

Output voltage harmonic reduction can be achieved by employing multiphase, selected notching
modulation control on a three-phase bridge as discussed in 14.1.4. An output as in figure 14.14b
with 1 = 16.3 and 1 = 22.1 eliminates the 5th and 7th harmonics.
Determine the fundamental voltage output component and compare it with that of a square
wave. Determine the output rms voltage.

14.4.

With the aid of figure 14.11 determine the line-to-neutral and line-to-line output voltage of a dc to
three-phase inverter employing 120 device conduction.
Calculate the interphase:
i.
mean half-cycle voltage
ii.
rms voltage
iii.
rms voltage of the fundamental.

14.5.

The three-phase inverter bridge in figure 14.4 has a 600 V dc rail and a 10 per phase load.
For 180 and 120 conduction calculate:
i.
the rms phase current
ii.
the power delivered to the load
iii.
the switch rms current.
[24.5 A, 18 kW, 17.3 A; 28.3 A, 24 kW, 14.15 A]

14.6

A single-phase square-wave inverter is supplied from a 340V dc source and the load is a 17
resistor. Determine switch average and rms current ratings. What power is delivered to the
load?

14.7

A single-phase square-wave inverter is supplied from a 340V dc source and the series R-L load
is a 20 resistor and L=20mH. Determine:
i.
an expression for the load current, hence the maximum switch current
ii.
rms load current
iii.
average and rms switch current
iv.
maximum switch voltage
v.
average source current, hence power delivered to the load
vi.
load current total harmonic distortion.

Power Inverters

Blank

490