08/05/2009, Nadira Aljovic, EJ III Sintaksa

Adverbials adjuncts in VP and S

Complements(obligatory; dopuna) vs. adjuncts (optional; dodatak)
'Adverbial': (a) an element (XPhrase) functioning as adjunct in a VP or S; (b) modifying
the whole sentence or more narrowly the process/state denoted by the verb and/or the
event denoted by the VP.
Distribution: VP vs. S adverbials
William walked slowly down the road. He felt that he should dislike the girl intensely. He decided that he
should never meet her again. She was certainly a very unreasonable person. Yet he couldn't dislike her. He
hoped that he should see her again. He believed sincerely that a friendship with her would be exciting.
Anyway, William had always preferred people who quarrelled with him. He was bored with people who
agreed with him. He considered the girl quite attractive.

- In fact, she was a very unreasonable girl. PP

- In my opinion, she was a very unreasonable girl.
PP
Sentence adverbials do not modify what is expressed by the verb alone, but the truth
value of the whole sentence. It is certain(ly true) that she was a very unreasonable
girl.
yet connects sentences/clauses. (eg. however, moreover, nevertheless, then, PP: in
addition, in spite of that, etc.)

Syntactic tests differentiating between VP-adverbials and

sentence adverbials:
1. Focusing:
- SAs cannot be focused, most VP-As can be focused:
He walked down the road slowly, not quickly
#She arrived home before dark, fortunately, not unfortunately.
#He could do something about it, however, not moreover!
2. Clefting:
It is only recently that I saw him.
*It is only fortunately that she arrived home before dark.
3. Wh-questioning: VP-As can be questioned, SAs cannot:
How did he walk down the road? Slowly.
When did you see him? Recently.
When/How... was she a very unreasonable girl? *Certainly.

Position of VP adverbials
[William .... [ walked slowly down the road]] - within VP
[He [should [dislike the girl intensely]]]
Down the road, [William [walked slowly ...]] - preposing (movement from their
original pos.)
Slowly, [William [walked ... down the road ]] - preposing
- down the road, slowly: VP adverbials (adjuncts) should be within VP, near VP; can
be preposed (moved to the initial position in the sentence)

Position of Sentence Adverbials

Certainly/*completely, the team can rely on my support.
The team certainly/*completely can rely on my support
The team can certainly / completely rely on my support.
The team can rely completely/*certainly on my support.
The team can rely on my support completely/certainly.
Completely VP adverb, can occur in positions where it can be attached to VP node.

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Certainly S adverb, occurs in positions where it can be attached to S node.

Sentence adverbials: certain Q's "adjuncts", most Q's disjuncts, (and perhaps certain
conjuncts (?)).

Exercices:
Identify the functions (S, V, O, etc.) in the sentences below, and indicate by what
constituents (NP, VP, etc) they are realized. Remember that the optional elements
here may be VP adverbs or S-adverbs.
1. Britain has changed dramatically in the past two decades.
2. They set him on an almost impossible task.
3. You're making Mummy very unhappy by disobeying.
4. George allegedly cheated at Harvard.
5. Fred testified reluctantly.
6. John worded the letter very carefully.
7. His death will leave a large gap in the English literary scene.
8. John treated the whole affair as a joke.
9. Always keep this one thing in mind.
10.Dylan Thomas died in New York at the end of 1953.
11.Unfortunately, the experiment was no success.
12.She wears her hair long these days.
13.Chomsky sees his theory as superior to that of De Saussure.

Phrases (categories) realizing adverbial function (A)

adverb phrases, noun phrases, prepositional phrases, fnite verb clauses, non-finite
verb clauses, infinitive cl., -ing participle, -ed participle, verbless clauses (Peter was
playing, unaware of the danger).
3 major classes of adverbials: "Adjuncts", Disjuncts, Conjuncts

"Adjuncts"
"Adjuncts" resemble S, O (C) in being integrated into the structure of the
sentence/clause while other classes of adverbials are felt more like peripheral to it.
1. Adjuncts cannot appear initially in a negative declarative sentence:
a. *Quickly, they didn't leave for home.
2. Adjuncts can be focused: in a cleft sentence, by a question or by clause
negation:
a. It was on Tuesday that we went to Chicago.;
b. Does he write to his parents because he wants to (or does he write to
them because he needs money)?;
c. We didn't go to Chicago on Monday but we did go there on Tuesday.
3. Adjuncts can be elicitated by question forms:
a. When did you go to Chicago?
Unlike disjuncts or conjuncts:
1. To my regret, they didn't leave for home.
2. !*Does he write to his parents, to my regret (or does he write to them to my relief)?
!*We didn't go to Chicago, to my regret, (but we did go there, to my relief).
3. *!To whose relief did you go to Chicago?
Some items can be used as if belonging to more than one class:
- They aren't walking naturally. (manner)
- Naturally, they aren't walking. (disjunct)

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More syntactic features of adjuncts

1. they are related to VP so when the VP is under ellipsis (with or without a proform) they are understood as being included in this process:
a. John greatly admires Bob, and so does Mary (= and M. greatly admires
Bob)
2. They can be the focus of limiter adverbials such as only, also:
a. They only want the car for an hour (not for longer).
b. They will also meet afterwards (in addition to some other time)

Semantic classes of adjucnts

210-242 (8.6 -8.46)
1. Viewpoint
Paraphrase: "if we consider what we are saying from a ... [AP] ... point of veiw" :
geographically, linguistically; corresponding participle clauses: [(eg.technically)
speaking]; corresponding PPs: [from a AP point of view]; others: As far as .... is
concerned, Looked at economically.
2. Focusing adjuncts
mostly adverbs; cannot be modified (very...), and most of them cannot be coordinated
only one cliche coordination: purely and simply.
Many focusing adjuncts can appear within the focal clause of a cleft sentence: - It was
only John who protested.
limiter: alone, just, merely, only, purely, simply; chiefly, especially, mainly, mostly, in
particular;
additives: also, either, even, neither, nor, too, as well as, in addition.
About position and focus see in particular pp. 212 and 213.
Inversion: 'NOT only .... + correlative clause' (a clause depending syntactically and
semantically on 'not only'): Not only did she divorce him, she also sued him for
violence. (Study other similar cases, section 8.11.) Also note the difference between:
- It was only John who protested (focus in cleft)
- It was not just that John protested, it was merely that he was rude. (correlative
structure where the adverbials are followed by a complement that-clause.)
3. Intensifiers
denote increase or decrease of the intensity of the predication; most of them are
adverbs, some NPs and a few PPs; behave more like S-adverbials.
Emphasizers: - actually, certainly, clearly
a. I honestly don't know
b. He certainly should come earlier.
Study well the example in Quirk and Greenboum 1976 course book to understand
what is their meaning.
Some of them can function as other types of adjuncts: well, always (p. 215)
Amplifiers: absolutely, althogether, completely, entirely, fully, quite, thouroughly,
utterly, in all respects, most... Eg. - They fully appreciate your efforts to...
They like her very much.
I so wanted to see her.
I can well understand ...
Downtoners:
-kind of/sort of (inf), quite/rather, more or less: - I kind of like him.
- partly slightly somewhat, in part, to some extent, a little: - The incident somewhat
influenced his actions in later life.
- a bit; barely, hardly, little, scarcely; in the least, in the slightest, at all: - I didn't enjoy
it in the least.

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- almost, nearly, as good as, all but: - I almost resigned

NPs: a wink, a thing: - I didn't sleep a wink last night.
Examples of expressions functioning as intensifiers, quantifiers, time frequency
adjuncts and time duration adjuncts:
- I like this film a lot.
- She spent a lot for her jewelry.
- He travels a lot
- I slept a lot last night.

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4. Process adjuncts
manner, means, instrument
proforms: in that way, that way, like that; question: in what way, how?; occur with
dynamic verbs; appear after complement (object) in final position (may occur between
V and O if O is very long), or after Aux's and just before the lexical verb: He has been
badly treated.
Sometimes, some manner adjuncts have an additional meaning:
- The soldiers wounded him badly ('in such a way and to such an extent that it resulted
in his being in a bad condition')
5. Subject adjuncts
realized by AdvP or PP; relate to the subject, express the attitude of the subject
subject oriented adverbials. Appear with animate subjects interpreted as agents.
- resentfully, with great unease
- deliberately, (un)intentionally, purposely, reluctantly, voluntarily, wilfully, ... on
purpose...
- please, kindly, humbly, ...
They have properties of S-adverbials, i.e. do not behave as regular VP adverbials. They
appear closer to the left edge of the sentence.
- Intentionally, he didn't write to them about the accident.
Contrast:
- Wisely, he did not answer the questions.
- He wisely didn't answer the questions. (subject oriented)
- He did not answer the questions wisely. (manner)
- He wisely answered the quesitions (ambiguous)
6. Place adjuncts
meanings: static position, direction, movement, passage; realized by: PPs, clauses,
NPs, AdvPs; answer a where question: - He lives in Mostar.
with a copular verb, place expressions function as Ac (adverbial complement) (contra
Quirk p. 225, but see p. 226 top). (Ignore the rest of 8.25 on p. 226 ("adjuncts" with
phrasal verbs))
Pay attention to the combination of position and direction adjuncts (p. 226-7, section
8.26-27)
Study also the W.O. of subject and the verb in sentences with intial place adjuncts (s.
8.28):
- There she is. - Here are your shoes. - Away goes the postman. -Away he goes.
Pay attention to the position of place adjuncts with respect to O (section 8.29)
Note the following examples (from QandG):
- I want my car in the garage (not obligatory, thus adjunct, predicational link with O:
P+A function predicative adjunct denoting place)
- They plan a meeting at my house postM PP (meaning 'meeting at my house'); or
A (meaning 'planning at my house)
- They offered a barbecue nearby P+A predicative link with O, but adjunct rlation
with V.
- I like my dinner in the kitchen P+A
- I only like barbecues on the beach PostM PP: a specific sort of barbecues: those
on the beach; or 'I like them if/when they are held on the beach P+A.
7. Time adjuncts
realized by AdvP, clauses, NPs, and PPs. See the relevant sections (p. 229 for
references)
Time when adjuncts: meaning point of time (both groups); when used for a past
event, they occur with simple past.
- Group A - most often in the final position (except 'just' and several others): - I will
speak about subordinate clauses next week.
- Groupe B more often initially: - Until then you should go through today's lesson.

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Pay attention to individual adverbs described in 8.31-33.

Time duration adjuncts how long: (a) length of time; (b) duration from some previous
point of time
Groupe A with past tenses (simple and progressive), Groupe B with present (past)
perfect.
Time frequency adjuncts how often: realized by adverbs, NPs. (1) definite frequency,
(2) indefinite frequency.
(1) : weekly, once a week; once, again, on five occasions...
(2) : normally; always; often; sometimes;
Different positions (1) finally; (2) between Aux and the main V, or before Aux.
Pay special attention to the postions these adverb(ials) and their interpretations (8.3643).
With copula be, time adjuncts function as adverbial complements (Ac) (contra Q, p.
240):
- The match is tomorrow/in five days/from nine to eleven... vs. *The match is.
Determine the function of time expressions: - It is much warmer now. They threw him
in prison for life. They offered us the house for the summer. I suggest an informal
discussion occasionally.
8. Other types of adjuncts:
purpose: few adverbs, other phrases
source: PPs...
origin: PPs...
9. Relative position of adjuncts
Study well the order of different adjuncts and the factors influencing their order, such
as their semantics and the length of the phrase.

Exercices:
To tap a private telephone line is not technically a very difficult operation.
You can get a B grade just for these two answers.
By pressing this button you can stop the machine.
She replied to questions with great courtesy.
Officers never get drunk whil on duty.
We haven't yet eaten.
The children are running around upstairs.
They deliberately misled us all.
He took the book from me.

Disjuncts
Superior role to that of sentence elements: detached from and superordinate to the
rest of the sentence. Normally appear initially.
Style d. express the speaker's comment on the form of what is being said, define
under what conditions he is speaking: - seriously, personally, strictly speaking, to be
precise, if I may say so, very frnakly, bluntly, briefly, candidly, confientially, generally,
honestly, personally
Content disjuncts (attitudinal d.) convey the speaker's comment on the content of
what s/he is saying. Generally, appear only in declarative clauses = speakeroriented adverbials. Examples:
- Certainty (the truth value of what is being said): admittedly, certainly, definitely,
indeed, surely, undeniably, undoubtedly, unquestionably; (doubt) quite likely, maybe,
perhaps, possibly, presumably, reportedly, supposedly. Conviction: clearly, evidently,
obviously, plainly; Doubt: apparently. Reality: actually, really; (contrast with reality):
only apparently, ideally, nominally, officially, superficially, technically, theoretically;
True in principle: basically, essentially, fundamentally,

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Other comments: evalutation : annoyingly, curiously, fortunately, funnily enough,

happily, hopefully, luckily, naturally, not unnaturally, preferably, strangely, suprisingly,
understandably, unfortunately, unhappily, unluckily...
- Wisely, John consulted his lawyer I think it was wise of John to consult her lawyer.
(disjunct, content) (other examples: rightly, wrongly, foolishly, wisely)
- John wisely consulted his lawyer. John did a wise thing to cunsult his lawyer.
(subject oriented a.)
Productive derivation: ing base+-ly : surprisingly
Realized also by PPs (to my regret) and relative clauses (sentential and nomianl): What
is especially fortunate, the child ...

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Conjuncts
Linking words or phrases; mostly adverbs or PPs.
Normal position: initial; some conjuncts are restricted to initial position.
- Anyway, do you know the answer?
They may appear as correlatives:
- Though he is poor, yet he is satisfied with his situation.
They may appear with certain coordinating and subordinating conjunctions:
- I bought him a present and nevertheless/still, he is not happy.

The Compound Sentence - Coordination

Types of coordination
Syndetic coordination: coordinated elements (conjoins) are overtly linked by a
coordinator (but, and, or)
- He disliked the girl and the boy.
Asyndetic coordination: coordinated elements are not overtly linked by a
coordinator, but one can appear without changing the meaning and structural
relation of the conjoins:
- a hot, steaming bath
- a steaming, hot bath
- a fast, small and expensive car
- brzo, malo i skupo auto
Note that in the last type of coordination, adjective can appear in any order before the
noun.
Coordination vs. subordination
Coordination involves linking units on the same syntactic level.
Subordination involves linking units on different syntactic levles: one subordinated or
on a lower level (embedded), the other on a higher level.
Coordination of clauses:- I like John, and John likes me
Subordination: - [I like John because John likes me]. Subordination is a recursive
syntactic process that can create sentences of great complexity: - [I think [that you
can do it [if you try hard]]]
Various sentence linkers: coordinators, subordinators, and conjuncts.
Syntactic features of coordinators
- restricted to appear between two clauses; they are not part of any conjoined clause:
- John plays the guitar and his sister plays the piano.
- *John plays the guitar, his sister and plays the piano.
- *And his sister plays the piano, John plays the guitar
o John is playing the guitar, while his sister is playing the piano.
o While his sister is playing the piano, John is playing the guitar.
- cannot be preceded by other conjunctions (coord. or subordinating), unlike
subordinators and conjuncts: 'clause ... *because and ... clause': - He was unhappy
about it. [And yet] he did as he was told.
- sometimes appear as introducing a second conjoined clause which is
orthographically represented as an independent sentence.
- Linking constituents smaller than a clause, eg. 'Aux + VP' or VP alone: (Q's:
predication=VP.
- John got up and walked out
subject ellipsis (or Aux+VP coordination)
- John didn't [get up and walk out ] VPs
Subordinators or conjuncts do not have this possiblity. Except yet He didn't like the
idea, yet said nothing.
- He doesn't go to the University when he is ill or when his wife is ill.

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- Joh got up, walked out, and went to the railway station.