Assignment Mam Rosy Updated

Assignment
Language Learning
Theories
Applied Linguistics
Assignment: Language Learning Theories Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET
Contents
1.
Introduction .........................................................................................................................4
1.1 Theory: ...............................................................................................................................4
1.2 Learning: ............................................................................................................................4
1.3 Language: ...........................................................................................................................4
1.4 Overview of Learning Theories ...........................................................................................5
2.
Language Learning Theories ..................................................................................................6

2.1
The Theory of Behaviorism............................................................................................6
2.2 Classical Conditioning-The Behaviorist Approach ............................................................7

2.3 Operant Conditioning-The Behaviorist Approach ..........................................................10
2.4 Comparison and Analysis of classical and Operant Conditioning ......................................12
2.5 Similarities and Differences of classical and Operant Conditioning ....................................13
3.
The Nativist Approach ........................................................................................................14

3.1 Chomskian Language Learning Theory ..............................................................................14
3.2 Skinners Language Learning Theory .................................................................................17
3.3 Comparison and Analysis of Chomskys and Skinners Theories ........................................17
3.4 Similarities and Differences of Chomsky and Skinners Theories ........................................18
4.
The Cognitive Learning Theory (CLT) .................................................................................19

4.1 Ausubelian Meaningful Learning Theory: ..........................................................................20
4.2 Blooms Taxonomy:.........................................................................................................27
4.3 Comparison and Analysis of Blooms Taxonomy and Meaningful Learning ......................33
4.5 Similarities and Differences of Blooms Taxonomy and Ausbels Meaningful Learning .......34
5.
Bruners Theory of Learning .............................................................................................35

5.1 Cognitive Development: ...................................................................................................35
5.2
Modes of.....................................................................................................................35
5.3 Vygotskys Socio cultural Theory: .................................................................................40

5.4 Comparison and Analysis of Vygotsky and Bruner ............................................................44
5.5 Similarities and Differences of Bruner and Vygotsky ..........................................................45

6.Piagets Theory of Cognitive Development .............................................................................47
7.Leading Language Learning Theories .......................................................................................57
7.1 Implications of Leading Language Theories on Class Rooms ..............................................59
7.3 Implications of Constructivism Learning on Class Rooms: .................................................61
7.4 Leading Language Theories to be Adopted in Class Rooms ....................................62
8.References ...........................................................................................................................67
1. Introduction
1.1 Theory:
In modern science, the term "theory" refers to scientific theories, a well-confirmed type of
explanation of nature, made in a way consistent with scientific method, and fulfilling the
criteria required by modern science. Such theories are described in such a way that any
scientist in the field is in a position to understand and either provide empirical support
("verify") or empirically contradict ("falsify") it.
Scientific theories are the most reliable, rigorous, and comprehensive form of scientific
knowledge, in contrast to more common uses of the word "theory" that imply that
something is unproven or speculative (which is better defined by the word
'hypothesis'). Scientific theories are also distinguished from hypotheses, which are
individual empirically testable conjectures, and scientific laws, which are descriptive
accounts of how nature will behave under certain conditions.
1.2 Learning:
Learning can be defined as:
1. A persisting change in human performance or
performance potential (brought) about as a
result of the learners interaction with the
environment (Driscoll, 1994, pp. 8-9).
2. The relatively permanent change in a persons
knowledge or behavior due to experience
(Mayer, 1982, p. 1040).
3. An enduring change in behavior, or in the capacity to behave in a given fashion,
which results from practice or other forms of
experience (Shuell, 1986, p. 412).
Language is a set (finite or
infinite) of sentences, each
1.3 Language:
finite in length, and constructed
out of a finite set of elements.
Language is a code that we learn to use in order to
---Chomsky, S y n t a c t i c
communicate ideas and express our wants and needs.
Structures (1 957: 13)
Reading, writing, speaking, and some gesture systems
are all forms of language.
1.4 Overview of Learning Theories

Over the past century, educational psychologists and researchers have posited many
theories to explain how individuals acquire,
organize and deploy skills and knowledge.
Learning theories are grouped into six basic
categories:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Behaviorism
Cognitivism
Social Learning Theory
Social Constructivism
Multiple Intelligences
Brain-Based Learning
"Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him
to become any type of specialist I might select - doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents,
penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations and the race of his ancestors
---Watson, 1924, p. 104.
2. Language Learning Theories

2.1 The Theory of Behaviorism
Behaviorism Confined to observable and measurable behavior.
i.
Definition
A school of psychology that confines itself to the study

of observable and quantifiable aspects of behavior and
excludes subjective phenomena, such as emotions or
motives.
Psychology should be seen as a science. Theories need
to be supported by empirical data obtained through
careful and controlled observation and measurement of
behavior.
Watson (1913) stated that:
Psychology as a behaviorist views it is a purely
objective experimental branch of natural science. Its
theoretical goal is prediction and control (p. 158).
As one of the oldest theories of personality,

behaviorism dates back to Descartes, who introduced
the idea of a stimulus and called the person a
machine dependent on external events whose soul
was the ghost in the machine. Behaviorism takes this
idea to another level. Although most theories
operate to some degree on the assumption that
humans have some sort of free will and are moral
thinking entities, behaviorism refuses to acknowledge
the internal workings of persons. In the mind of the
behaviorist, persons are nothing more than simple
mediators between behavior and the environment
----Skinner, 1993, p 428
ii.
Background
Behaviorism (also called the behaviorist approach) was the primary paradigm in psychology
between 1920s to 1950 and is based on a number of underlying assumptions regarding
methodology and behavioral analysis:
Behaviorists explain maladaptive behavior in terms of the learning principles that sustain and
maintain it. Behaviorism is the theory that human nature can be fully understood by the laws
inherent in the natural environment
Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable behavior, as opposed to internal events like
thinking and emotion. Observable (i.e. external) behavior can be objectively and scientifically
measured. Internal events, such as thinking should be explained through behavioral terms (or
eliminated altogether).
People have no free will a persons environment determines their behavior
When born our mind is 'tabula rasa' (a blank slate).
Behavior is the result of stimulus response (i.e. all behavior, no matter how complex,
can be reduced to a simple stimulus response association). Watson described the
purpose of psychology as: To predict, given the stimulus, what reaction will take place;
or, given the reaction, state what the situation or stimulus is that has caused the reaction
(1930, p. 11).
All behavior is learnt from the environment. We learn new behavior through classical or
operant conditioning.
Classical conditioning is a type of learning which based on the association of a stimulus that does
not ordinary elicit a particular response with another stimulus does elicit the response.
----Papalia, Feldman, & Olds 2007
2.2 Classical Conditioning-The Behaviorist Approach

Classical conditioning theory involves learning a new behavior via the process of
association. It means that if two stimuli repeatedly experienced together, they will
become associated. For example, if a student frequently encounters unpleasant stimuli in
Mathematics class such as unfriendly teachers, difficult questions, and a lot of homework,
he may learn to dislike Mathematics.
The concept of classical conditioning was developed by a Russian physiologist, Ivan
Pavlov (1849-1936).
i.
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov:
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, (born Sept. 14 [Sept. 26, New Style],

1849, Ryazan, Russiadied Feb. 27, 1936, Leningrad [now St.
Petersburg]), Russian physiologist known chiefly for his development
of the concept of the conditioned reflex. In a now-classic experiment,
he trained a hungry dog to salivate at the sound of a bell, which was
previously associated with the sight of food. He developed a similar
conceptual approach, emphasizing the importance of conditioning,
in his pioneering studies relating human behavior to the nervous
system. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine
in 1904 for his work on digestive secretions.
ii.
The Pavlovian Experiment.
Ivan Pavlov,
Russian physiologist
Pavlov discovered classical conditioning almost by accident. The

discovery led to the real beginnings of behavioral theory originally;
actually he wanted to study the role of salivation of dog in
digestion (1890s). He measured how much saliva dogs produce
when given meat. After a few days in the experiment, Pavlov
(1902) observed that the dogs in his laboratory started salivating
when the lab attendant entered the room with the meat dish,
before meat was placed in their mouth.
Pavlovs interest raised more and he pursued the issue with more
experiments. For example, he sounded a bell just before presenting
Astimulus is anything that can directly
influence behavior and the stimulus
his dogs with food. After hearing the bell many times right before
getting fed, the dogs began to salivate as soon as the bell rang. In other word, produces
the dogsa response.
had been conditioned to salivate in response to a new stimulus (the bell) that normally
would not produce salivation. The dogs had learned to associate the bell with food.
iii.
Types of Stimulus and Response
In classical conditioning, two types of stimulus and two types of response are examined. They are
the Unconditioned Stimulus, the conditioned stimulus, the unconditioned response, and the
conditioned response as explained in following chart:
Classical
Conditioning
Response
Stimulus
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

This is a stimulus that can
produce the response without
any learning.
Example: Meat.
Unconditioned response (UCR)

This is the unlearned or inborn
reaction to the unconditioned
stimulus.
Example: Salivation.
Conditioned stimulus (CS)

Conditioned stimulus acquired
the ability to produce the
response because it was paired
(associated) with the
unconditioned stimulus.
Example: Bell.
Conditioned response (CR)

When a response is produced
by the conditioned stimulus, it is
referred to as the conditioned
response.
Example: Salivation.
Types of stimulus and responses in classical

conditioning
iv.
Figurative understanding of Classical Conditioning
Following Figure helps us understand the meaning of these stimulus and responses as well
as the steps in the process of classical conditioning.
Before conditioning the bell is neutral stimulus, Neutral Stimulus is a stimulus that, before
conditioning, does not bring about the response.
No response
However, an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) can produce and unconditioned response (UCR)
US
UR
During the conditioned procedure, the neutral stimulus (NS) is presented. It is immediately
followed by the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to produce unconditioned response (UCR).
UCS
UCR
After classical conditioning procedures, the neutral stimulus (NS) becomes a conditioned
stimulus (CS). It alone can produce salvation. At this point, the production of salvation is
known as the conditioned response (CR). Pavlov suggested that the salivation was a
learned response.
CS
CR
An operant is a response that occurs and acts on the environment to produce some kind of effect.
2.3 Operant Conditioning-The Behaviorist Approach
Operant conditioning utilizes reinforcement and punishment
to create associations between behaviors and the
consequences for those behaviors. For example, imagine that
a school teacher punishes a student for talking out of turn by
not letting the student go outside for recess.
i.
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
Environmental
consequences
shape behavior
--B.F Skinner
Burrhus Frederic Skinner, more commonly known as B. F.

Skinner, was an American psychologist, philosopher, scientist
and poet. An important advocate of behaviorism, Skinner is
known for inventing the operant conditioning chamber, for his
utopian novel Walden Two (1948). and for his own
experimental analysis of behavior. He is widely considered as
one of the most influential psychologists of all time.
Synopsis:
Born in Pennsylvania in 1904, psychologist B.F. Skinner began

working on ideas of human behavior after earning his doctorate
from Harvard. Skinner's works include The Behavior of
Organisms (1938) and a novel based on his theories Walden
Two (1948). He explored behaviorism in relation to
society in later books, including Beyond Freedom and
Human Dignity (1971). Skinner died in Massachusetts in
1990.
ii.
Operant Conditioning-Skinners Theory
Term operant conditioning (OC) was the idea got from

Thorndikes experiments with cats evasion from puzzle
boxes. The theory known as the 'Law of Effect' it states
that:
A behaviour that is followed by satisfying consequences
is strengthened and a behaviour that is followed by
annoying consequences is weakened
B.F Skinner
All we need to know in order

to describe and explain behavior
is this: actions followed by good
outcomes are likely to recur, and
actions followed by bad
outcomes are less likely to
recur.
---Skinner, 1953
Skinner believed that the best way to understand behavior is to look at the causes of an action
and its consequences. He called this approach operant conditioning.
10
iii.
Behavior that brings about a satisfying

effect (reinforcement) is apt to be
performed again, whereas behavior
that brings about negative effect
(punishment) is apt to be suppressed.
Skinnerian Experiments
Skinner (1948) studied operant conditioning by conducting

experiments using animals which he placed in a 'Skinner
Box' which was similar to Thorndikes puzzle box. He
identified three types of responses or operant that can
follow behavior.
---Morris & Maisto, 2001.
a. Types of Reinforcement and Punishment

We may say that reinforcement is a consequence or result that increases the likelihood that a
behavior will happen. On the other hand, we may say punishment is a consequence or result that
decreases the likelihood behavior will happen.
Put it another way, reinforcement will strengthen a behavior while punishment will weaken a
behavior. There are two forms of reinforcement and punishment as shown in chart:
Operant
Conditioning
Reinforcem
ent
Positive
Reinforcem
ent
Punishment
Negative
Reinforcem
ent
Both types of Reinforcement

are used to increase the
likelihood that a preceding
behavior will be repeated.
Positive
Punishment
Negative
Punishment
Both types of punishment are

used to decrease the likelihood
that a preceding behavior will
be repeated.
Types of reinforcement and punishment in operant

conditioning
Note it down that when something is added or presented, the process of learning is called
positive and when something is removed or taken away, the process of learning is called
negative. Above chart helps us to understand these forms of reinforcement and punishment.
11
2.4 Comparison and Analysis of classical and Operant Conditioning

i. Comparison of classical and operant conditioning
The table below summarizes the comparisons:
Classical conditioning:
New behaviors are acquired by associative
learning.
Behaviors may become extinct
Spontaneously recover.
Stimulus generalization and discrimination occur.
Based on involuntary reflex behavior.
Learner is the object of experience (passive
learning).
Effectiveness of conditioning assessed by size of
response.
ii.
Operant conditioning:
New behaviors are acquired by associative
learning.
Behaviors may become extinct
Spontaneously recover.
Stimulus generalization and discrimination occur.
Based on voluntary behavior.
Learner is the subject of experience (active
learning).
Effectiveness of conditioning assessed by
frequency of response.
Analysis of Classical and Operant Conditioning
Behavior theorists define learning as a permanent change in

behavior. In behaviorism, the learner is considered as passively
adapting to their environment. Two of the most famous
experiments upon which proof of learning is based are the "Dog
Salivation Experiment" by Ivan Petrovich Pavlov and the
Skinner Box" experiment with pigeons by B.F. Skinner.
According to the theories studied by I.P Pavlov and B.F Skinner,
human beings are shaped entirely by their external environment.
According to them you can change a person's environment, and
you will change his or her thoughts, feelings, and behavior.
Here I want to share some of the limitations of behaviorism
theory:
"Give me a dozen healthy infants,

well informed, and my own
specified world to bring them up in
and I'll guarantee to take anyone at
random and train him to become
any type of specialist I might select-doctor, lawyer, artist, merchantchief; and yes, even beggar-man and
thief, regardless of his talents,
penchants,
tendencies,
abilities,
vocations, and race of his ancestors."
---John Watson
1. Behaviorism does not see innate behaviors as significant. Animals have a predisposition to
perform some behaviors over others (theory of preparedness) and so will learn some
behaviors more readily than others.
2. The reduction of learning to stimulus-response associations is an oversimplification.
Learning is more about understanding the relationships between events in the
environment.
3. Learning does not necessarily involve measurable responses. A null response does not
mean that learning has not occurred.
4. Alternative explanations of learning include social learning and the cognitive approach.
Tolman's (1948) latent learning theory explains learning in terms of mental or cognitive
maps.
5. Learning in humans may involve conditioning (good evidence comes from phobia
acquisition) but it may not be valid to generalize the behavior of non-human animals to
humans.
12
Today, both classical and operant conditioning are utilized for a variety of purposes by
teachers, parents, psychologists, animal trainers and many others. In animal training, a
trainer might utilize classical conditioning by repeatedly pairing the sound of a clicker
with the taste of food. Eventually, the sound of the clicker alone will begin to produce
the same response that the taste of food would.
In a classroom setting, a teacher might utilize operant conditioning by offering tokens as
rewards for good behavior. Students can then turn in these tokens to receive some type
of reward such as treat or extra play time.
2.5 Similarities and Differences of classical and Operant Conditioning

Classical and operant conditioning are two important concepts essential to behavioral
psychology. Both are related to learning, but their processes are relatively different. In order to
understand how each of these behavior modification techniques can be used, it is also essential to
understand how classical conditioning and operant conditioning are similar and differ from one
another.
Similarities
Classical
Conditioning
Operant
Conditioning
Differences
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
First described by Ivan Pavlov, a

Russian physiologist
Involves placing a neutral signal
before a reflex
Focuses on involuntary, automatic
behaviors
Classical conditioning involves
making an association between an
involuntary response and a
stimulus
First described by B. F. Skinner, an

American psychologist
Involves applying reinforcement
or punishment after a behavior
Focuses on strengthening or
weakening voluntary behaviors
Operant conditioning is about
making an association between a
voluntary behavior and a
consequence
In operant conditioning, the
learner is also rewarded with
incentives
Operant conditioning requires the
learner to actively participate and
perform some type of action in
order to be rewarded or punished
Acquisition
Acquisition
Extinction
Extinction
Spontaneous
recovery
Spontaneous
recovery
Stimulus
generalization
Stimulus
generalization
Behavior Study
Behavior Study
In classical conditioning involves

no such enticements
Psychological
processes that lead
to learning.
Classical conditioning is passive on

the part of the learner
Psychological
processes that lead
to learning.
13
Language is an innate faculty

3. The Nativist Approach
The nativist view of language development is traced
back to the work of Noam Chomsky (1957).
Language acquisition is innately determined.
Approach offers a systematic description of the
childs language as either ruled-governed or
operating out of parallel distributed processing
capacities
i.
Language is the
product of an
unlearned,
biologically-based,
internal mental
structure
-- Noam Chomsky
Noam Chomsky:
Noam Chomsky is an eminent American theoretical

linguist, cognitive scientist and philosopher, who radically changed the
arena of linguistics by assuming language as a uniquely human,
biologically based cognitive capacity. He suggested that innate traits in
the human brain give birth to both language and grammar. The most
important figure in cognitive revolution and analytic philosophy,
Chomskys wide-ranging influence also extends to computer science and
mathematics.
3.1 Chomskian Language Learning Theory
Noam Chomsky
Noam Chomsky has made a number of strong claims

about language: in particular, he suggests that language
is an innate faculty - that is to say that we are born with
a set of rules about language in our heads which he
refers to as the 'Universal Grammar (UG). The universal
grammar is the basis upon which all human languages
build.
Chomsky gives a number of reasons why this should be
so. Among the most important of these reasons is the
ease with which children acquire their mother tongue.
He claims that it would be little short of a miracle if
children learnt their language in the same way that they learn mathematics or how to ride a
bicycle. This, he says, is because:
1. Children are exposed to very little correctly formed language. When people speak, they
constantly interrupt themselves, change their minds, make slips of the tongue and so on.
Yet children manage to learn their language all the same.
2. Children do not simply copy the language that they hear around them. They deduce rules
from it, which they can then use to produce sentences that they have never heard
before. They do not learn a repertoire of phrases and sayings, as the behaviorists believe,
but a grammar that generates infinity of new sentences.
14
Chomsky suggests that all languages share a similar deep structure despite the differences in their
surface structure. For instance, I did the homework and The homework was done by me
have the same deep structure but differ in the surface structure. The LAD supplies humans with
the transformational grammar, which simply means the process of translating underlying meaning
into speech. Children use these rules but will sometimes make errors, such as goed and comed
(went and came). These are errors in performance not in competence, ----Chomsky claim.
ii.
Evidence to Support Chomskys Theory:

Children learning to speak never make grammatical errors such as getting their subjects,
verbs and objects in the wrong order.
If an adult deliberately said a grammatically incorrect sentence, the child would notice.
Children often say things that are ungrammatical such as mama ball, which they cannot
have learnt passively.
Mistakes such as I drawed instead of I drew show they are not learning through
imitation alone.
Chomsky used the sentence colorless green ideas sleep furiously, which is grammatical
although it doesnt make sense, to prove his theory: he said it shows that sentences can be
grammatical without having any meaning, that we can tell the difference between a
grammatical and an ungrammatical sentence without ever having heard the sentence
before, and that we can produce and understand brand new sentences that no one has
ever said before.
Following figure will help us to understand the concept of theory:
Some of the important points of Chomskian theory are as follows:

Chomsky (1968) proposed that children come equipped with an innate mental structure -the language acquisition device (LAD) -- which makes learning easier.
Because the rules which underlie a language are too complex to be acquired by children
in a few short years, some aspects of language must be innately specified
15
"Language input is the evidence out of which
According to Chomsky, the LAD

the learner constructs knowledge of language
contains a set of features common to
what goes into the brain. Such evidence can be
all languages, which he termed a
either positive or negative. The positive
universal grammar.
evidence of the position of words in a few
Universal grammar refers to the entire
sentences the learner hears is sufficient to show
set of rules or linguistic parameters
him the rules of a language."
which specify all possible human
languages.
----Cook, 1991: 154
The learning of grammar occurs when
the LAD operates on speech to
abstract out the linguistic parameters which underlie the particular language used in the
childs environment.
Chomsky termed this process of determining the parameters or rules of ones native
language parameter setting.
According to him the brain is able to analyse the
language and work out the system that the
language uses. This explains why children can
quickly understand and then use their language
creatively and correctly without ever being
formally taught or knowing the rules. In short,
many aspects of language are not learned but are
a part of our biological endowment
16
3.2 Skinners Language Learning Theory
Skinner, who was a Behaviorist, argued that language acquisition is like any kind of cognitive
behavior it is learnt by reinforcement and shaping. He also calls this operant conditioning
where the child goes through trial-and-error, in other words, where the child tries and fails to use
correct language until it succeeds; with reinforcement and shaping provided by the parents
gestures (smiles, attention and approval) which are pleasant to the child. Parents, whom ignore
unfamiliar sounds and show increased attention to the reinforced phonemes, extinguish the
acquisition of phonemes and morphemes. The morphemes then become refined into words by
shaping. Parents accuracy will lead to total extinguishment of baby pronunciation and finally,
by selective reinforcement and behavior shaping, words will be shaped into telegraphic twoword sentences, later into sentences until the full language has been acquired. Skinner
differentiated between two types of verbal responses that a child makes. One of them, the mand
is verbal behavior that is reinforced by the child receiving something it wants. For example, when
the child sees a chocolate, it can show its own demand by calling out choc. As the child used
appropriate verbal behavior, he then receives chocolate and reinforcement. The other one is tact,
which is verbal behavior caused by imitating others. For instance, when a parent points at an
object and says ball, the child imitates this word and the parent will then approve, which is just
another form of reinforcement.
3.3 Comparison and Analysis of Chomskys and Skinners Theories

The table below summarizes the comparisons and Analysis:
Chomsky
Chomsky a linguist
Chomsky holding a stand of language being innate
born with the ability
Chomsky advocated a model involving whole
sentence processing using some form of
`transformational' system
Chomsky believed we were born with a Language
Acquisition Device... basically, weare born with
something in our brains that gives us the ABILITY to
learn and understand language. However, to actually
learn language, we must be exposed to this language
from the outside world.
Skinner
Skinner a behavioral psychologist
Skinner suggesting that the behavior of
language is learnt like any other cognitive
behavior
Skinner proposed a `finite', (single word)
processing system used in sentence
interpretation
Skinner believed everything was learned from
scratch. Humans are born knowing nothing,
and then they learn it all, via rewards and
punishments.
17
3.4 Similarities and Differences of Chomsky and Skinners Theories

The two men share greatly differing views and ideas to the acquisition of grammar in humans.
Here I will share the similarities and differences between Skinner and Chomsky on language
learning theories
Similarities
Chomsky
Skinner
The language
learners will
acquire the
target structures
easily.
Language is
developed by
practicing.
The language
learners will
acquire the
target structures
easily.
Language is
developed by
practicing.
Differences
Chomsky
The ability of language is innate
Chomsky a linguist
Skinner a behavioral psychologist
Chomsky believed that human beings

are born prepared to learn language
Skinner supports the idea that the

learner of a language depends the
principle of stimulus-response
Reinforcement of environment, such as

adults, correction of childs linguistic
errors, contributes partly in developing
the childs language acquisition
Skinner focused on the language

learning rather than the language
acquisition
The environment has secondary role
The environment has major role in

acquiring the language
Children learn the easiest rule in the

language and apply in difficult situations
Deals with
language
acquisition
system.
Deals with
language
acquisition
system.
Skinner
Learner is passive and respond to the
environmental stimuli
Human is born with innate capacity,

Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
Errors is the indication that a child is
actually acquiring a language innately
It focus on first language theory
The learner filters what he sees and
hears from the environment (input) and
keeps what is important in the language
for him (intake) then according to that,
he makes his own rules of language to
produce sentence (output)
Language is a set of habits that can be

acquired by means of conditioning
Human is born with no tools of
learning language, but as they grow,
they learn from environment
Children are learning from trail and
error
It focus on second language theory
The learner repeats what he hears
from the environment to learn the
language
E.g: Audio-Lingual: Teachers use this
method to teach children through
repeating after them
18
Cognitive Learning Theory - Using Thinking to Learn.

4. The Cognitive Learning Theory (CLT)
The Cognitive Learning Theory explains why the brain is the most
incredible network of information processing and interpretation
in the body as we learn things. Learning results from internal
mental activity and not from externally imposed stimuli.
Observing, categorizing,
forming generalizations to
make sense of the
information provided.
It is assumed that in cognitive process the learner comes with

knowledge, skills and related experiences to the learning situation
i.
--- Cognitive Learning

Theory
Cognitive Psychologists
Following psychologists focused on different cognitive conditions that impact on learning
Piaget
ii.
Bloom
Bruner
Ausubel
David Paul Ausubel (1918 2008)
Born: October 25, 1918

Died: July 9, 2008
Grew up in Brooklyn, New York
David Ausubel was an American psychologist who did his undergraduate

work at the University of Pennsylvania (pre-med and psychology). He
graduated from medical school at Middlesex University. Later he earned a
Ph.D in Developmental Psychology at Columbia University. He was
influenced by the work of Piaget. He served on the faculty at several
universities and retired from academic life in 1973 and began his practice in
psychiatry. Dr. Ausubel published several textbooks in developmental and
educational psychology, and more than 150 journal articles. He was
awarded the Thorndike Award for "Distinguished Psychological
Contributions to Education" by the American Psychological Association
(1976).
David Ausubel
Ausubel
19
The importance of active mental participation in meaningful learning tasks
4.1 Ausubelian Meaningful Learning Theory:

Ausubel, whose theories are particularly relevant for
educators, considered neo-behaviorist views inadequate.
Learning must be meaningful
Although he recognized other forms of learning, his work
to be effective and permanent
focused on verbal learning. He dealt with the nature of
meaning, and believes the external world acquires meaning
David Ausbel
only as it is converted into the content of consciousness by the
learner. Ausabel broke down the process of learning to three
steps: what will the person learn, what the person wants to learn, and what did the person learn?
He made the following difference between meaningful learning and rote learning
Meaningful Learning
Relatable to what one already knows so
it can be easily integrated in ones existing
cognitive structure.
i.
Rote learning
When one encounters completely new unfamiliar material,
then rote learning, as opposed to meaningful learning, takes
place. This rote learning may eventually contribute to the
construction of a new cognitive structure which can later be
used in meaningful learning.
Ausbels Meaningful Learning:
Meaningful learning takes place when an idea to be learned is related in some sensible way to
ideas that the learner already possess. Ausbel believed that before new materials can be presented
effectively, the students cognitive structure should be strengthened.
According to meaningful learning:
Concerned with how students learn large amounts of meaningful material from
verbal/textual presentations in a learning activities.
Meaningful learning results when new information is acquired by linking the new
information in the learners own cognitive structure
Learning is based on the representational, superordinate and combinatorial processes that
occur during the reception of information.
A primary process in learning is subsumption in which new material is related to relevant
ideas in the existing cognitive structure on a non-verbatim basis (previous knowledge)
Meaning is created through some form of representational equivalence between language

(symbols) and mental context. Two processes are involved:
1. Reception, which is employed in meaningful verbal learning, and

2. Discovery, which is involved in concept formation and problem solving.
20
Ausubel's work has frequently been compared with Bruner's. The two held similar views about
the hierarchical nature of knowledge, but Bruner was strongly oriented toward discovery
processes, where Ausubel gave more emphasis to the verbal learning methods of speech, reading
and writing.
ii.
Ausbels Subsmuption Theory:
To subsume is to incorporate new material

into one's cognitive structures. From
Ausubel's perspective, this is the meaning of
learning. When information is subsumed into
the learner's cognitive structure it is
organized hierarchically. New material can
be subsumed in two different ways, and for
both of these, no meaningful learning takes
place unless a stable cognitive structure
exists. This existing structure provides a
framework into which the new learning is
related, hierarchically, to the previous
information or concepts in the individual's
Purpose of Subsmuption Theory:
Teachers are encouraged to teach prior

knowledge first rather than new information
to help information subsume:
iii.
Helps introduce a new lesson, unit, or course

Helps summarize major ideas in new lesson or unit.
Based on students prior knowledge.
Show similarities between old material and new material.
Allows student to transfer or apply knowledge.
Provides for structure for new information.
Helps teach complex material that is similar to information learned previously.
The processes of meaningful learning:
Ausubel proposed four processes by which meaningful learning occur:
Derivative Subsumption
Correlative Subsumption
Superordinate Learning
Combinatorial Learning
21
Derivative Subsumption
Describes the situation in which the new information pupils learn is an instance or example of a
concept that pupils have already learned.
Example:
Suppose I have acquired a basic concept such as

tree trunk, branches, green leaves, and may
have some kind of fruit.
Now, I learn about a kind of tree that I have

never learn before persimmon tree conforms
to my previous understanding of tree.
My new knowledge of persimmon trees is

attached to my concept of tree, without
substantially altering that concept in any way.
So, I had learned about the persimmon trees through the

process of derivative subsumption.
Correlative Subsumption
New material is
an extension or
elaboration of
what is already
known.
More valuable learning than that of derivative

subsumption, since it enriches the higher-level
concept.
Example:
Suppose I encounter a new kind of tree that

has red leaves, rather than green.
In order to accommodate this new

information, I have to alter or extend my
concept of tree to include the possibility of
red leaves.
I have learned about this new kind of tree through the process of correlative
subsumption.
In a sense, you might say that this is more valuable learning than of derivative
subsumption, since it enriches the higher-level concept.
22
Superordinate Learning
In this case, you already knew a lot of examples of

the concept, but you did not know the concept
until it was taught to pupils.
Example
Imagine that I was well acquainted with

maples, oaks, apple trees, etc., but I did
not know, until I was taught, that these
were all examples of deciduous trees.
In this case, I already knew a lot of
examples of the concept, but I did not
know the concept itself until it was taught
to me.
This is superordinate learning.
Combinatorial Learning
It describes a process by which the new idea is

derived from another idea that is comes from his
previous knowledge (in a different, but related,
branch). Students could think of this as learning
by analogy.
Examples:
Now, suppose I learn about how fish eggs

are fertilized.
I might relate it to previously acquired
knowledge about pollination n in plants.
Both of the ideas are different, but it is
related to the process of breeding.
You could think of this as learning by analogy.
An individual is able to give a lot of

examples of the concept but does not know
the concept itself until it is taught.
Combinatorial learning is different; it

describes a process by which the new idea is
derived from another idea that is neither
higher nor lower in the hierarchy, but at the
same level.
23
Allows student to already have a birds view at to see the big picture of the topic to be
learned even before going to the details.
---Advanced Organizers
Information can be moved in
the hierarchy, or linked to other
concepts or information to
create new interpretation or
meaning. From this type of
subsumption, completely new
concepts can emerge, and
previous concepts can be
changed or expanded to include
more of the previously existing
information. This is "figuring
out".
Ausubel is a proponent of
didactic, expository teaching
Meaningful and Rote Learning
methods.
From
this
perspective,
expository
(verbal) learning approaches encourage rapid learning and retention, whereas discovery learning
(Bruner) facilitates transfer to other contexts.
iv.
Advanced Organizers:
Ausubel contributed much to the theoretical body of cognitive learning theory, but not as much
to the practical classroom aspects as Bruner and others. Ausubel's most notable contribution for
classroom application was the advance organizer.
The advance organizer is a tool or a mental learning aid
to help students `integrate new information with their
existing knowledge, leading to "meaningful learning" as
opposed to rote memorization. It is a means of
preparing the learner's cognitive structure for the
learning experience about to take place. It is a device to
activate the relevant schema or conceptual patterns so
that new information can be more readily `subsumed'
into the learner's existing cognitive structures.
They
are
part
of
Ausubel's
subsumption theory that "contends
that
meaningful
learning
and
permanent retention of material is a
function of the stability of existing
anchoring ideas"
(Applin).
Advance Organizers classification:
Advance organizer is classified into following two types:

i.
Expository
ii.
Comparative
24
Expository:
Ausubel believed that it was important for teachers to

provide a preview of information to be learned.
Teachers could do this by providing a brief
introduction about the way that information that is
going to be presented is structured. This would enable
students to start with a "Big Picture" of the upcoming
content, and link new ideas, concepts, vocabulary, to
existing mental maps of the content area.
Example:
The teacher discusses the process of the

absorption of water and minerals into the
plants through the tap and fibrous root
system.
Comparative
This type of comparative method is useful when the

knowledge to be presented is new to learner. Teacher
should compares new material with knowledge
already known by emphasizing the similarities
between two types of material and showing the
information that is to be learnt. Ausubels teaching
approach is deductive in nature.
Example
A teacher shows the similarities and differences
among two major root system, the tap root
and the fibrous root system.
Iv. Advance organizers should:
Summary
For Ausubel, meaningful learning
is a process that related new
information relevant to the
concepts contained in a persons
In order to be meaningful to
students learning, then learning
should be linked and relevant to
students cognitive structures.
Relevance to students cognitive
structures can happen when we
pay attention to early knowledge
of the concepts that preceded
the concept to be learned.
It is important for students to
construct knowledge through
learning.
The essential theory of meaningful
learning is a teaching which
Ausubel enables students can
associate the beginning of
knowledge with new knowledge
that will learn and how teachers
can facilitate learning by
preparing the facility as a
presentation of the subject matter
which allows students to build
knowledge in discovery learning
activities.
Have a short set of verbal and visual

information
Be present prior to learning of a larger body
of to-be learned information
Contain no specific content from the to-be-learned information
Means of generating logical relationships among elements of new information,
Influence learners encoding process:
Provide a new general organization as an assimilative context
25
Activate a general organization from learners existing knowledge that would not have
normally been used to assimilate the new material
Conclusion
Ausubels theory is concerned with how individuals learn large amounts of meaningful
material from verbal/ textual (lecture/ books) presentations in a school setting as opposed
to theories developed based on experimental settings.
Therefore, learning is based upon the kinds of superordinate, representational, and
combinatorial processes that occur during the presentation of information
Chart for Understanding Ausbel's theory
26
Taxonomy is an arrangement of ideas or a way to group things together
4.2 Blooms Taxonomy:

"Taxonomy simply means classification, so the well-known taxonomy of learning
objectives is an attempt (within the behavioral paradigm) to classify forms and levels of
learning.
Bloom's Taxonomy was created in 1956 under the leadership of educational psychologist
Dr Benjamin Bloom in order to promote higher forms of thinking in education, such as
analyzing and evaluating concepts, processes, procedures, and principles, rather than just
remembering facts (rote learning). It is most often used when designing instruction or
learning processes
i.
Benjamin S. Bloom:
The cognitive processes involved in

learning
Benjamin S. Bloom was born into the tumultuous time period

of World War I. Yet, his early life was shaped in many ways
by the typical Eastern American experience. Born on Februray
21, 1913, Bloom grew up in Lansford Pennsylvania. He was a
small and unassuming man with a sharp wit and a deep desire
to learn.
He attended Penn State University and later earned a PhD
from the University of Chicago. At the time he developed his
famous taxonomy, the United States was at the forefront of
educational theory. From John Deweys Progressive school to
Bloom
the boom in Information Processing Theory to Skinners
science of Behaviorism, the U.S. paved the way in educational theory. As a Board
Examiner from 1943 to 1959, Bloom developed his famous Blooms Taxonomy. Unlike
other theorists, his grew out of a pragmatic need to re-tool the assessment of students.
Indeed, Benjamin Bloom was one of the first theorists to advocate the absolution of
norm-referenced tests.
To him, all learning must be individualized and criterion-referenced. Eventually, on their

own, students would reach the same level. Bloom had an affinity for science and
statistics, which enabled him to classify information quickly. Those who knew him would
often remark on his messy office, filled with books, notes, scribbles of information and
statistical research. To him, one of his greatest victories was the creation of the Head
Start Program.
27
ii.
The Three Domains of Learning
The three domains of educational activities or learning (Bloom, 1956) are:
Cognitive: mental skills (knowledge)

Affective: growth in feelings or emotional areas ( attitude, values or self)
Psychomotor: manual or physical skills (involves development of the body and
skills it performs)
a. Domain Taxonomies:
Taxonomy classifies information into a hierarchy of levels. Domain
taxonomies reveal that what educators want students to accomplish
(expressed by educational objectives) can be arranged into levels of
complexity, and that those levels are best fulfilled sequentially.
Example: The food guide pyramid is taxonomy of levels based on
number of servings, or relative contribution of a particular food
group to total food intake.
b. Cognitive Domain:
The most-used of the domains, refers to knowledge structures (although sheer knowing
the facts is its bottom level). It can be viewed as a sequence of progressive
contextualization of the material. (Based on Bloom, 1956)
The cognitive domain involves the learning and application of knowledge. The
taxonomy contains six levels that can be remembered by the following mnemonic
device:
Knowledge
Comprehension
Application
Analysis
Synthesis
Evaluation
Kickball
Can
Almost
Always
Seem
Enjoyable
28
The mind is not a vessel to be filled, but a fire to be ignited. (Plutarch)

iii.
Cognitive Domain Levels

Table of the Cognitive Domain (original)
Level
Description
Verbs
Objective
Example, Key Words (verbs), and

Technologies for Learning
(activities)
Knowledge
Student recalls or
recognizes information,
ideas, and principles in
the approximate form
in which they were
learned
Define
Write
List
Label
Name
State
Define 6 levels
of cognitive
domain.
Examples: Recite a policy. Quote prices

from memory to a customer. Know the
safety rules. Define a term.
Technologies: bookmarking, flash
cards, Internet search, reading
To understand
meaning of
information based on
prior learning.
Describe
Explain
Interpret
Paraphrase
Summaries
Illustrate
Explain
purpose of
cognitive
domain.
Application
To utilize information
to complete a task with
limited direction.
Compute
Solve
Use
Demonstrate
Apply
Construct
Write
objective for
levels of
cognitive
domain.
Analysis
To distinguishes,
classifies, and relates
the assumptions,
hypotheses, evidence,
or structure of a
statement or question.
Analyze
Categorize
Compare
Contrast
Separate
Compare
cognitive &
affective
domains.
Synthesis
To integrate or
combine ideas into a
new product or plan.
Design
Develop
Organize
Design way to
write
objectives that
combines 3
domains.
Appraise
Judge
Justify
Judge
effectiveness of
writing
objectives
using
taxonomy.
Comprehension
Evaluation
Critique idea based on

specific standards and
criteria.
Examples: Rewrites the principles of

test writing. Explain in one's own
words the steps for performing a
complex task. Translates an equation
into a computer spreadsheet.
Technologies: create an analogy,
participating in cooperative learning,
taking notes, story telling
Examples: Use a manual to calculate an
employee's vacation time. Apply laws
of statistics to evaluate the reliability of
a written test.
Technologies: collaborative learning,
create a process, material good, etc.),
blog, practice
Examples: Troubleshoot a piece of
equipment by using logical deduction.
Recognize logical fallacies in
reasoning. Gathers information from a
department and selects the required
tasks for training.
Technologies: fishbowls, debating,
questioning what happened, run a test
Examples: Write a company operations
or process manual. Design a machine to
perform a specific task. Integrates
training from several sources to solve a
problem. Revises and process to
improve the outcome.
Technologies: essay, networking
Examples: Select the most effective
solution. Hire the most qualified
candidate. Explain and justify a new
budget.
Technologies: survey, blogging
29
iv.
Bloom's Revised Taxonomy:
The model above is included because it is still common currency,

but Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) have made some apparently
minor but actually significant modifications, perhaps the three
most prominent ones being (Anderson, Krathwohl, Airasian,
Cruikshank, Mayer, Pintrich, Raths, Wittrock, 2000), to
come up with
changing the names in the six categories from noun

to verb forms
rearranging them as shown in the chart below
creating a processes and levels of knowledge matrix
This new taxonomy reflects a more active form of thinking

and is perhaps more accurate:
Table of the Revised Cognitive Domain
Category
Remembering: Recall or retrieve
previous learned information.
Understanding: Comprehending the
meaning, translation, interpolation, and
interpretation of instructions and
problems. State a problem in one's own
words.
Applying: Use a concept in a new
situation or unprompted use of an
abstraction. Applies what was learned in
the classroom into novel situations in
the work place.
Analyzing: Separates material or
concepts into component parts so that
its organizational structure may be
understood. Distinguishes between facts
and inferences.
Evaluating: Make judgments about the
value of ideas or materials.
Creating: Builds a structure or pattern

from diverse elements. Put parts
together to form a whole, with
emphasis on creating a new meaning or
structure.
Example and Key Words (verbs)

Examples: Recite a policy. Quote prices from memory to a customer. Knows the safety
rules.
Key Words: defines, describes, identifies, knows, labels, lists, matches, names, outlines,
recalls, recognizes, reproduces, selects, states.
Examples: Rewrites the principles of test writing. Explain in one's own words the steps
for performing a complex task. Translates an equation into a computer spreadsheet.
Key Words: Comprehends converts, defends, distinguishes, estimates, explains, extends,
generalizes, gives an example, infers, interprets, paraphrases, predicts, rewrites,
summarizes, and translates.
Examples: Use a manual to calculate an employee's vacation time. Apply laws of
statistics to evaluate the reliability of a written test.
Key Words: applies, changes, computes, constructs, demonstrates, discovers,
manipulates, modifies, operates, predicts, prepares, produces, relates, shows, solves,
uses.
Examples: Troubleshoot a piece of equipment by using logical deduction. Recognize
logical fallacies in reasoning. Gathers information from a department and selects the
required tasks for training.
Key Words: analyzes, breaks down, compares, contrasts, diagrams, deconstructs,
differentiates, discriminates, distinguishes, identifies, illustrates, infers, outlines, relates,
selects, separates.
Examples: Select the most effective solution. Hire the most qualified candidate. Explain
and justify a new budget.
Key Words: appraises, compares, concludes, contrasts, criticizes, critiques, defends,
describes, discriminates, evaluates, explains, interprets, justifies, relates, summarizes,
supports.
Examples: Write a company operations or process manual. Design a machine to perform
a specific task. Integrates training from several sources to solve a problem. Revises and
process to improve the outcome.
Key Words: categorizes, combines, compiles, composes, creates, devises, designs,
explains, generates, modifies, organizes, plans, rearranges, reconstructs, relates,
reorganizes, revises, rewrites, summarizes, tells, writes.
30
v.
Cognitive Domain Levels
Research over the last 40 years has confirmed the taxonomy as a hierarchy, with the
exception of the last two levels. It is uncertain whether synthesis and evaluation should
be reversed, or whether synthesis and evaluation are at the same level of difficulty, but
use different cognitive processes.
Creative Thinking
vi.
Critical Thinking
Affective Domain
The affective domain addresses the acquisition of attitudes and values. The taxonomy
contains five levels that can be remembered by the following
mnemonic device:
Receiving
Responding
Valuing
Organization
Characterization
Regular
Rude
Vices
Offend
Christ
a. Affective Domain Levels

Level
Description
Verbs
Receiving
Being aware of, or attending to

something in the environment.
Responding
Showing some new behavior as a

result of experience.
Valuing
Showing some definite

involvement or commitment.
Carry out Express
Attend optional badminton match.
Organization
Integrating a new value into one's

general set of values relative to
other priorities.
Choose
Consider Prefer
Purchase own badminton racket.
Listen
Notice
Tolerate
Comply Enjoy
Follow
Objective
Listen attentively to badminton
introduction.
Voluntarily help set up badminton
nets.
31
Level
Description
Verbs
Objective
Characterization
Acting consistently with the new

value; person is known by the
value.
Act on Depict
Exemplify
Join intramurals to play badminton

twice per week.
vii.
Psychomotor Domain
The psychomotor domain involves development of the body and skills it performs. The
taxonomy contains seven levels that can be remembered by the following mnemonic
device:
Perceiving
Patterning
Premium
Pandas
Accommodating
Refining
Varying
Improvising
Composing
Acquire
Rare
Value
In
China
Psychomotor Domain Levels

Level
Perceiving
Patterning
Accommodating
Refining
Description
Recognizing movement
position or pattern.
Reproducing movement
position or pattern.
Using or modifying
movement position or
pattern.
Demonstrating efficient
control in performing
pattern.
Verbs
Listen Observe
Imitate Practice
Objective
Discover headstand movement
principles.
Perform headstand following
modeling.
Adjust Modify
Use headstand in routine.
Improve
Master
Perform headstand with

pointed toes.
Varying
Performing movement
pattern in different ways.
Design Develop
Perform headstand in three

positions.
Improvising
Originating novel
movement or movement
combinations.
Construct
Invent
Combine headstand with new

skill.
32
Level
Description
Verbs
Objective
Composing
Creating unique movement

pattern.
Create Invent
Create floor exercise routine.
4.3 Comparison and Analysis of Blooms Taxonomy and Meaningful

Learning
Dr Benjamin Bloom in order to promote higher
forms of thinking in education, such as analyzing
and evaluating concepts, processes, procedures,
and principles, rather than just remembering facts
(rote learning). It is most often used when
designing instruction or learning processes
Taxonomy = Classification
Classification of thinking =
Six cognitive levels of
complexity
Blooms taxonomy may be
depicted as a set of stairs
that students climb from
one level to the next
Taxonomy of educational objectives could do

much to bring order out of chaos in the field of
education.
It could furnish the conceptual
framework around which our descriptions of educational programs and experiences
could be oriented. It could furnish a framework for the development of educational
theories and research. It could furnish the scheme needed for training our teachers and
for orienting them to the varied possibilities of education (Bloom, 1949)
As for as David Ausubel is concerned he was a cognitive learning theorist who focused on
the learning of school subjects and who placed considerable interest on what the student
already knows as being the primary determiner of whether and what he/she learns next.
Ausubel viewed learning as an active process, not simply responding to your
environment. Learners seek to make sense of their surroundings by integrating new
knowledge with that which they have already learned.
The key concept for Ausubel is the cognitive structure. He sees this as the sum of all the
knowledge we have acquired as well as the relationships among the facts, concepts and
principles that make up that knowledge.
To him all learning happens the same way by being compared and contrasted with prior
knowledge that exists in a person's cognitive structure. If a person has relevant content in
his or her existing cognitive structure to which the new information can be related, then
33
the learning can be meaningful. Likewise if the person does not have relevant content in
his or her cognitive structure, then the new information can only be learned in a rote
manner.
4.5 Similarities and Differences of Blooms Taxonomy and Ausbels

Meaningful Learning
Blooms Taxonomy
Dealt with classification of forms and levels of
learning.
Ausbels Meaningful Learning

Dealt with the nature of meaning
The primary process in learning is that new

information is related to relevant knowledge that
is already existing in an individuals cognitive
structure
Concerned with how to classify forms and Concerned with how individuals learn large
levels of learning.
amounts of meaningful material.
The process by which taxonomy classifies
The process by which new knowledge is changed
information into a hierarchy of levels.
/ modified / merged in our minds to fit into what
It is classification of thinking organized by levels we already know
of complexity
Bloom broke down the process of classification Ausabel broke down the process of learning to
of learning into following three domain:
three steps: what will the person learn, what the
person wants to learn, and what did the person
Cognitive: mental skills (knowledge) learn? The more emphasis is on the verbal
learning methods of speech, reading and writing
Affective: growth in feelings or

emotional areas (attitude, values or
self)
Psychomotor: manual or physical

skills (involves development of the
body and skills it performs)
Blooms taxonomy relate to learning of the
Ausbels theory related to the existence of specific
learner do not know
prerequisite knowledge in their cognitive
structures
The learner learned to recall, restate or
The learners considerable interest on what the
remember learned information
student already knows as being the primary
determiner of whether and what he/she learns
next.
To promote higher forms of thinking in education,
such as analyzing and evaluating concepts,
processes, procedures, and principles
34
Language is the key to knowledge

5. Bruners Theory of Learning
5.1 Cognitive Development:
Bruner was influenced by Piaget's ideas about
cognitive development in children.
During the 1940's his early work focused on
the impact of needs, motivations, &
expectations (mental sets) and their
influence on perception.
He also looked at the role of strategies in the
process of human categorization, and
development of human cognition. He
presented the point of view that children are
active problem-solvers and capable of
exploring difficult subjects.
About Jerome Bruner:
Bruner believed that children have an innate

capacity that helps them make sense of the
work and that cognitive abilities develop
through active interaction. His focus was on
the
development
of
conceptual
understanding, cognitive skills and learning
strategies rather than the acquisition of
knowledge. Bruner argued that social factors,
particularly language, were important for
cognitive growth. These underpin the concept
of scaffolding.
Bruner was also concerned with how

knowledge is represented and organized
through different modes of representation
1915: Born in NYC

Learning theorist
In WW2 worked for U.S. Army
intelligence reviewing the
effectiveness of propaganda.
1947 : Ph. D. , Psychology from
Harvard
Positions on faculties of Harvard,
Oxford, and currently NYU
Associated with the Constructivist
view of learning
Originated Discovery method of
learning
Founded Center for Cognitive
studies with Leo Postman
rooted mainly in the study of
cognition
Reacted against behaviorist model
of learning
founded New Look movement in
psychology
Change from behaviorist model
5.2 Modes of Representation:

Bruner suggested that different ways of thinking (or representation) are important at
different ages.
He said that knowledge and understanding can take 3 different forms:
35
1. The enactive mode (used in 1st 18 months)

2. The iconic mode (develops from 18 months)
3. The symbolic mode (6-7 years onwards)
Learners create
their own
subjective
constructs of reality
---Bruner
1. The enactive mode (used in 1st 18 months):

In the first stage the first kind of memory is called enactive when a person
learns about the world through actions on physical objects and the
outcomes of these actions. This mode is used within the first 18 months of
life. A baby represents world through actions (corresponding with Piagets
sensorimotor stage). The infant stores information in the form of muscle
memories: remembering the feel of actions. baby may carry on shaking
arm even if you take rattle away thought arm movement made the noise!
Thinking is based entirely on physical actions. Infants learn by doing,
rather than by internal representation (or thinking). This mode continues
later in many physical activities, such as learning to ride a bike. They
become automatic through repetition. Like Piaget, Bruner sees onset of
object permanence = amajor qualitative change in way child thinks.
2. The iconic mode (develops from 18 months):
The second stage was called "Iconic" where learning can be obtained
through using models and pictures. Information is stored as sensory
images: usually visual ones, like pictures in the mind. Mode begins to
develop from 18 months. Some children develop an extreme form of
this known as eidetic imagery (photographic memory), but they usually
lose it as they grow older.
Thinking is based on the use of mental images (icons), which may be
based on sight, hearing, smell or touch. Baby can represent rattle as
a visual image so it is now an independent thing = object
permanence childs thinking is dominated by images -things are as
they look in this mode.
3. The symbolic mode (6-7 years onwards)
Im in Im in iconic
mode leave my
rattle alone!
The final stage was "Symbolic" in which the learner develops the capacity to think in
abstract terms. In this stage child has the ability to store things in the form of symbols.
Words are powerful symbols and we can store a lot of information as verbal memory.
This mode is acquired around six to seven years-old (corresponding to Piagets operation
stage). Representation of the world is principally through language, but also other
36
Language starts to influence thought

symbolic systems such as number and music. Children began to use symbols to represent
people, things, etc. They have the ability to think and talk about things in abstract terms.
They can better understand mathematical principles and use symbolic idioms.
Information can now be categorized and summarized, can be more readily manipulated.
i.
Social Learning
Bruner argued that aspects of cognitive performance are facilitated by language. He also
mentioned that the setting is very important in the acquisition of language.
The earliest social setting is the mother-child dyad, where children work out the
meanings of utterances to which they are repeatedly exposed. Bruner identified several
important social devices including joint attention, mutual gaze, and turn-taking
a. Cultural Learning:
Bruner adopted the point of view that culture shapes the mind and
provides the raw material with which we constrict our world and our
self-conception. He explained this in his book The Culture of
Education by suggesting that people from different cultures make sense
of their experiences in different ways because of the differences in the
society in which they live.
e.g. Categorizations structures for birds may be different in UK and Africa
b. The Process of Education:
In 1960 Bruner published The Process of Education. This was a landmark book which led
to much experimentation and a broad range of educational programs
c. The organization of knowledge:
Thinking based on categorization (similarities and differences - system of coding to store
info). Hierarchy -general at top getting more specific e.g classification of animals
d. Four Key themes
Four Key themes emerged in Bruner's early work:
Bruner emphasized the role of structure in learning and how it may be made
central in teaching. Structure refers to relationships among factual elements and
techniques.
Readiness for learning. Bruner believed that any subject could be taught at any
stage of development in a way that fit the child's cognitive abilities.
37
Spiral curriculum. Refers to the idea of revisiting basic ideas over and over,
building upon them and elaborating to the level of full understanding and
mastery.
Intuitive and analytical thinking. Bruner believed that intuitive and analytical
thinking should both be encouraged and rewarded.
e. Effective Instruction Theory:

1. Predisposition to learn/Personalized:
Instruction should relate to learners' predisposition, and facilitate interest toward
learning.
2. Content Structure:
Content should be structured so it can be most easily grasped by the learner.
3. Sequencing:
Sequencing is an important aspect for presentation of material (visual, words, symbols).
4. Reinforcement:
Rewards and punishment should be selected and paced appropriately.
ii.
Constructivist Theory:
Bruner was one of the founding fathers of constructivist theory. Bruner's theoretical
framework is based on the theme that learners construct new ideas or concepts based
upon existing knowledge. Learning is an active process. Facets of the process include:
selection and transformation of information, making decision, generating hypotheses,
and making meaning from information and
experiences.
a. Categorization:
Bruner's theories emphasize the significance of
categorization in learning. "To perceive is to categorize,
to conceptualize is to categorize, to learn is to form
categories, to make decisions is to categorize."
Interpreting information and experiences by similarities
and differences is a key concept.
Categorization is the
process in which ideas
and objects
are recognized, different
iated and understood.
To form a category is necessary follow four rules to specify an object:

38
1.
2.
3.
4.
Criterial attributes - required characteristics for inclusion of an object in a category.

The second rule prescribes how the criteral attributes are combined.
The third rule assignees weight to various properties.
The fourth rule sets acceptance limits on attributes.
b. Modes of Thought:
Bruner also suggested that there are two primary modes of thought:
1. The narrative (intuitive) mode:
2. The paradigmatic (analytic) mode:
1. The narrative (intuitive) mode:
The mind engages in sequential, action-oriented, detail-driven thought. Based on logic,
traditional type of thinking emphasized in schools, leads to construction of categories and
hierarchies
2. The paradigmatic (analytic) mode:
The mind transcends particularities to achieve systematic, categorical cognition. More
interpretive, complex and rich phenomena of life better represented in stories or
narratives (Lieblich et al 1998)
iii.
Scaffolding
Scaffolding is a temporary support structure around that childs attempts to understand

new ideas and complete new tasks as the child is able to work more independently.
Bruner and colleagues Wood et al (1976) first to introduce the term Scaffolding to
describe the Vygotskian idea of helping children through the ZPD.
a. Scaffolding Purposes
The purpose of the support is to allow the child to achieve higher levels of development
by:
o Simplifying the task or idea
o Motivating and encouraging the child
Highlighting important task elements or errors

Giving models that can be imitated.
39
Cognitive development depends on social/cultural/ linguistic factors
5.3 Vygotskys Socio cultural

Theory:
i. Socio cultural theory states that:
Cognitive
development
occurs
in
a
sociocultural context that influences the form
it takes. Most of a childs cognitive skills
evolve from social interactions with parents,
teachers, and other more competent
associates.
Theorys Principles and Concepts
Children construct their knowledge.
Knowledge is not transferred passively, but is
personally constructed.
The learning is mediated.
Cognitive development is not a direct result
of activity, but it is indirect; other people
must interact with the learner, use mediatory
tools to facilitate the learning process, and
then cognitive development may occur.
Language plays a central role in mental
development.
The most significant sociocultural tool is
language, as it is used to teach tool use and is
vital in the process of developing higher
psychological functions.
According to Vygotsky: Thought and
language eventually emerge. A childs
nonsocial utterances, which he termed private
speech, illustrate the transition from
paralinguistic to verbal reasoning
Lev Semonovich Vygotsky

Background
Vygotsky was called "The Mozart
of Psychology.
He was born in 1896- same year
as Piaget - in the small Russian
town of Orsha.
Middle-class Jewish family.
He entered into a private all
boys secondary school known
as a gymnasiuma secondary
school that prepared students
for the university.
In 1913 entered Moscow
University through lottery.
In December of 1917, he
graduated from Moscow
University with a degree in law.
Vygotsky completed 270
scientific articles, numerous
lectures, and ten books based
on a wide range of Marxistbased psychological and
teaching theories.
He died on June 10, 1934, at the
young age of thirty-seven after
long battle with TB.
Vygotskys work did not
become known in the West until
1958, and was not published
there until 1962.
40
Private speech plays a major role in cognitive development by serving as a cognitive

self-guidance system, allowing children to become more organized and good problem
solvers
As individuals develop, private speech becomes inner speech.
Learning appears twice.
First on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first between people
(interpsychology), and then inside the child (intrapsychology). This applies equally to
voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher
functions originate as actual relationships between individuals.
Development cannot be separated from its social context.
The context needed for learning is that where the learners can interact with each other
and use the new tools. This means that the learning environment must be authentic, that
is, it must contain the type of people who would use these types of tools such as
concepts, language, symbols in a natural way.
Ii
i. Social Plane:
Where development first takes place
Child: observes, listens, and tries to imitate
Parent: guides, makes corrections, provides challenges
Internal Plane:
As the child becomes more competent, information becomes internalized.

Example: learning language
Tools of intellectual adaptation in Culture Setting
Vygotsky (1930-1935/1978) proposed that infants are born with a few elementary mental
functions attention, sensation, perception and memory that are eventually
transformed by the culture into new and more sophisticated mental processes he called
higher mental functions.
Example: Young childrens early memory capabilities are limited by biological constraints
to the images and impressions they can produce. However, each culture provides its
children with tools of intellectual adaptation, which is Vygotskys term for methods of
thinking and problem-solving strategies that children internalize from their interactions
with more competent members of society.
41
The role of culture in intellectual development:

Vygotsky proposed that we should evaluate human development from four interrelated
perspectives:
Microgenetic-changes that occur over brief periods of time-minutes and seconds

Ontogenetic-development over a lifetime
Phylogenetic-development over evolutionary time
Sociohistorical- changes that have occurred in one's culture and the values, norms and
technologies such a history has generated
Culture can act as:

guide (e.g., to what can be done)
prompt (to do something)
model (for what should be done)
explanation (for why something is done)
encouragement (to do something)
Culture scaffolds development
The Social Origins of Early Cognitive Competencies:
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD):

The difference between what a child can do
independently and what the child needs help from a
more knowledgeable person to do is the ZPD. Range of
tasks that are too complex to be mastered alone but can
be accomplished with guidance and encouragement from
a more skillful partner
Scaffolding:
Role of teachers and others
A knowledgeable participant can create by means
in supporting the learners
of speech and supportive conditions in which the
development and providing
student (novice) can participate in and extend
support structures to get to
current skills and knowledge to a high level of
the next stage or level
competence.
---Vygotsky.
In an educational context, however, scaffolding is
an instructional structure whereby the teacher
models the desired learning strategy or task then gradually shifts responsibility
to the students.
In general Scaffolding:
42
Provides support
Extends the range of what a learner can do.
Allows the learner to accomplish tasks otherwise impossible
Used only when needed
Example:
An example of scaffolding in the classroom setting could include a teacher first instructing
her children on how to write a sentence using commas and conjunctions. As the week
goes on, she has her students practice writing these sentences with peers, gives students
feedback and eventually has the kids to complete this skill without her guidance.
Vygotsky agreed with Piaget that young children are curious explorers who are actively
involved in learning and discovering new principles. However, unlike Piaget, Vygotsky
believed that many of the truly important discoveries that children make are the result of
dialogues that occur between a skillful tutor who models the activity and transmits verbal
instruction and a novice learner who seeks to understand the tutors instruction.
Apprenticeship in Thinking and Guided Participation:
Guided participation, adult-child interactions in which childrens cognitions and modes of

thinking are shaped as they participate with or observe adults engaged in culturally
relevant activities. Our culture is one that uses what Vygotsky termed contextindependent learning
In many cultures, children do not learn by going to school with other children,
nor do their parents formally teach such lessons as weaving and hunting, instead
they learn through guided participation. This is a kind of apprenticeship in
thinking.
Context-independent learning is asking children question that adults already know
the answers to, learning and discussing things that have no immediate relevanceknowledge for knowledges sake.
The idea of an apprenticeship or guided participation may seem reasonable in cultures
where children are integrated early into the daily activities of adult life, such as the
agrarian Mayans of Guatemala and Mexico, or the !Kung of Africa whose hunting-andgathering lifestyle has remained virtually unchanged for thousands of years
43
Implications for Education:

Children are seen as active participants in their education. Teachers in Vygotskys
classroom would favor guided participation in which they:
Structure the learning activity

Provide helpful hints or instructions that are
Carefully tailored to the childs current abilities:
Monitor the learners progress

Gradually turning over more of the mental activity to their pupils
Promote cooperative learning exercises
5.4 Comparison and Analysis of Vygotsky and Bruner
Vygotsky:
A clear application of sociocultural theory
Sociocultural theory of Vygotsky considers
principles in second language classroom is
learning as a semiotic process where
obvious in the task-based approach. This
approach emphasizes the importance of
participation in socially-mediated activities is
social and collaborative aspects of learning.
essential. The theory regards instruction as
sociocultural theory focuses on how the
crucial to cognitive development in the
learner accomplishes a task and how the
classroom. Instruction should be geared to the
interaction between learners can scaffold
and assist in the second language acquisition
ZPD that is beyond the learners actual
process (Turuk, 2008).
development level. Social instruction actually
produces
new,
elaborate,
advanced
psychological processes that are unavailable to the organism working in isolation
Bruner:
Children as they grow must acquire a way of
representing the "recurrent regularities" in their
environment. So, to Bruner, important outcomes of
learning include not just the concepts, categories, and
problem-solving procedures invented previously by the
culture, but also the ability to "invent" these things for
oneself.
The outcome of cognitive

development is thinking. The
intelligent mind creates from
experience "generic coding
systems that permit one to go
beyond the data to new and
possibly fruitful predictions"
(Bruner, 1957, p. 234).
44
For Bruner (1961), the purpose of education is not to impart knowledge, but instead to
facilitate a child's thinking and problem solving skills which can then be transferred to a
range of situations. Specifically, education should also develop symbolic thinking in
children.
Cognitive growth involves an interaction between basic human capabilities and
"culturally invented technologies that serve as amplifiers of these capabilities." These
culturally invented technologies include not just obvious things such as computers and
television, but also more abstract notions such as the way a culture categorizes
phenomena, and language itself. Bruner would likely agree with Vygotsky that language
serves to mediate between environmental stimuli and the individual's response.
Strengths and Limitations of Bruners Theory
Limitations - not concerned with infant development as much as Piaget and Vygotsky
so not a lifespan theory of Cog Dev - more a general approach to learning Paradigmatic
and Narrative thinking difficult to test and so theory cant be demonstrated to be true
Strengths - Focus on Education have had a profound effect on education
5.5 Similarities and Differences of Bruner and Vygotsky
Similarities
Bruner
Vygotsky
Stresses role of
Stresses role of
language &
language &
interpersonal
interpersonal
communication
communication
Emphasizes need
Emphasizes need
for active
for active
involvement by
involvement by
experts
experts
Introduce the term
Scaffolding
helP children
through
the ZPD
Introduce the
idea of Scaffolding
helping children
through
the ZPD
Bruner emphasize
a child's
environment,
especially the social
environment
Vygotsky
emphasize a child's
environment,
especially the
social environment
Differences
Bruner
Vygotsky
Development occurs through

in relative
social vacuum
Development occurs through

Social interaction.
Not concerned with infant

development
Concerned with infant

development
Bruner argued that aspects of

cognitive performance are
facilitated by language. He
also mentioned that the setting
is very important in the
acquisition of language
Cognitive development occurs

in a sociocultural context that
influences the form it takes.
Most of a childs cognitive skills
evolve from social interactions
with parents, teachers, and
other more competent
associates.
Vygotsky believed that infants
are born with a few elementary
mental functions attention,
sensation, perception and
memory that are eventually
Bruner believed that children

have an innate capacity that
helps them make sense of the
work and that cognitive
abilities develop through
45
Similarities
Differences
Bruner
Vygotsky
Adults should play

an active role in
assisting the child's
learning
Adults should play

an active role in
assisting the child's
learning
Emphasized the
social nature of
learning, citing that
other people
should help a child
develop skills
through the
process of
scaffolding
Emphasized the
social nature of
learning, citing
that other people
should help a child
develop skills
through the
process of
scaffolding
Bruner
active interaction.
Bruner was concerned with

how knowledge is represented
and organized through
different modes of
representation
Vygotsky
transformed by the culture into
new and more sophisticated
mental processes he called
higher mental functions
Vygotsky was concerned with

guided participation, adult-child
interactions in which childrens
cognitions and modes of
thinking are shaped as they
participate with or observe
adults engaged in culturally
relevant activities. Our culture is
one that uses what Vygotsky
termed context-independent
learning
46
The childs cognitive structure increased with development (Brainerd, 1978).
6.Piagets Theory of Cognitive Development

Swiss biologist and psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980) is renowned
for constructing a highly influential model of child development and
learning. Piagets theory is based on the idea that the
developing child builds cognitive structuresin other
words, mental maps, schemes, or networked
concepts for understanding and responding to physical
experiences within his or her environment.
Piaget further attested that a childs cognitive structure
increases in sophistication with development, moving
from a few innate reflexes such as crying and sucking
to highly complex mental activities.
i.
The Beginning
Piaget was interested in the study of knowledge in

children. He administered Binets IQ test in Paris and
observed that childrens answers were qualitatively
different.
Piagets theory is based on the idea that the
developing child builds cognitive structures (schemes
used to understand and respond to physical
environment).
ii.
Genetic Epistemology
Epistemology is the study of knowledge. Genetic is

development
Jean Piaget (1896-1980).
Definition of Genetic Epistemology:
Study of developmental changes in the process of

knowing and in the organization of knowledge.
Piaget wanted to know how children learned through

their development in the study of knowledge.
1896-1980
Born
in
Neuchatel,
Switzerland
Was the eldest child, and as
such was precocious (bright
for his age)
Strong interest in seashells,
initially
Piaget was interested in
philosophy, psychology &
religion
He worked with Simon, of the
Simon-Binet
intelligence
testing, but Piaget was more
concerned with how children
learn,
rather
than
distinguishing right/wrong
His academic work forms the
basis
for
our
current
educational system
He
married
Valentine
Chatenay
in
1923
and
together they had
2 daughters followed
by 1 son
After a lifetime of efforts he
was known as one of the
most significant psychologists
of the 20th century
47
Structuralism: the relationship between the parts and the whole

(Brainerd, 1978; Piaget, 1952).
According to Piaget, Intelligence is a basic life function that enables an organism to adapt
to its environment. All intellectual activity is undertaken with one goal in mind-cognitive
equilibrium. Piaget described children as constructivist.
iii.
Cognitive Schemes: the structure of intelligence
Scheme is a term used by Piaget to describe the models, or mental structures, that we
create to represent, organize, and interpret our experiences. Represent the way that
people organize and understand the things around them
There are 3 kinds of intellectual structures:
1. Behavioral schemes: First intellectual structures to emerge
2. Symbolic schemes: Appears ~2 year of life
3. Operational schemes: 7 years+
Piaget theory of cognitive development suggested that human's unable automatically
understand and use information that they have been given because they need to
construct their prior knowledge through prior personal experiences to enable them to
create mental images. He says that humans learn by constructing their own knowledge.
He believed that children develop knowledge through active participation in their
learning Learners will build their own knowledge through experience. This experience
will help them build mental models which they will further develop through assimilation
and accommodation. He believed that cognitive development was a product of the
mind achieved through observation and experimentation. For Piaget learning is cyclical.
Piaget's learning cycle includes an exploration, concept introduction and concept
application phase.
Exploration Phase:
Students Interaction
with Materials and
Each
Concept Application
Phase:
Students Apply
Information to New
Situation
Concept Introduction
Phase :
Evaluation and discussion
Naming Of Objects
And /Or Events
48
Assimilation + Accommodation = Learning

How we gain knowledge: Piagets Cognitive Processes
Organization (or
equilibrium)
Organization refers to the fact that all cognitive structures are interrelated
and that any new knowledge must be fitted into the existing system. It is the
need to integrate the new information, rather than adding them on, that
force our cognitive structure to become more elaborate.
Adaptation
What it says: adapting to the world through assimilation and

accommodation
Assimilation
The process by which a person takes material into their mind from the
environment, which may mean changing the evidence of their senses to
make it fit.
Accommodation
The difference made to one's mind or concepts by the process of

assimilation.
Note that assimilation and accommodation go together: you can't have one
without the other.
Classification
The ability to group objects together on the basis of common features.
Class Inclusion
The understanding more advanced than simple classification, that some

classes or sets of objects are also sub-sets of a larger class. (E.g. there is a class
of objects called dogs. There is also a class called animals. But all dogs are
also animals, so the class of animals includes that of dogs)
Conservation
The realization that objects or sets of objects stay the same even when they
are changed about or made to look different.
Decentration
The ability to move away from one system of classification to another one as
appropriate.
Egocentrism
The belief that you are the centre of the universe and everything revolves
around you: the corresponding inability to see the world as someone else
does and adapt to it. Not moral "selfishness", just an early stage of
psychological development.
Operation
The process of working something out in your head. Young children (in the
sensorimotor and pre-operational stages) have to act, and try things out in
the real world, to work things out (like count on fingers): older children and
adults can do more in their heads.
Schema (or scheme)
The representation in the mind of a set of perceptions, ideas, and/or actions,

which go together.
Stage
A period in a child's development in which he or she is capable of

understanding some things but not others
49
Piagets Theory of Cognitive Development
50
iv.
Piagets Stages of Cognitive Development
Piaget did many experiments on childrens way of thinking and concluded that human
beings go through several distinct stages of cognitive development. Each stage involves
the acquisition of new skills and rest upon the successful completion of the preceding
one.
According to Piaget, a childs development progresses through 4 qualitative stages and an
invariant developmental sequence or universal pattern of development, which are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
The Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 Years)

The Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 Years)
The Concrete-Operational Stage (7 to 11 Years)
The Formal-Operational Stage (11-12 Years
and Beyond)
Sensori-motor Stage (0 2
years)
1. Sensorimotor Stage
In this period, intelligence is demonstrated through motor
activity without the use of symbols. Knowledge of the
world is limited (but developing) because it is based on
physical interactions and experiences. Some symbolic
abilities are developed at the end of this stage. This is the
stage where a child does not know that physical objects
remain in existence even when out of sight.
Baby can differenciate from self

and objects
Parent: Wheres the ball?
Child: *points to ball* Ball!
P: Yess! And now wheres
Tommy?
C: *points to self*
P: Yesss!
6 Stages of Sensorimotor Stage:

Modification of reflexes (01months)
Strengthens and
differentiates reflexes
Primary Circular Reaction

(1-4 months)
Circular patternof having

a stimulus and responding
Focus is on own body
Rigidity
of
Secondary Circular
Reaction
(4-8 months)
Coordination
of
Secondary Schema
(8-12 months)
Focus is on
outside world
Goal
oriented
behavior
Apply ability to other
things
the
Tertiary
Circular
Reaction (1218 months)
Active
potential
Explore
objects
potential
Invention of New Means

through
Mental
Combinations
(18-24 months)
Child moves from overt to
covert thoughts
The child can use mental
representation instead of
physical objects (Piaget, 1952;
Brainerd, 1978).
Children explore world around them through their senses
51
The child is not yet able to conceptualize abstractly and needs concrete physical situations.
2. Preoperational Stage (2-7 years old)

In this period, intelligence is demonstrated through the use of
symbols. Language use matures. Memory and imagination are
developed. Thinking is done in a non-logically nonreversible
manner. Ego centric thinking predominates
Morality of Constraint
Language develops
Uses symbols to represent ideas
Verbal and written language develops
It is all about them
They cannot differentiate between themselves
and the world
Centration: focus on one aspect of an object
They get the general idea
Limited social cognition
No of bending of the rules
Morality of Co-Operation
They bend the rules a little bit
Semiotic Function
Egocentrism
Rigidity of Thought
Semi-logical Reasoning
Pre-operational
Stage (2 7 years)
Can classify objects
as a single feature
P: Tommy, can you
make a pile of all the
yellow bricks?
C: Yes mummy look!
P: Well done!
Still thinks
egocentrically
C1: Dolly is sad
C2: No! Dolly is
happy!
C1: No!
C2: Yes!
C1: No!
3. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years)

As physical experience accumulates, the child starts to conceptualize,
creating logical structures that explain his or her physical experiences.
Abstract problem solving is also possible at this stage.
Operation: internalized action part of organized structure.

Mentally carried out actions.
Intelligence is demonstrated through logical and systematic
manipulation of symbols related to concrete objects.
Egocentric thought diminishes.
Operational thinking develops.
Some examples of operational thought

Conservation
Reversibility
Logic
Classification
Ability to create
relationships
between things.
Relational Logic
Mental
serration
Transitivity
For example, arithmetic equations can be solved with numbers, not just
with objects.
Concrete operational
Stage (7 11 years)
Can think logically
about objects and
events and achieve
conservation of
number
C: Tomorrow I start
ballet, and then I will
go every week
Teacher: Oooh! Thats
lovely! How old are
youy now?
C: 7!
T: Now please can
you put these in order
for me?
C: Yep! *gets it right*
52
4. The Formal-Operational Stage (11-12 Years and Beyond)

During adolescence, the developing child becomes able to
comprehend highly abstract and hypothetical concepts. When faced
with a problem, children at this stage should be able to review all
possible ways of solving it and go through them theoretically in order
to reach a solution. By this point, the childs cognitive structures are
like those of an adult and include conceptual reasoning.
HypotheticoDeductive
Reasoning
Thinking Like a Scientist
Personal and Social

Implications
A formal
operational ability
to think
hypothetically
Inductive reasoningtype of thinking where

hypotheses are
generated and then
systematically tested in
experiments.
The formal
operation stage
paves the way for:
Identity formation
Richer understanding
of other peoples
psychological
perspectives
The ability to way
options in decision
making
Formal operational
Stage (11 years +)
Becomes concerned
with the
hypothetical, the
future, and
ideological
problems
C: When I grow
up I want to be a
doctor
P: And how will
you achieve that?
C: Im going to
work really, really
hard at school and
then get lots and
lots of money and
then get married,
and have children,
and live happily
ever after!
Some major points are:
Intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to abstract

concepts.
There could be a return to egocentric thought early in the period.
Many people do not think formally during adulthood.
Many people do not make it to this stage.
According to Piaget, the first three stages of development are general, but not all adults
come to the formal operational stage. The development of formal operational thought
relies in part on the process of schooling. Adults of limited educational achievement tend
to remain to think in more concrete terms and retain large traces of egocentrism
(Giddens, 1994).
53
v.
Characteristics of Piagets Stages:
1. Each stage is a structured whole and in a state of equilibrium
The stages are qualitative within the structures and quantitative

between structures
2. Each stage derives from the previous stage and incorporate and transform to
prepare for the next
3. The stages follow an invariant sequence.
There are no skipping stages.
4. The stages are universal.
Culture does not impact the stages. Children everywhere go through
the same stages no matter what their cultural background is.
5. Each stage is a coming into being.
There is a gradual progression from stage to stage (Brainerd, 1978).
vi.
An Evaluation of Piagets Theory:

Convinced us that children are curious, active explorers who play an
important role in their own development.

His theory was one of the first to explain, and not just describe, the
process of development.
His description of broad sequences of intellectual development provides
a reasonably accurate overview of how children of different ages think.
Piagets ideas have had a major influence on thinking about social and
emotional development as well as many practical implications for
educators.
Piaget asked important questions and drew literally thousands of
researchers to the study of cognitive development.
vii.
Challenges to Piagets cognitive developmental theor

Underestimated developing minds
Failed to distinguish competence from performance
It is believed by some that Cognitive development does not evolve in a

qualitative and stage like manner- it tends to develop gradually
Provides a vague explanation on cognitive maturation
Devoted little attention to social and cultural influences
54
viii.
How Piagets Theory Impacts Learning:
Curriculum: Educators must plan a developmentally appropriate curriculum that

enhances their students logical and conceptual growth.
Instruction: Teachers must emphasize the critical role that experiences, or
interactions with the surrounding environment play in student learning (Bybee &
Sund, 1982).
xi. Comparisons of Theories of Cognitive Development:

i.
Vygotsky vs. Piaget
Vygotskys sociocultural theory
Piagets cognitive developmental theory
Cognitive development varies across cultures
Cognitive development is mostly universal across

cultures
Stems from social interactions
Stems from independent explorations
Social processes become individualphysiological processes
Individual (egocentric) processes become social

processes
Adults are important as change agents
Peers are important as change agents
Both agree children are active learners who actively

Thinking develops in recognisable stages which
depend on natural maturation
Role of teacher important but use of moreexpert other not central
construct knowledge
Development of thinking is dependent upon language
and culture
Use of more-expert other seen as fundamental part
of cognitive development
Children should be actively encouraged to move
through ZPD do not need to be ready but should be
given opportunity to engage in problems which are
beyond current level of ability but within ZPD
Readiness is a central concept in education

children need to be ready to progress in their
learning
Scaffolding not a key concept

Language reflects level of cognitive
development
This theory was very influential in education
but has need revising and underestimation of
childrens abilities still a problem
Scaffolding is a central concept

Language helps to develop cognitive abilities.
This theory is still very influential in education
55
ii. Bruner and Piaget

BRUNER AGREES WITH PIAGET
1. Children are PRE-ADAPTED to
learning
2. Children have a NATURAL
CURIOSITY
3. Childrens COGNITIVE STRUCTURES
develop over time
4. Children are ACTIVE participants in
the learning process
5. Cognitive development entails the
acquisition of SYMBOLS
BRUNER DISAGREES WITH PIAGET

1. Development is a CONTINUOUS PROCESS
not a series of stages
2. The development of LANGUAGE is a cause
not a consequence of cognitive development
3. You can SPEED-UP cognitive development.
You dont have to wait for the child to be
ready
4. The involvement of ADULTS and MORE
KNOWLEDGEABLE PEERS makes a big
difference
5. Symbolic thought does NOT REPLACE
EARLIER MODES OF REPRESENTATION
56
7.Leading Language Learning Theories

i.
Background Information:
Learning theories allow teachers to better understand the process of learning. Together
with the use of technology, learn theories have made a significant impact in the
classroom. Children begin developing language at birth as they interact with their
caregivers. Children from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds are exposed to
diverse experiences; this diversity creates the concepts to which children attach symbols,
or words.
There are many learning paradigms;
constructivism are the leading theories.
ii.
however,
behaviorism,
cognitivism
and
Behaviorism:
The theory originates from the works of Ivan Pavlovs, classical conditioning, and B. F.
Skinners, operant conditioning.
Classical Conditioning is when an unconditioned stimulus and response is
manipulated with a conditioned stimulus to create a conditioned response.
Operant Conditioning is a controlled response with a reward/ punishment
system according to the behavior.
The learner needs reinforcements to keep interest. Stimuli are effective in controlling
behavior. As a result, the behaviors can be measured to record learning success.
iii.
Cognitivism:
Information Processing looks at how

information is retrieved and stored. This
theory focuses on how to store and
retrieve information. Learning is attained
through rehearsal and consistent use of the
information. Retention strategies such as
breaking down information and comparing
the information to long term storage are
great techniques
57
iv.
Constructivism:
Constructivism views learning as a process in which the learner constructs knowledge

based on their past experiences. The teacher only acts as a facilitator who encourages
students to explore within a given framework. Learners may collaborate with others to
organize their ideas and learn from each other to construct their own knowledge.
Putting It All Together:
Learning Theory
Learning Process
Behaviorism
Through positive/ negative

reinforcement and punishment
Cognitivism
Rehearsing information and then

storing it for long term use
Constructivism
Constructing ones own knowledge

through past experiences and group
collaboration
Technology Support
Educational software can be
used to measure the students
assessment
Flashcards and memory
games can help retain
information taught in a lesson
Group PowerPoint projects
allow students to work
together and combine their
knowledge to learn
58
7.1 Implications of Leading Language Theories on Class Rooms
i.
Implications of Behaviorism Learning on the Classrooms
This theory is relatively simple to understand because it relies only on

observable behavior and describes several universal laws of behavior. Its
positive and negative reinforcement techniques can be very effectiveboth in
animals, and in treatments for human disorders such as autism and antisocial
behavior. Teachers, who reward or punish student behaviors, often use
behaviorism.
ii.
Applying Classical Conditioning in the Classrooms
The key element in classical conditioning is association. Therefore, teachers are encouraged to
associate variety of positive and pleasant events with learning and classroom activities. For
example, a teacher may:
Use attractive learning aids.

Decorate the classrooms.
Encourage students to work in small groups for difficult learning tasks.
Greet the students and smile at them when he comes to the classroom.
Inform the students clearly and specifically the format of quizzes, tests, and examinations.
Make the students understand the rules of the classrooms.
Give ample time for students to prepare for and complete the learning tasks.
iii.
Applying Operant Conditioning in the Classroom
In operant conditioning, the consequences of behavior produce changes in the probability

that the behavior will occur. Reinforcement and punishment are the 2 main concepts in
operant conditioning. The following are some examples on how operant conditioning can
be applied in the classrooms.
Recognize and reinforce positive behaviors and genuine task accomplishments.

Use various types of reinforcement such as teacher approval (praise, smiles, attention,
and pats on the shoulder), concrete reinforcement (cookies, candies, and stationeries)
and privileges (longer recess time and more time with friends).
Reinforce good behaviors and punish bad ones consistently.
Use schedule of reinforcement, such as surprise rewards, to encourage persistence.
Use positive punishment as the last option. Use negative punishment, such as
detention class, instead.
Punish students behavior, not their personal qualities.
Tell the students which behavior is being punished
There have been many criticisms of behaviorism, including the following:

59
iv.
Behaviorism does not account for all kinds of learning, since it disregards the
activities of the mind.
Behaviorism does not explain some learningsuch as the recognition of new
language patterns by young childrenfor which there is no reinforcement
mechanism.
Research has shown that animals adapt their reinforced patterns to new
information. For instance, a rat can shift its behavior to respond to changes in the
layout of a maze it had previously mastered through reinforcements.
Implications of Congnitivism Learning on Class Rooms:
Implications of cognitivism on the class room learning are prominent throughout the task
analysis. Cognitivists believe learners develop learning through receiving, storing and
retrieving information. Unlike behaviorism, which is environment-focused, cognitivism
directs instructional designers to consider the learner as the focus of the design process.
v.
Applying Classical Conditioning in the Classrooms

a. Piaget and Vygotsky:
Piaget's cognitive development theory mentioned some points. First is schema, he think since that
time when people were born, they acquire knowledge by using our basic behavior model and
reacting with environment, and he call it schema, when people encounter things, they use
schema to deal with things, when children learn language, they can easily distinguish the words
shape and meaning is also because they have schema about the word. Second is assimilation,
accommodation and equilibration, if people get well with assimilation and accommodation,
equilibration happens; but if people dont get well with them, then disequilibrium happens.
Piaget through experiment arranged stages of cognitive development to improve from child to
teenagers, how cognitive development change. From Piagets theory, we can see Piaget proved
that child mind development is active, he also proved that every children through the same
cognitive development stages and he points out the change in quality and quantity, and every
childrens cognitive development speed is not all the same.
Vygotskys idea is a little different with Piaget, Piaget thought people change because of inherent
change, and ignored the importance of social reaction, but Vygotsky thought people start to
react with society when they were born, so social culture not only effect adult, children as well,
Vygotskys cognitive development is from outside to inside, and he thought egocentric speech is
very important, because it's the way they can relieve emotion but help them thinking, it's also
different from Piaget. From Vygotsky's idea we mentioned above, he inferred zone of proximal is
important, he thought teacher should give children proper help that children can achieve best
performance.
60
b. Bruner and Ausubel

In cognitivism, another two famous theorists are Bruner, who invented discovery learning theory.
And Ausubel, who invented meaningful learning theory. There are two points in Bruner's theory,
one is discovery learning theory, and another is cognitive representation theory. Although he
invented representation theory, but he didnt stand that teach should broke into age or grade,
because people have individual difference, so teacher should teach by individual students mind
development, teach them how to think and get notions from activities, then process to their own
experience, its the main point of discovery learning theory.
Ausubels meaningful learning theory, just like discovery learning theory, all belongs to cognitive
structure theory, but there are some differences between them, Ausubels meaningful learning
theory demonstrate learning can only created by students who have enough prior knowledge,
its the main idea of meaningful learning, Ausubel also divided cognitive structure into derivative
and correlate subsumption, superordinate and combinatorial learning.
Implication in class rooms
How do we apply cognitivism into Class Rooms?
From information we learned above, we clearly understand how to apply cognitivism into
instruction class rooms instructional material should design, and make knowledge meaningful.
Second, we should use the concept of information processing theory to arrange the easiest
method and help student memorize, we also need to organize new information and relate to
existing memory, it's also make student easy to memorize information. Third, we should let
student active research, give proper help when students have question, this idea fits discovery
learning theory and zone of approximate development.
7.3 Implications of Constructivism Learning on Class Rooms:

Constructivism is a philosophy of learning founded on the premise that, by reflecting on
our experiences, we construct our own understanding of the world we live in. Each of us
generates our own rules and mental models, which we use to make sense of our
experiences. Learning, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting our mental models to
accommodate new experiences.
There are several guiding principles of constructivism:
Learning is a search for meaning. Therefore, learning must start with the issues
around which students are actively trying to construct meaning.
Meaning requires understanding wholes as well as parts. And parts must be
understood in the context of wholes. Therefore, the learning process focuses on
primary concepts, not isolated facts
In order to teach well, we must understand the mental models that students use to
perceive the world and the assumptions they make to support those models.
61
The purpose of learning is for an individual to construct his or her own meaning,
not just memorize the right answers and regurgitate someone elses meaning.
Since education is inherently interdisciplinary, the only valuable way to measure
learning is to make the assessment part of the learning process, ensuring it
provides students with information on the quality of their learning.
Constructivism merges a lot of different theories, such as Bruner's discovery learning

theory and Ausubel's meaningful learning theory, discovery learning theory focus on
intuitive thinking and active research, meaningful learning focus on the importance of
prior knowledge, constructivism use both of these concepts. Besides these two concepts,
we can see the picture what concepts constructivism use.
Implication in the Classrooms:
How to apply constructivism into practical instruction. First. Post good problems. It's very
important, because a good problem can force students search lot more concepts in their mind
and retrieve, consider it's proper to use or not, this action helps mind more easily understand
how to use concepts ,and good problem provide a chance to let us do more, before we post
problem, we can use some questionnaire to ensure what type your student is and make problems
fit all students. Second. Creative group learning activities. We know another factor of
constructivism is group activity, because in group activity, students can discuss and cooperate
with each other, it facilitate the speed of thinking and expand the point of view. Third. Model
and guide the knowledge construction process. Forth. Search and solve problems with students
and give proper cue.
7.4 Leading Language Theories to be Adopted in Class Rooms

It is important to understand that there is no single set of recommendations as to how to
incorporate any single learning theorys approach to learning into the classroom. Each of the
major theorists has specific recommendations and they do not always agree with each other. As
for as the question is concerned about which learning theory should be adopted in classroom
setting, is not an easy question to be answered, as all learning theories have something very
important to be adopted.
62
Learning to me is:
A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge as a result of experience. Depends on
many factors:
the quality of instruction

student motivation
student engagement
students developmental readiness to learn
Teaching can be defined as:

One persons interpersonal effort to help others acquire knowledge, develops skill, and realizes
their potential
Constructivism- Adopted Theory in Classrooms:
The leading theory whichI have selected for the purpose of teaching and learning is
constructivisim. The common thread that runs throughout a constructivistic approach is that the
development of meaning is more important that the acquisition of a large set of knowledge or
skills that are easily forgotten.
In constructivism, there are 10 basic learning principles.
1. learning is a process of structuring meaning in an active way.
2. Learning includes conceptual changing.
3. Learning is a reconstruction for developing students apprehension to more complex and
effective mode.
4. Learning is subjective.
5. Learning is internalization of studetslearning with different symbols, graphics, metaphors
and models.
6. Learning is shaped with situations and the condition of environment. Students learn
solving problems such as real life problems instead of making exercises.
7. Learning is social process. It means that learning develops thanks to communication such
as sharing their perspective, exchanging of information and solving problems
collaborated.
8. Learning is an emotional process because mind and emotion are associated with each
other so the nature of learning are affected from these items: the students ideas about his
abilities, the clearness of learning goals, personal expectations and motivation for
learning. The appropriateness of learning to students development in terms of difficulties,
its association with students need or real life is important in learning process.
9. Learning is developmental and is affected from persons physical, social emotional and
logical development. Learning is student, centered and learning focuses on students
interests and needs not teachers need or lesson books needs.
10. Finally, learning doesnt start at definite time or doesnt finish at definite time. In contrast
it continues in a permanent way.
63
Some of the most important concepts for applying this theory relate to matching learning
experiences are following.
Student Readiness:
One of the most important considerations to be made in designing instruction from the
constructivistic perspective is that education and schooling should be done for the purpose of
preparing the student to live in a democratic society. Students also need to understand the
practical applications of the knowledge or skills (Dewey, 1997). A student is therefore ready to
learn when the student has the necessary prerequisite experiences that allow him or her to be
curious or interested in the learning and to have some understanding about its usefulness.
Piagetian (2001) theory also advocates the importance of the readiness of the student to learn
new information. This readiness is based on one of two main factors. Stage theorists hold that the
developmental stage or age of the child is the determining factor while interactionalists would
argue that it is the childs expertise level (Driscoll, 2000). Regardless of the theory, the result is
the same: educators must activate previous experiences, knowledge, and learning strategies in
order to effectively present new information in a context that students can readily process.
Bruner (1990) makes another case for the importance of readiness. He suggests that children need
social and cultural experiences that prepare them to understand the meaningfulness of their
actions as well as those of others. Bruner distinguishes between behavior, whether mental or
physical, and action, which he defines as intentional behavior displayed within a specific cultural
setting that includes the reciprocal actions of other participants. Bruner therefore advocates
providing children with the kinds of experiences that would allow them to create meaning
through their interaction during instructional activities and to assist students in creating that
meaning. This then creates the readiness for the next learning experience.
Motivation in Constructivism:
In learning, motivation is one of the key points. Indeed, motivation is not just a helpful for
learning, it is crucial for learning (Hein, E.G.). Thanks to the motivation, learner becomes willing
to learn and one cannot learn anything without wishing to learn. Therefore, learners should be
motivated to provide learning.
Motivation in constructivism is a bit different than the other motivation types.
Generally, motivation is thought as something coming from outside. In a classroom enviroment
for example, teacher is seen as the motivator. However, in constructivism it is not the teacher but
the learner is the motivator of his/her own. Although external motivators help learning because
learning is a social incident, learners intrinsic motivation is more powerful than external factors
because knowledge is constructed by the learner (Theories, 2007).
Unless the learners set their own goals and motivate themselves to reach these goals, extinct
motivation types such as reward or punishment wont have any use. Moreover,it is generally
thought that if the learner dont want to learn and do something to please his teacher, parents;
to avoid punishment; to gain reward or something else, learning do not emerge (William, 2003).
In constructivist motivation, there is no prize and reward. The key point is the learner. Learners
motivate themselves and then learning motivate the learnersfor further learning. They take the
64
responsibility of their own learning. They want to learn sincerely not because of the external
factors such as pleasing someone or gaining acceptance.
Social Interaction/Communication in the classrooms:

Social communications are a critical feature of a democracy and children must be allowed and
encouraged to develop their skills in this area. It is the continuous experience of interacting in
groups to achieve a practical purpose that provides the foundation on which these skills develop
Vygotskys (1978) theory focuses on the learners utilization of the signs and symbols of the
culture as a basis for knowing. One of the most important skills is the ability to get along with a
wide variety of people of different backgrounds, ethnicities, personalities, etc. Cooperative
learning provides a method for addressing this vital aspect of schooling (e.g., Holt, 1997). At the
same time, cooperative learning provides a strategy whereby students can learn from one
another.
Constructivist Teaching Methods
Constructivist teachers use methods in which students are encouraged to discover principles for
themselves. The main goal of using constructivist teaching is that studendts learn how to learnby
giving them to training to take initiative for their learning experiences.
Constructivist teachers facilitates a process of learning in which students are encouraged to de
responsible for their learning
Teacher encourages direct student intellectual involvement trhough:
Small group work
Student presentation
Debate
Simultations
Brain-storming
Individual study
Real and authentic problems.
Moreover Constructivist learning is based on the active participation of learners in problemsolving and critical thinkinggiven real and authentic problems.
Constructivist curriculum.
A constructively oriented curriculum presents an emerging agenda based on what children know,
what they are puzzled by, and the teachers' learning goals. Thus, an important part of a
constructivist-oriented curriculum should be the negotiation of meaning.
Constructivist assessment.
Assessment of student learning is of two types: formative and summative. Formative assessment
occurs during learning and provides feedback to the student. It includes evaluations of ongoing
portfolios, and demonstrations of work in progress. Student collaboration also provides a form
65
of formative assessment. Summative assessment occurs through tests and essays at the end of a
unit of study. Summative assessments provide little specific feedback.
Examples of Social Constructivist Classroom Activities
Reading/ Writing Workshop
Collaborative Learning
Whole Language
Situated Learning
Anchored Instruction
Games, Simulations,
Case-Based Instruction,
Problem-Solving
66
8.References
ANDERSON, JOHN R.; REDER, LYNN; and SIMON, HERBERT A. 1996. "Situated Learning and
Education." Educational Researcher 25 (4): 596.
BEREITER, CARL. 2002. Education and Mind for the Knowledge Age. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
BROWN, ANN L., and CAMPIONE, JOSEPH C. 1994. "Guided Discovery in a Community of
Learners." In Classroom Lessons: Integrating Cognitive Theory and Classroom Practice, ed.
Kate McGilly. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press/Bradford Books.
Brainerd, C. (1978). Piagets theory of intelligence. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.

Bybee, R. & Sund, R. (1982). Piaget for educators (2nd Ed.). Columbus, OH: Charles
Merrill.
Piaget, J. (1952). Autobiography. In E. Boring (ed) history of psychology in
autobiography (4). Worcester, MA: Clark University Press.
Pavlov, I.P. (1927). Conditioned reflexes. London: Oxford University Press.
Skinner, B.F. (1953). Science and Human Behavior. New York: Macmillan.
Fodor, JA; Bever, TG; & Garrett, MF. (1975) The Psychology of Language: An Introduction to
Psycholinguistics and Generative Grammar. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Lana, Robert E. The cognitive approach to language and thought. Journal of Mind & Behavior.
Vol 23(1-2) Win-Spr 2002, 51-67. Inst of Mind & Behavior, US
Pavlov, I. P. (1897/1902). The Work Of The Digestive Glands. London: Griffin.
Pavlov, I. P. (1928). Lectures On Conditioned Reflexes.(Translated by W.H. Gantt) London:
Allen and Unwin.
Pavlov, I. P. (1955). Selected Works. Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House.
McLeod, S. A. (2007). Pavlov's Dogs. Retrieved from

http://www.simplypsychology.org/pavlov.html
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B.F. skinner Behavioralism (2003). Retrieved September 13, 2013, from

http//www.3.niu.edu/acad/psych/millis/history/2003/cogrev_Skinner.htm.
S. Pinker (1994), Language Acquisition - Behavioral and Brain Sciences
S. Pinker & P.Bloom (1990), Natural Language and Natural Selection - Behavioral and Brain
Sciences 13
Bruner, J. S. (1957). Going beyond the information given. New York: Norton.
Bruner, J. S. (1960). The Process of education. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Constructivism (learning theory). Retrieved on 28/08/2010
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivism_(learning_theory)
Hall. A. (2007).Learning and Socio-cultural Theory:Exploring Modern Vygotskian Perspectives
International Workshop, Vol 1,1.
Wang, L. (2006). Sociocultural Learning Theories and Information Literacy Teaching Activities
in Higher Education, Reference & User Services Quarterly, vol. 47, no. 2, pp. 149158.
Learning Theory Bibliography
Bruner, J. (1960). The Process of Education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press
Harley, 1995
http://tip.psychology.org/bruner.html
LeFrancois, 1972
Sahakian, 1976
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Answers. com. Jerome Burner. Recovered on August 22nd, 2014,

from http://www.answers.com/topic/jerome-bruner#ixzz1XTfUCSKE
Jerome Bruner and the process of education. Recovered on August 22nd, 2014, from
http://www.infed.org/thinkers/bruner.htm
The Contributions of Jerome Bruner. Recovered on August 22nd, 2014, from
http://www.slideshare.net/lilianamonserrat/the-contributions-of-jerome-bruner
Cruz, E. (2003). Bloom's revised taxonomy. In B. Hoffman (Ed.), Encyclopedia of
Educational Technology. http://coe.sdsu.edu/eet/Articles/bloomrev/start.htm
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Forehand, M. (2008). Blooms Taxonomy: From emerging perspectives on learning,

teaching and technology.
http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Bloom%27s_Taxonomy
Ausubel,2000
LeFrancois,1972.
http://tip.psychology.org/ausubel.html
Goconstructivism, (2007). David P. Ausubel. Retrieved from

http://goconstructivism.blogspot.com/2007/02/david-p-ausubel.html
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Press. (Original work published 1934)
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[Originally published in 1950].
69

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Assignment: Language Learning Theories Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET

Language Learning Theories ..................................................................................................6

The Theory of Behaviorism............................................................................................6

2.2 Classical Conditioning-The Behaviorist Approach ............................................................7

The Nativist Approach ........................................................................................................14

The Cognitive Learning Theory (CLT) .................................................................................19

Bruners Theory of Learning .............................................................................................35

5.3 Vygotskys Socio cultural Theory: .................................................................................40

5.5 Similarities and Differences of Bruner and Vygotsky ..........................................................45

Assignment: Language Learning Theories Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET

Assignment: Language Learning Theories Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET

1.4 Overview of Learning Theories

Assignment: Language Learning Theories Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET

---Watson, 1924, p. 104.

2. Language Learning Theories

A school of psychology that confines itself to the study

As one of the oldest theories of personality,

----Skinner, 1993, p 428

Assignment: Language Learning Theories Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET

2.2 Classical Conditioning-The Behaviorist Approach

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov:

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, (born Sept. 14 [Sept. 26, New Style],

The Pavlovian Experiment.

Pavlov discovered classical conditioning almost by accident. The

Assignment: Language Learning Theories Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET

Types of Stimulus and Response

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Unconditioned response (UCR)

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

Conditioned response (CR)

Types of stimulus and responses in classical

Assignment: Language Learning Theories Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET

Figurative understanding of Classical Conditioning

Assignment: Language Learning Theories Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET

B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)

Burrhus Frederic Skinner, more commonly known as B. F.

Born in Pennsylvania in 1904, psychologist B.F. Skinner began

Operant Conditioning-Skinners Theory

Term operant conditioning (OC) was the idea got from

All we need to know in order

Assignment: Language Learning Theories Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET

Behavior that brings about a satisfying

Skinner (1948) studied operant conditioning by conducting

---Morris & Maisto, 2001.

a. Types of Reinforcement and Punishment

Both types of Reinforcement

Both types of punishment are

Types of reinforcement and punishment in operant

Assignment: Language Learning Theories Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET

2.4 Comparison and Analysis of classical and Operant Conditioning

Analysis of Classical and Operant Conditioning

Behavior theorists define learning as a permanent change in

"Give me a dozen healthy infants,

Assignment: Language Learning Theories Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET

2.5 Similarities and Differences of classical and Operant Conditioning

First described by Ivan Pavlov, a

First described by B. F. Skinner, an

In classical conditioning involves

Classical conditioning is passive on

Assignment: Language Learning Theories Madam Rosy Ilyas-MUET

Language is an innate faculty

Noam Chomsky is an eminent American theoretical

3.1 Chomskian Language Learning Theory