LLOYD'S

INTRODUCTION
TO

JURISPRUDENCE
SIXTH EDITION
by
M.D.A. FREEMAN, LL.M.
Professor of English Law
in the University of London

LONDON
SWEET & MAXWELL LTD.
1994

CONTENTS
Preface to the Sixth Edition
From the Preface to the First Edition
Acknowledgments
Table of Cases
Table of Statutes
1.

NATURE OF JURISPRUDENCE

What is Jurisprudence?
The Relevance of Jurisprudence
Acquiring Social Knowledge
Normative Character of Law
"Ought" and "Is"
Form (or Structure) and Content
Philosophy of Law?
The Need for a Comprehensive Jurisprudence
Jurisprudence Today

page v
ix
xv
xxxiii
xxxvii
1

1
2
6
11
12
14
14
15
16

EXTRACTS
J. Austin
W.L. Twining
J. Shklar
T. Eagleton
D.Hume
K. Popper
T.S. Kuhn
T.Campbell

The Uses of the Study of Jurisprudence

Some Jobs for Jurisprudence
Legalism
Ideology
A Treatise of Human Nature
The Poverty of Historicism
The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
Seven Theories of Human Society

MEANING OF LAW

The Nature of Definitions

"Naming a Thing"
"Essentialism"
Analysis of Words or Fact
Are Definitions Necessary?
Ideological Factors
Criterion of Validity
Law and Regularity
Law and Morals
Morals as Part of Law
Law and Value Judgments

20
23
26
30
34
35
38
43
47

47
47
48
50
51
51
52
55
56
58
59

xxiv

Contents

EXTRACTS
L.L. Fuller
G. Williams
H.L.A. Hart
R. Wollheim

The Case of the Speluncean Explorers

International Law and the Controversy
Concerning the Word "Law"
Definition and Theory in Jurisprudence
The Nature of Law

NATURAL LAW

60
73
74
77
79

What is Natural Law?

The Attractions of Natural Law
Greek Origins
Jus Gentium
Medieval Period
Renaissance, Reformation and Counter-Reformation
Grotius and International Law
Natural Law and the Social Contract
Kant and Human Freedom
The Eighteenth Century
Nineteenth Century
Fuller and the Morality of Law
Hart on Natural Law
Finnis and the Restatement of Natural Law
Conclusion

79
86
93
94
95
97
100
101
108
110
113
114
119
122
129

EXTRACTS
Aristotle
Cicero
Justinian
Aquinas
T. Hobbes
Locke
J.J. Rousseau
J. Maritain
M. MacDonald
L.L. Fuller
J.M. Finnis
Margaret Mead
A. Gewirth
4.

Nicomachean Ethics
De Re Publica
Institutes
Summa Theologica
Leviathan
Two Treatises of Government
The Social Contract
Man and the State
Natural Rights
The Morality of Law
Natural Law and Natural Rights
Some Anthropological Considerations
Concerning Natural Law
The Epistemology of Human Rights

B E N T H A M , A U S T I N A N D CLASSICAL POSITIVISM

Sovereignty and its Origins

Bentham and the Utilitarians
Bentham's "Of Laws in General"
Austin

130
130
131
132
137
139
141
145
147
149
163
185
187
205

20J

Contents
Conclusion

xxv
227

EXTRACTS
J. Bentham
A Fragment on Government
J. Bentham An Introduction to the Principles of Morals
and Legislation
J. Bentham
Of Laws in General
J. Austin
The Province of Jurisprudence Determined
W.J. Rees
The Theory of Sovereignty Re-stated

5.

P U R E T H E O R Y OF L A W

Normativism
The Pure Science of Law
Norms and the Basic Norm
Hierarchy of Norms and Law-making Process
Sanctions
Kelsen and Austin
Norm and Command
Sanctions
Legal Dynamics
Basic Norm
Critique
The Basic Norm
International Law
Law and Fact
Non-legal Norms

229
229
233
251
264

271

272
273
274
276
277
280
280
280
281
281
281
282
288
289
290

EXTRACTS
H. Kelsen
The Pure Theory of Law
H. Kelsen
General Theory of Law and State
H. Kelsen
Causality and Imputation
H. Kelsen Professor Stone and the Pure Theory of Law
H. Kelsen
The Pure Theory of Law
H. Kelsen
The Function of a Constitution
J. Raz
The Purity of the Pure Theory

6.

M O D E R N T R E N D S IN ANALYTICAL AND NORMATIVE

JURISPRUDENCE

Hart's Concept of Law

An Outline of Hart's Jurisprudence
The "Internal Aspect" of Law
The Rule of Recognition
Is Law A System of Rules?
Rawls and Distributive Justice
Nozick and the Minimal State

291
297
304
307
309
321
327

339

344
345
348
350
354
356
367

xxvi

Contents
The Economic Analysis of Law
Rights
The Nature of Rights
Hohfeld's Analysis of Rights

374
379
387
390

EXTRACTS
H.L.A. Hart Positivism and the Separation of Law and
Morals
L.L. Fuller Positivism and Fidelity to Law - a Reply to
Professor Hart
H.L.A. Hart
Definition and Theory in Jurisprudence
N. MacCormick Contemporary Legal Philosophy: the
Rediscovery of Practical Reason
J. Raz
The Problem about the Nature of Law
J. Raz
Practical Reason and Norms
Ronald Dworkin
A Trump Over Utility
H.L.A. Hart
Between Utility and Rights
Ronald Dworkin
Is Wealth a Value?
Richard A. Posner
Dworkin's Critique of Wealth
Maximisation
R.S. Markovits Second-Best Theory and the Standard
Analysis of Monopoly Rent Seeking
J. Rawls
A Theory of Justice
J. Rawls
Political Liberalism
J. Rawls
The Law of Peoples
R. Nozick
Anarchy, State and Utopia
W.N. Hohfeld
Fundamental Legal Conceptions as
Applied in Judicial Reasoning
N. MacCormick
The Ethics of Legalism

393
396
400
405
419
430
434
444
454
459
463
466
477
485
491
494
500

SOCIOLOGICAL JURISPRUDENCE AND THE SOCIOLOGY OF

LAW
509

Introduction
Comte and Sociology
Laissez Faire and Herbert Spencer
Jhering (1818-1892)
Max Weber (1864-1920)
Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)
Eugen Ehrlich (1862-1922)
Roscoe Pound (1870-1964)
Social Engineering
Values
A Consensus Model Society
Sociological Jurisprudence since Pound
Lasswell and McDougal
Talcott Parsons
Selznick

509
510
511
514
514
518
522
524
525
528
529
531
533
534
536

Contents

xxvii

From Sociological Jurisprudence - Towards a Sociology of Law

537
Unger and the Development of Modern Law
542
Critical Empiricism
544
Autopoiesis and Law
547

EXTRACTS
R. von Jhering
Law as Means to an End
M. Weber
Economy and Society
E. Durkheim
The Division of Labour in Society
Ehrlich
Principles of the Sociology of Law
R. Pound
Philosophy of Law
R. Pound
Outlines of Jurisprudence
R. Pound
Contemporary Juristic Theory
R. Pound
Social Control Through Law
Harry C. Bredemeier Law as an Integrative Mechanism
P. Selznick
The Sociology of Law
R.M. Unger
Law in Modern Society
A. Hunt Dichotomy and Contradiction in the Sociology of
Law
R. Cotterrell
The Sociological Concept of Law
D.M. Trubek Back to the Future: The Short Happy Life of
the Law and Society Movement
S. Silbey & A. Sarat Critical Traditions in Law and Society
Research
N. Luhmann
Operational Closure and Structural
Coupling: The Differentiation of the Legal System
G. Teubner
How the Law Thinks

AMERICAN REALISM

550
552
562
565
570
572
573
578
579
584
589
594
602
613
622
627
636

655

The "Revolt against Formalism"

Mr Justice Holmes
The American Legal System
The "Realist" Movement in Law
Fact-skeptics and Rule-skeptics
Llewellyn on Institutions and "Law-Jobs"
The Common Law Tradition
Scientific and Normative Laws
Realism: An Assessment

655
656
658
658
659
661
662
666
667

EXTRACTS
O.W. Holmes
W. Twining
J. Dewey
J. Frank
J. Frank

The Path of the Law

The Bad Man Revisited
Logical Method and Law
Law and the Modern Mind
Courts on Trial

670
671
611
679
683

xxviii

Contents
K. Llewellyn
K. Llewellyn
K. Llewellyn
K. Llewellyn
K. Llewellyn

Some Realism about Realism

Using the New Jurisprudence
The Common Law Tradition
My Philosophy of Law
The Normative, The Legal and the
Law-Jobs: The Problem of Juristic Method
W. Twining
The Significance of Realism

9.

T H E SCANDINAVIAN R E A L I S T S

Axel Hagerstrom (1868-1939)

Law as Fact
Ross's Theory of Law
"Valid Law"
The "Verifiability" Principle
Origin of Law
"Reductionism" and Legal Concepts
Features of Law
Law and Morals
Legal Ideology - the Method of Justice v. Social Welfare
Scandinavian and American Realism

686
691
694
703
709
723
731

731
734
737
740
742
743
744
745
747
749

EXTRACTS
Axel Hagerstrom Inquiries into the Nature of Law and
Morals
K. Olivecrona
Law as Fact
K. Olivecrona
Legal Language and Reality
A.V. Lundstedt
Legal Thinking Revised
A.Ross
On Law and Justice
A. Ross
Directives and Norms
A. Ross
Tu-tu
F. Castberg
Problems of Legal Philosophy
10.

HISTORICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL JURISPRUDENCE

The Romantic Reaction

Herder and Hegel
The German Historical School
F.K. von Savigny (1779-1861)
The Volkgeist - Some Problems
Legislation and Juristenrecht
Sir Henry Maine (1822-1888)
Law and Anthropology
Dispute Processes

750
755
764
766
769
772
11&
781
783

783
783
785
785
786
787
789
790
797

EXTRACTS
F.K. von Savigny
Sir Henry Maine

System of Modern Roman Law

Ancient Law

799
804

Contents
E.A. Hoebel
The Law of Primitive Man
M. Gluckman
Judicial Process among the Barotse
L.L. Fuller
Human Interaction and the Law
Paul Bohannan
The Differing Realms of the Law
S. Diamond The Rule of Law versus the Order of Custom

11.

MARXIST THEORIES OF L A W AND STATE

Dialectics, Hegel and Marx

Marx and Hegel's Political Philosophy
Materialist Conception
Base and Superstructure
The Question of Class
Marx and Ideology
The State and Law
Marx and Justice, Morality and Human Rights
The "Withering Away" of the State
Other Marxisms
Karl Renner
Antonio Gramsci
The Frankfurt School
Pashukanis
Marxist Theories of Law and State - a Critique

xxix
807
813
819
829
832

837

838
839
840
842
848
850
853
857
862
864
864
866
866
867
871

EXTRACTS
F. Hegel
Philosophy of Right
K.Marx
Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right
K. Marx Preface to Contribution to Critique of Political
Economy
K. Marx and F. Engels
The German Ideology
F. Engels
The Housing Question
G.A.Cohen
Karl Marx's Theory of History
S. Lukes
Can the Base be Distinguished from the
Superstructure?
K. Marx and F. Engels
The German Ideology
M. Foucault
Two Lectures
K. Marx Preface to The Critique of Political Economy
K. Marx
Capital
K. Marx and F. Engels
The German Ideology
E.P. Thompson
Whigs and Hunters
K. Marx
The Civil War in France
K.Marx
Critique of the Gotha Programme
F. Engels
Anti-Duhring
V. Lenin
State and Revolution
K. Renner The Institutions of Private Law and their Social
Functions
E. Pashukanis
Law and Marxism

876
877
877
878
879
880
885
890
891
897
898
905
906
912
912
914
915
916
924

xxx
12.

Contents
T H E CRITICAL L E G A L S T U D I E S M O V E M E N T

Critical Legal Studies and Liberalism's Contradictions

Rules and Reasoning
Critical Legal Studies and Legal Practice
Legal Theory and Social Theory
Conclusion

935

936
942
944
947
949

EXTRACTS
R.W. Gordon
Law and Ideology
R.W. Gordon
New Developments in Legal Theory
D. Kennedy The Structure of Blackstone's Commentaries
P. Gabel
Reification in Legal Reasoning
M. Kelman Interpretive Construction in the Substantive
Criminal Law
C. Dalton An Essay in the Deconstruction of Contract
Doctrine
G. Peller
The Metaphysics of American Law
D. Kennedy The Ideological Content of Legal Education
13.

FEMINIST JURISPRUDENCE

Origins
The Inquiries of Feminist Jurisprudence
Equality and Difference
Feminist Legal Methods

950
959
966
972
987
1001
1012
1019
1025

1025
1028
1030
1033

EXTRACTS
D.L. Rhode
Feminist Critical Theories
A.C. Scales The Emergence of Feminist Jurisprudence:
An essay
R. West
Jurisprudence and Gender
C.A. MacKinnon Difference and Dominance: On Sex
Discrimination
C.A. Littleton
Reconstructing Sexual Equality
P.A.Cain
Feminism and the Limits of Equality
K.T. Bartlett
Feminist Legal Methods
L.M. Finley
Breaking Women's Silence in Law: The
Dilemma of the Gendered Nature of Legal Reasoning

14.

POSTMODERNIST JURISPRUDENCE

Postmodernism and Modernism

The Death of the Subject
The "Subject" and the Legal System
A Political Agenda
Postmodern Law: Postmodern State
Semiotics and Legal Theory

1036
1048
1062
1081
1091
1106
1115
1135

H47

1147
1148
1149
1151
1153
1155

Contents

xxxi

EXTRACTS
J.F. Lyotard

Answering the Question: What is

Postmodernism?
J. Wicke
Postmodern Identity and the Legal Subject
P. Schlag
Normativity and the Politics of Form
J.M. Balkin Understanding Legal Understanding: The
Legal Subject and the Problem of Legal Coherence
B. de Sousa Santos The Postmodern Transition: Law and
Politics
M.J. Frug
Rescuing Impossibility Doctrine: A
Postmodern Feminist Analysis of Contract Law
K. Crenshaw
Race, Reform and Retrenchment:
Transformation and Legitimation in Anti-Discrimination
Law
C. Douzinas and R. Warrington "A Well-Founded Fear of
Justice": Law and Ethics in Postmodernity
B. Jackson On Scholarly Developments in Legal Semiotics

15.

T H E O R I E S OF A D J U D I C A T I O N

The Nature of Legal Sources

The Institution of Adjudication
Stare Decisis
Judges and Discretion
Dworkin and "hard cases"
Dworkin and Discretion
Dworkin and Interpretation
Law as Integrity
One Right Answer?
Integrity and Legitimacy
Right Answers and Wrong Answers
Judge-Made Law
Judicial Reasoning
Statutory Construction
Statutory Construction and Democracy

1159
1166
1179
1189
1206
1214
1222
1237
1246

1255

1255
1257
1260
1268
1270
1272
1273
1275
1277
1279
1281
1283
1285
1289
1299

EXTRACTS
J. Austin
Lectures on Jurisprudence
H.L.A. Hart
Problems of the Philosophy of Law
R. Dworkin
Taking Rights Seriously
R. Dworkin
Law as Interpretation
R. Dworkin
Law's Empire
Cardozo
Nature of the Judicial Process
G. Williams
Language and the Law
J. Wisdom
Gods
D.N. MacCormick Formal Justice and the Form of Legal
Arguments

1301
1302
1308
1319
1326
1346
1350
1353
1354

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Contents
F. Castberg
E.H. Levi
R. Sartorius

Index of Authors
Index of Subjects

Problems of Legal Philosophy

An Introduction to Legal Reasoning
Social Policy and Judicial Legislation

1358
1362
1365
1369
1379