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Technology>> Ground Water, Surface Water, and Leachate

>>3.12 Ex Situ Physical/Chemical Treatment (assuming pumping)


>>4.49 Precipitation/Coagulation/Flocculation
Introduction>> This process transforms dissolved contaminants into an insoluble solid,
facilitating the contaminant's subsequent removal from the liquid phase
by sedimentation or filtration. The process usually uses pH adjustment,
addition of a chemical precipitant, and flocculation.

Description:
Figure 4-49:
Typical Metals Precipitation Process
Precipitation of metals has long been the primary method of treating metal-laden industrial
wastewaters. As a result of the success of metals precipitation in such applications, the
technology is being considered and selected for use in remediating ground water containing
heavy metals, including their radioactive isotopes. In ground water treatment applications,
the metal precipitation process is often used as a pretreatment for other treatment
technologies (such as chemical oxidation or air stripping) where the presence of metals
would interfere with the other treatment processes.
Metals precipitation from contaminated water involves the conversion of soluble heavy
metal salts to insoluble salts that will precipitate. The precipitate can then be removed from
the treated water by physical methods such as clarification (settling) and/or filtration. The
process usually uses pH adjustment, addition of a chemical precipitant, and flocculation.
Typically, metals precipitate from the solution as hydroxides, sulfides, or carbonates. The
solubilities of the specific metal contaminants and the required cleanup standards will dictate
the process used. In some cases, process design will allow for the generation of sludges that
can be sent to recyclers for metal recovery.
Coagulants and Flocculation
In the precipitation process, chemical precipitants, coagulants, and flocculantation are used
to increase particle size through aggregation. The precipitation process can generate very
fine particles that are held in suspension by electrostatic surface charges. These charges
cause clouds of counter-ions to form around the particles, giving rise to repulsive forces that
prevent aggregation and reduce the effectiveness of subsequent solid-liquid separation
processes. Therefore, chemical coagulants are often added to overcome the repulsive forces
of the particles. The three main types of coagulants are inorganic electrolytes (such as alum,
lime, ferric chloride, and ferrous sulfate), organic polymers, and synthetic polyelectrolytes
with anionic or cationic functional groups. The addition of coagulants is followed by lowsheer mixing in a flocculator to promote contact between the particles, allowing particle
growth through the sedimentation phenomenon called flocculant settling.
Flocculant settling refers to a rather dilute suspension of particles that coalesce, or flocculate,
during the sedimentation operation. As coalescence or flocculation occurs, the particles
increase in mass and settle at a faster rate. The amount of flocculation that occurs depends on

the opportunity for contact, which varies with the overflow rate, the depth of the basin, the
velocity gradients in the system, the concentration of particles, and the range of particles
sizes. The effects of these variables can only be accomplished by sedimentation tests.

Synonyms:
NA.

Applicability:
Precipitation is used mainly to convert dissolved ionic species into solid-phase particulates
that can be removed from the aqueous phase by coagulation and filtration. Remedial
application of this technology usually involve removal of dissolved toxic metals and
radionuclides. Depending on the process design, sludges may be amenable to metal
recovery.

Limitations:
Disadvantages of metals precipitation may include:

As with any pump and treat process, if the source of contamination is not removed
(as in metals absorbed to soil), treatment of the ground water may be superfluous.
The presence of multiple metal species may lead to removal difficulties as a result of
amphoteric natures of different compounds (i.e., optimization on one metal species
may prevent removal of another).
As discharge standards become more stringent, further treatment may be required.
Metal hydroxide sludges must pass TCLP prior to land disposal.
Soluble hexavalent chrome requires extra treatment prior to coagulaation and
flocculation.
Reagent addition must be carefully controlled to preclude unacceptable
concentrations in treatment effluent.
Efficacy of the system relies on adequate solids separation techniques (e.g.,
clarification, flocculation, and/or filtration).
Process may generate toxic sludge requiring proper disposal.
Process can be costly, depending on reagents used, required system controls, and
required operator involvement in system operation.
Dissolved salts are added to the treated water as a result of pH adjustment.
Polymer may need to be added to the water to achieve adequate settling of solids.
Treated water will often require pH adjustment.
Metals held in solution by complexing agents (e.g., cyanide or EDTA) are difficult to
precipitate.

Data Needs:

A detailed discussion of these data elements is provided in Subsection 2.2.2 (Data


Requirements for Ground Water, Surface Water, and Leachate).
Bench-scale treatability tests should be conducted to determine operating parameters and
characteristics [i.e., reagent type and dosage, optimum pH, retention time, flow rate,
temperature, mixing requirements, flocculent (polymer) selection, suspended solids,
precipitate settling and filtration rates, and sludge volume and characteristics].

Performance Data:
Precipitation of heavy metals as the metal hydroxides or sulfides has been practiced as the
prime method of treatment for heavy metals in industrial wastewater for many years. More
recently, precipitation (usually as the metal hydroxides) has been used in the electronics and
electroplating industries as a pretreatment technology for wastewater discharge to a publicly
owned treatment works (POTW). Metals precipitation is widely used to meet NPDES
requirements for the treatment of heavy metal-containing wastewaters.
Because of its success in meeting requirements for discharge of treated wastewater, metals
precipitation is recognized as a proven process for use in remedial activities such as ground
water treatment. Precipitation (combined with sedimentation, and/or flocculation and
filtration) is becoming the most widely selected means for heavy metals removal from
ground water in pump and treat operations.

Cost:
This cost estimate is does not include the costs for additional treatment steps which
may be necessary when employing precipitation/coagulation/flocculation technology
such as the sludge dewatering and disposal. For budgetary purposes, sludge
disposal may be estimated to increase operating costs by approximately $0.50 per
1,000 gallons of ground water treated. The key cost driver information and cost
analysis was developed using the 2006 version of the Remedial Action Cost
Engineering and Requirements (RACER) software.
Key Cost Drivers

No sensitivity analysis possible as only variable is influent flow rate.

Cost Analysis
The following table represents estimated costs (by common unit of measure)
to apply precipitation/coagulation/flocculation technology at sites of varying
size and complexity. A more detailed cost estimate table which includes
specific site characteristics and significant cost elements that contributed to
the final costs can be viewed by clicking on the link below.
GW TECHNOLOGY:

Precipitation/Coagulation/Flocculation

RACER PARAMETERS

THOUSAND GALLONS TREATED PER


YEAR
COST PER THOUSAND GALLONS PER
YEAR

Scenario A and B
Small Site

Scenario C and D
Large Site

No Cost Sensitivity
Possible

No Cost Sensitivity
Possible

10,512

34,164

$41

$17

Detailed Cost Estimate

References:
Innovative Remediation Technologies: Field Scale Demonstration Project in North
America, 2nd Edition
Abstracts of Remediation Case Studies, Volume 4, June 2000, EPA 542-R-00-006
Guide to Documenting and Managing Cost and Performance Information for Remediation
Projects - Revised Version, October, 1998, EPA 542-B-98-007
Balaso, C.A., et al., 1986. "Soluble Sulfide Precipitation Study", Arthur D. Little, Inc., Final
Report to USATHAMA, Report No. AMXTH-TE-CR-87106.
Battelle Memorial Institute, 1995. "ReOpt. V3.1", by Battelle Memorial Institute for DOE
under Contract DE/AC06/76RLO 1830.
Bricka, R. Mark, 1988. "Investigation and Evaluation of the Performance of Solidified
Cellulose and Starch Xanthate Heavy Metal Sludges", USACE-WES Technical Report EL88-5.
EPA, 1980. Control and Treatment Technology for the Metal Finishing Industry: Sulfide
Precipitation, EPA/625/8-80/003.
EPA, 1990. Innovative and Alternative Technology Assessment Manual, EPA, Office of
Water Program Operations, EPA/430/9-78/009.
Federal Remediation Technologies Roundtable, 1998. Remediation Case Studies: Innovative
Groundwater Treatment Technologies, EPA/542/R-98/015.

Coagulation/Flocculation/Dissolved Air Flotation and Oleofiltration at the Coastal


Systems Station, AOC 1, Panama City, Florida

NEESA, 1993. Precipitation of Metals from Ground Water. NEESA Document Number
20.2-051.6, Naval Energy and Environmental Support Activity, Port Hueneme, CA.

Tchobanoglous, G. and F.L. Burton, 1991. "Wastewater Engineering - Treatment, Disposal


and Reuse," Third Edition. Metcalf & Eddy, Inc.

Site Information:

EPA Demo Palangana Uranium Mine Site, TX


Coakley Landfill New Hampshire
Stringfellow Acid Pit Site CA
Winthrop Landfill Winthrop, ME
EPA Removal Action Crown Plating, MO
Coastal Systems Station, AOC 1, Panama City, FL

Points of Contact:
General FRTR Agency Contacts
Technology Specific Web Sites:
Government Web Sites
Non Government Web Sites

Vendor Information:
A list of vendors offering En Situ Physical/Chemical Water Treatment is available from EPA
REACH IT which combines information from three established EPA databases, the Vendor
Information System for Innovative Treatment Technologies (VISITT), the Vendor Field Analytical and
Characterization Technologies System (Vendor FACTS), and the Innovative Treatment Technologies
(ITT), to give users access to comprehensive information about treatment and characterization
technologies and their applications.

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