OS and the Computer System

Some OS programs exist permanently in the system

area of the memory to monitor and control activities in
the computer system

Other programs exist on a disk

and are loaded in the transient
area when needed.
Remainder of the memory is
occupied by user programs.
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Computer System
Fundamental features of computer systems that are
important to an OS
1)
The Central Processing Unit (CPU)
2)
Memory hierarchy
3)
I/O organization
4)
Interrupt structure

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Model of a Computer System

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1)The Central Processing Unit (CPU)

1)

CPU contains two kinds of registers

General purpose registers
Also called program-accessible registers
Hold data, addresses, index values, or the stack pointer during
execution of a program

1)

Control registers
Contain information that controls or influences operation of the CPU
Set of control registers is called the program status word (PSW)
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The Central Processing Unit (CPU)

(continued)

The program status word (PSW) is a collection of

control registers in the systems:

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The Central Processing Unit (CPU)

(continued)

1)

CPU can operate in two modes

Kernel mode

2)

Can execute privileged instructions

OS puts CPU in kernel mode when it is executing instructions in
the kernel

User mode

Cannot execute privileged instructions

OS puts CPU in user mode while executing user programs

Mode (M) field of PSW contains 0 if CPU is in kernel mode

and 1 if it is in user mode
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The Central Processing Unit (CPU)

(continued)

State of the CPU

GPRs

and PSW contain the information needed to know

what the CPU is doing
State

of the CPU

Kernel saves state of CPU when it takes away the

CPU from program
When

program is to be resumed, it reloads the saved

CPU state into GPRs and PSW
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2)Memory hierarchy

The memory hierarchy provides a large and fast memory, at

a low cost
It is an arrangement of several memory units with different
access speeds and sizes
The

CPU accesses only the fastest memory; i.e., the cache

If a required byte is not present in the memory being accessed,
it is loaded there from a slower memory

MMU
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Memory hierarchy (continued)

The MMU translate each memory address

generated by the CPU into another address called
the physical memory address

MMU
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Memory hierarchy (continued)

Cache memory holds some instructions and data values

that were recently accessed by the CPU
Blocks of bytes (pages) are transferred from disk to cache
memory
Hit ratio(h): what fraction of bytes accessed by the CPU
were found in the cache

MMU
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Memory hierarchy (continued)

Memory protection is implemented by checking

whether a memory address used by a program lies
outside the memory area allocated to it

Two control registers used: LBR and UBR

LBR and UBR registers contained in the memory
protection information (MPI) field of PSW

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3)Input/Output Subsystem

Involvement of the CPU in I/O operations

Should

be the minimum possible due to imbalance

between CPU and I/O speeds
CPU should be free to execute instructions while I/O
operations are in progress

Different I/O modes

1)
2)
3)

Programmed I/O
Interrupt I/O
Direct memory access (DMA)
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4)Interrupts

An interrupt signals the occurrence of an event to the CPU

The CPU is diverted to execution of an OS routine
Interrupt action saves CPU state and loads new contents into
the PSW and GPRs
CPU

starts executing instructions of an interrupt servicing routine

(ISR) in the kernel

Different classes of interrupts convey occurrence of

different kinds of events
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Classes of Interrupts

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OS Interaction with the Computer and

User Programs
1)
2)
3)

Controlling Execution of Programs

Interrupt Processing
System Calls

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1)Controlling Execution of Programs

When user program starts, PSW should contain:

1)
2)
3)
4)

Program counter (PC) field contains the address of the

first instruction in the program
Mode (M) field, set to user mode (1)
Memory protection information (MPI) field contains
start address in memory and size of program
Interrupt mask (IM) field, set to enable all interrupts

When program is interrupted, CPU state(PSW

and GPRs) are saved in the program table
When program is resumed, its CPU state is
restored
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2)Interrupt Processing

Context save saves context of the CPU

state so that the program that was being
executed at the time of the interrupt can
be resumed in future
Context

consists of CPU state and

information concerning memory and
resources used by the program

The scheduling routine selects a program

for execution
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Interrupt Processing (continued)

Nested interrupt Processing
Two approaches for nested interrupt processing :

1.
2.

Disable nested interrupts through masking

Service more critical interrupts in a nested manner interruptible
kernel

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3)System Calls
Programs

invoke the services of the OS through software

interrupts
The method to cause a software interrupt is known as a system
call

A system call is a request made by a program through a

special instruction called a `software interrupt instruction
<SI_instrn> <int_code>

The software interrupt is a program interrupt

The operand of the software interrupt instruction indicates
what kind of request is being made by a program
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Efficiency, System Performance, and

User Convenience

1)
2)

A computing environment consists of a computer

system, its interfaces with other systems, and the
services provided by its operating system to its
users and their programs
Nature of computation in an OS
Measuring Efficiency, System Performance, and
User Convenience
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1)Nature of computation in an OS

Noninteractive Computing Environments

OS

focuses on efficient use of resources

Computations in form of program or job

Interactive Computing Environments

OS

focuses on reducing average amount of time

required to implement an interaction between a user
and his computation
Execution of a program is called a process

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2)Measuring Efficiency, System

Performance, and User Convenience

Two of the fundamental goals of an OS:

Efficiency
Of

User

of use

a resource

convenience

Measurable

aspect: User service

Turnaround time
Response time

To a system administrator, performance of a system in

its environment is more important
Typically

measured as throughput
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Measuring Efficiency, System Performance,

and User Convenience (continued)

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Classes of Operating Systems

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Batch Processing Systems

Batch: sequence of user jobs formed for processing by the

OS
Batching kernel initiates processing of jobs without
requiring computer operators intervention
Control statements used to protect against interference
between jobs

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Multiprogramming Systems

Provide efficient resource utilization in a noninteractive

environment
Uses DMA mode of I/O
Can

perform I/O operations of some program(s) while using

the CPU to execute some other program
Makes

efficient use of both the CPU and I/O devices

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Multiprogramming Systems (continued)

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Multiprogramming Systems (continued)

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Priority of Programs

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Priority of Programs (continued)

In multiprogramming environments, an I/O-bound program should have a higher
priority than a CPU-bound program.

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Time-Sharing Systems

Provide a quick response to user subrequests

Round-robin

scheduling with time-slicing

Kernel

maintains a scheduling queue

If time slice () elapses before process completes servicing of
a subrequest, kernel preempts it, moves it to end of queue,
and schedules another process
Implemented through a timer interrupt

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Time-Sharing Systems (continued)

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Time-Sharing Systems (continued)

Response time (rt): measure of user service

If

processing of a subrequest requires CPU seconds

rt = n ( + )
= / ( + )

where : CPU efficiency,

: scheduling overhead,
n: number of users using system,
: time required to complete a subrequest

Actual response time would be different because

Some

users may be inactive

Some programs may require > CPU seconds
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Swapping of Programs

Swapping allows the kernel to service more processes

than can fit into the memory
Kernel

performs swap-out and swap-in operations

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Real-Time Operating Systems

In real-time applications, users need computer to

perform some actions in a timely manner
To control activities in an external system, or to participate
in them
Timeliness depends on time constraints

If application takes too long to respond to an activity, a

failure can occur in the external system
Response requirement
Deadline: time by which action should be performed

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Hard and Soft Real-Time Systems

A hard real-time system meets response requirements

under all conditions
It

is typically dedicated to processing real-time

applications

A soft real-time system makes best effort to meet

response requirement of a real-time application
Cannot
Meets

E.g.,

guarantee that it will be able to meet it

requirements in a probabilistic manner

multimedia applications
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Distributed Operating Systems

A distributed computer system consists of several

individual computer systems connected through a
network
Each computer system could be a PC, a multiprocessor
system, or a cluster
Many resources of a kind exist in system

This feature is used to provide the benefits summarized in Table

3.8

Handling network or individual computers failure requires

special techniques
Users must use special techniques to access resources over
the network

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Distributed Operating Systems

(continued)

Special Techniques of Distributed

Operating Systems

Summary

A computing environment consists of a computer

system, its interfaces with other systems, and the
services provided by its OS to users and programs
Evolved

with advances in computer technology:

Batch

processing systems
Multiprogramming operating system

Priority-based scheduling

Time-sharing

operating systems

Round-robin scheduling with time-slicing

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Summary (continued)

Evolution (continued)
Real-time

operating systems

Priority-based scheduling and deadline-aware scheduling

Distributed

operating system

Lets programs share resources across network

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