www.wiley.

com/college/napolitano

DY N A M I C S

ISBN 978-0-470-94341-0

A I R C R A F T

From Modeling to Simulation

From Modeling to Simulation

A I R C R A F T
DY N A M I C S

Napo lit ano

Aircraft Dynamics

A I R C R A F T
DY N A M I C S
From Modeling to Simulation

Marcello R. Napolitano

Aircraft Dynamics:
From Modeling to Simulation

- A textbook designed to take advantage of the extensive

computational resources commonly available to todays students.
The majority of the textbooks in this discipline were written before
the introduction of Matlab and Simulink.
- A textbook designed to help students to be able to extrapolate from
low level formulas, equations, and details to high level
comprehensive views of the main concepts.
- A textbook with emphasis on teaching students the fundamental
skills of basic modeling of aircraft aerodynamics and dynamics.
- An instructor friendly textbook featuring:
- An extensive variety of Student Sample Problems and Case Studies;
- An extensive variety of Problems;
- A number of sample Matlab codes;
- Detailed CAD drawings and geometric data for 25 different aircraft
from different classes;
- Complete aerodynamic, geometric, and flight conditions for 10
different aircraft;
- Approx. 500 Power Point-based instructor notes with instructional
videos

Sample figure from Ch. 1 showing the interaction of ALL the aircraft dynamic equations

FA X , FAY , FA Z ,

FT , FT , FT
Z
X Y

LA , M A , N A

LT , M T , NT

g X , gY , g Z

CLME & CAME

m V UR PW mg F
m W PV QU mg F

m U QW RV mg X FA X FT X
Y

AY

AZ

FT Y

FT Z

U ,V ,W

P, Q, R

P I XX R I XZ PQ I XZ RQ I ZZ IYY LA LT

Q IYY PR I XX I ZZ P 2 R 2 I XZ M A M T
R I ZZ P I XZ PQ IYY I XX QR I XZ N A NT

GE
g X g sin

KE
1 sin tan cos tan P


cos
sin Q
0
0 sin sec cos sec R

g Y g cos sin
g Z g cos cos

, ,

U ,V ,W

, ,
FPE

X ' cos cos sin cos cos sin sin sin sin cos sin cos U
'

Y sin cos cos cos sin sin sin sin cos sin sin cos V
Z ' sin

cos sin
cos cos
W

X ', Y ', Z '

Sample figure from Ch. 1 showing the sequential derivation of ALL the aircraft dynamic equations
Aero Forces/Moments

d
dr '
Thrust Forces/Moments CLME : dt A dt dV A g dV FA FT dS
V
V
S
Initial Conditions

CAME :

d
dr '
r ' A
dV r ' A g dV r ' FA FT dS
dt V
dt
V
S

CLME & CAME

m V UR PW mg F
m W PV QU mg F

m U QW RV mg X FA X FT X
Y

AY

AZ

FT Y

FT Z

X Y Z

d C C

C
dt
t
X Y Z X , Y , Z

CAME : r r r AdV M A M T
V

XYZ

U ,V ,W

P I XX R I XZ PQ I XZ RQ I ZZ IYY LA LT

P, Q, R

R I ZZ P I XZ PQ IYY I XX QR I XZ N A NT
g X g sin
g Y g cos sin

X Y Z

CLME : m VP VP mg FA FT

Q IYY PR I XX I ZZ P 2 R 2 I XZ M A M T

g X , gY , gZ

d VP
mg FA FT
dt
d
dr
CAME : r A
dV M A M T
dt V
dt
CLME : m

r ' rP' r

1 sin tan cos tan P

cos
sin Q
0
0 sin sec cos sec R

, ,

, ,

g Z g cos cos

X ' c c s c c s s s s c s c U
'

Y s c c c s s s s c s s c V
Z' s

cs
cc
W

Aircraft trajectory w/r XYZ

CLME & CAME

at steady state

m Q1 W1 R1 V1 mg sin 1 FA X FT X

Steady state
conditions

m PV Q U mg cos cos F

m U1 R1 P1 W1 mg cos 1 sin 1 FAY FT Y

VP 0 VP const.

0 const.

1 1

A Z1

FT Z

Steady state conditions

1 - Rectilinear flight
2 - Level turn
3 - Symmetric pull-up

0
k

PQ
1 1 I XZ R1Q1 I ZZ I YY LA 1 LT 1
P1 R1 I XX I ZZ P R
2
1

2
1

XZ

M A1 M T1

PQ
1 1 I YY I XX Q1 R1 I XZ N A1 N T1

Small perturbations CLME & CAME

m u Q1w qW1 R1v rV1 mg cos 1 f A X fT X

Small perturbation
conditions

m w Pv pV Q u U q mg cos sin mg sin cos f

m v U1r uR1 Pw
1 pW1 mg sin 1 sin 1 mg cos 1 cos 1 f AY f T Y

up 0, wr 0, pq 0, p 2 0,...
sin x x, cos x 1

m v U1r pW1 mg cos 1 f AY fT Y

m w U1q mg sin 1 f A Z fT Z

r I ZZ p I XZ Pq
1 pQ1 I YY I XX Q1r R1q I XZ n A nT

qIYY mA mT

q
r cos 1

qIYY P1r pR1 I XX I ZZ 2 P1 p 2 R1r I XZ mA mT

p I XX r I XZ l A lT

p sin 1

p I XX r I XZ Pq
1 Q1 p I XZ R1q Q1r I ZZ I YY l A lT

m u qW1 mg cos 1 f A X fT X

r I ZZ p I XZ nA nT

..from steady state, wing-level,

rectilinear flight conditions

AZ

fT Z

Sample figure from Ch. 3 showing the summary of the PITCHING modeling

mA q S c cm u 2cm1

P1

cm cm

2VP
1

qc
cm q

2VP
1

cm E cm i i H
E
H

cm 1 0 at steady-state trimmed conditions

xAC W
cm u cL1
Mach
S
d
cm cL ( xCG xAC ) cL H H (1
)( xAC xCG )
S
d
WB

Downwash effect
(Chapter II)

d
4.44 K AR K K mr cos 0.25

d Mach
cL

Polhamus
formula
(Chapter II)

cm cm

cm q

SH
d
( xAC H xCG )2
S
d

cm q

AR 3 tan 2 c /4 3

AR B 6 cos c /4 B

c
AR 3 tan 2 c /4
m qW

AR 6 cos c /4

Mach 0

B 1 Mach cos c / 4
2

cm q

1 Mach2

AR 2 1 Mach 2
tan 2 0.5

4
2
1

2
2

k
1

Mach

cm cL ( xAC H xCG ) 2cL H

cm q cm q cm q

1.19

2 AR

Mach 0

S
2cL H H ( xAC H xCG )2
H
S

K q cL

Mach 0

cos c / 4 C

AR 0.5 x ACW xCG 2 xACW xCG

AR 2 cos c / 4
2

Leading Edge
of wing MAC

cm

SH
( xAC H xCG )
S

Leading Edge
of tail MAC

Wing+Body
Aerodynamic
Center

cm i E
H

Tail
Aerodynamic
Center

Aircraft CG

S
cL H H ( xAC H xCG ) E
H
S

X AC WB
X AC WB
X CG

X AC H

X AC WB

c
X CG
c
X AC H

1 AR tan c / 4 1

24 AR 6 cos c / 4 8
3

Wing MAC
c

cm i cL H

X CG

H. Tail
MAC
cH

X AC H

Sample figure from Ch. 4 showing the summary of the ROLLING modeling

l A q S b cl cl

2VP
1

pb
cl p

2VP
1

rb
clr

2VP
1

cl A cl R
A
R

cl cl WB cl H cl V
cl

cl

WB

c
l
cL1
cL
1

cl

ZW

cl WB

WB

Dihedral Effect #1
( due to angle )

cl
KM K f

cL
c / 2
1

cl WB

Dihedral Effect #2
( due to High / LowWing )

W

AR

cl WB

Dihedral Effect #3
( due to Sweep Angle LE )

cl
cl
KM

W
W

cl

W tan c / 4
tan
c/4
W

..except for substantial dihedral/anhedral angles for horiz. tail

d S H bH
0

d S b
d SV ZV cos 1 X V sin 1
V 1

b
d S

cl H cl WB

H 1

cl V kYV cL

cl 0

cl p cl p WB cl p H cl p V
cl p WB cl p W RDP

cl r cl rW cl rV
c
cl rW l r
cL
1

, cl p H

cl rV 2 cY

Left

, cl p 2 cY
V

ZV

b

rad
1

XV cos 1 ZV sin 1 ZV cos 1 XV sin 1

b

S H bH

S b

c
c

cL1 l r l r W

W
CMach
0
L

cl cl

1
cl p W
2

cl

Right

cl
l
2 A
cl
2 Left 2 Right

cl A cl

cl

RME k

SV
Z cos 1 X R sin 1
Z cos 1 X R sin 1
cl R cY R R
K R R R
cL V V

b
S
b

Sample figure from Ch. 4 showing the summary of the YAWING modeling

nA q S b cn cn

2VP
1

pb
cn p

2VP
1

rb
cnr

2VP
1

cn A cn R
A
R

cn cn W cn B cn H cn V
c n B 57.3 K N K R l

S BS lB
S b

c n H 0
c n W 0

d SV X V cos 1 ZV sin 1
cn V kYV cL V 1

V
b
d S

cn 0

cn p cn p W cn p V
cn p
cn p W
cL
1

cn p

cL1
W

W
CMach
0
L

cn p V 2 cY
V

cn r cn r cn r
W

XV cos 1 ZV sin 1 ZV cos 1 XV sin 1 ZV

b

cn
cn
cnrW r2 cL1 2 r cD 0
cL
cD
1
0
2
X V cos 1 ZV sin 1

cnrV 2 cY
V
b2

cn A KnA cL1 cl A
cn R cL V
V

SV
X cos 1 Z R sin 1
K R R R

S
b

Sample figure from Ch. 7 showing the solution of the linearized LONGITUDINAL equations

m w U q mg sin f

m u qW1 mg cos 1 f A X fT X
1

AZ

fT Z

w VP1 , w VP1

u
c
qc
m w VP1 q mg sin 1 q1 S cL u 2cL1
cL cD 1 cL
cL q
cL E
E
VP1
2VP1
2VP1

qIYY mA mT
q

q , q

u
u
m u mg cos 1 q1 S cD u 2cD1
cT X 2cT X
cD cL 1 cD E
u
1
E
VP1
VP1

w
q

u
u
c
qc
IYY IYY q q1 S c cm u 2cm 1
cm T 2cm T
cm cm T cm
cm q
cm E
u
1

E
VP1
VP1
2VP1
2VP1

U1 S VP1 , W1 S 0

X , Y , Z X S , YS , Z S

u g cos 1

Longitudinal
Dimensional
Stability
Derivatives

q1 S
u
u
cT X 2cT X
cD cL 1 cD E
cD u 2cD1
u
1
E
m
VP1
VP1

P1

P1

V V q g sin qmS c

m, IYY
c , S
q1
aero coef .

Lu

2cL1

Vu c

cD 1 cL

P1

c
qc
cL q
cL E
E
2VP1
2VP1

u
u
c
qc
IYY q1 S c cm u 2cm 1
cm T 2cm T
cm cm T cm
cm q
cm E
u
1

E
VP1
VP1
2VP1
2VP1

Laplace Transformation

s X

u(s) X (s) g cos (s) X (s)

Z u ( s) s V Z Z ( s) s Z V g sin ( s ) Z ( s )
M M u ( s) M s M M (s) s s M (s) M (s)

u g cos 1 X u X T u u X X E E

VP1 g sin 1 Z u u Z Z Z q VP1 Z E E

X Tu

M u M T u M M T M M q M E
u

P1

Tu

P1

t domain s domain

u (s)

NumU ( s )
D1 ( s )

E (s)
(s)

E (s)
(s)

E (s)

Transfer
Functions

Num ( s )
D1 ( s )

s X X
u
Tu

Zu

Mu MT
u

Num ( s )
D1 ( s )

s V

P1

Z Z

M s M M T

D1 A1s 4 B1s 3 C1s 2 D1s E1

Routh-Hurwitz
Stability Analysis

D1 (s) A1s 4 B1s3 C1s 2 D1s E1

u ( s)

E ( s) X E

( s)

s Z q VP1 g sin 1
Z E

(
s
)
E

( s) M E
s s Mq

E ( s)
g cos 1

s 2 2 SPnSP s n2SP

2 PH nPH s n2PH

Numu ( s) Au s 3 Bu s 2 Cu s Du
Num ( s) A s 3 B s 2 C s D
Num ( s) A s 2 B s C
u (s)

Short-Period
Approximation
u(t ) 0

s X X
u
Tu

Zu

M u MT
u

Z 0, Z q 0
sin 1 0, M T 0

s V

P1

E ( s)
(s)

E ( s)
( s)

E ( s)

Num ( s )
( s)
, ( s)
( s) (t ) L1 ( s )
D1 ( s )
E (s) E
Num ( s )
( s)
, ( s)
( s) (t ) L1 ( s)
D1 ( s )
E ( s) E
u(s)

E (s) X E

( s)
s Z q VP1 g sin 1
Z E

(
s
)

E
( s) M E
s s Mq

E (s)
g cos 1

Z Z

Numu ( s )
u (s)
; u ( s)
( s) u (t ) L1 u ( s )
D1 ( s )
E ( s) E

M s M M T

( s)

VP1 s
sVP1 Z
E ( s) Z E

M E

( M s M ) s( s M q ) ( s)
E ( s)

SP

Z
M M q

VP1

Z M

2 q M
VP

Z
s2 M M q

VP1

Z M q

n SP

VP
1

Z M q

s
M s 2 2 SP n SP s n2SP
VP

Short-Period Char. Equation

Sample figure from Ch. 7 showing the solution of the linearized LAT-DIRECTIONAL equations

m v U1r pW1 mg cos 1 f AY fT Y

I XX S

I ZZ S T

I
XZ S

p I XX r I XZ l A lT
r I ZZ p I XZ nA nT

pb
rb
m v VP1 r mg q1 S cY cYp
cY r
cY A cY R
A
R
2VP1
2VP1

I XX B

I ZZ B

I
XZ B

pb
rb
I XX p I XZ r q1 S b cl cl p
cl r
cl A cl R
A
R
2VP1
2VP1

cos 2 1
sin 2 1
sin 21

T sin 2 1
cos 2 1
sin 21
0.5sin 21 0.5sin 21 cos 21

p sin 1
r cos 1

, I ZZ , I XZ I XX , I ZZ , I XZ
X , Y , Z X S , YS , Z S U1 VP

XX B

pb
rb
I ZZ r I XZ p q1 S b cn cn p
cn r
cn A cn R
A
R
2VP1
2VP1

VP g

I XZ
q Sb
b
b
1
cl r
cl A A cl R R
cl cl p
I XX
I XX
2VP1
2VP1

P1

Lateral/Directional
Dimensional
Stability
Derivatives

m, I XX , I ZZ , I XZ
b, S
q1
aero coef .

q1 S
b
b
cY r
cY A A cY R R
cY cYp
m
2VP1
2VP1

v VP1

v
VP1

v VP1

v
VP1

p , p
r ,r

I
q Sb
b
b
XZ 1
cn r
cn A A cn R R
cn cn p
I ZZ
I ZZ
2VP1
2VP1

Laplace Transformation

P1

sV

VP g Y Y Y Y A Y R
1

P1

Y ( s) sYp g cos 1 ( s) s VP1 Yr ( s) Y ( s)

L ( s) s s Lp ( s) s sI1 Lr ( s ) L ( s)

I
XZ L L L L A A L R R
I XX

N ( s) s sI 2 N p ( s) s s N r ( s) N ( s)

I
XZ N N N N A A N R R
I ZZ

t domain s domain

( s) Num ( s) ( s) Num ( s)

A ( s)
D2 ( s) R ( s)
D2 ( s)
A

( s) Num ( s) ( s) Num ( s)

A ( s)
D2 ( s) R ( s)
D2 ( s)
A

Transfer
Functions

( s) Num ( s) ( s) Num ( s)

A ( s)
D2 ( s) R ( s)
D2 ( s)
A

D2 (s) s A2 s 4 B2 s3 C2 s 2 D2 s E2

sV Y
P1
L

(s)

s VP1 Yr ( s)
Y

( s)
s sI1 Lr
L

( s)

s s N r ( s ) N

( s)

sYp g
s s Lp
s sI 2 N p

D2 s A2 s 4 B2 s 3 C2 s 2 D2 s E2

Routh-Hurwitz
Stability Analysis

s 2 2 DRnDR s n2DR

s s
R

Num A,R ( s) s A s B s C s D
3

NumA,R ( s) s A s 2 B s C

Num A,R ( s) A s 3 B s 2 C s D

( s) Num ( s )
( s)

; ( s)
( s) (t ) L1 ( s)
(s)
D2 ( s )
(s)

Rolling
Approximation

( s) Num ( s)
( s)

, ( s)
( s) (t ) L1 ( s)
( s)
D2 ( s)
( s)

(t ) (t ) 0

( s) Num ( s)
( s)

, ( s )
( s) (t ) L1 ( s)
( s)
D2 ( s)
( s)

sV Y
P1
L

sYp g
s s Lp
s sI 2 N p

( s 2 LP s)

(s)

s VP1 Yr A ( s ) Y
A

( s)
s sI1 Lr
L A

A ( s)

s s N r ( s) N A

A ( s)

L
( s)
( s)
L

A ( s)
A ( s) s( s LP )
A

TR

1
LP

Rolling Time Constant

TR

4 I xx
cl p VP1 S b 2

Sample figure from Ch. 7 showing the concept of SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS

Aircraft Mass and
Inertial Properties

m, I XX , IYY , I ZZ , I XZ
Flight Conditions

Alt., Mach, , q ,1

Aircraft Geometry
c , cH , b, bH ,

S
,
S
,
S
,
x
,..
H
V
ACH

Dimensionless
Stability and
Control Derivatives
cD0 , cD ,.., cD E

cL0 , cL ,.., cL E

cm0 , cm ,.., cm E

c , c ,.., c , c

l A
l R
l l p
c , c ,.., c , c
Y A
Y R
Y Yp

cn , cn ,.., cn , cn
A
R
p

Dimensional Stability and Control Derivatives

(Tables 7.1 & 7.3)

X u , X ,.., X E , Zu , Z ,.., Z E , M u , M ,.., M E

L , Lp ,.., L , L , Y , Yp ,.., Y , Y , N , N p ,.., N , N

A
R
A
R
A
R

Longitudinal and
Lateral Directional
Characteristic
Equations
D1 (s), D2 (s)

Sample figure from Ch. 7 showing the key geometric parameters for SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS
X CG
c
X AC H

X CG
X AC H

Leading Edge
of wing MAC

Leading Edge
of tail MAC

Wing MAC
c

Wing+Body
Aerodynamic
Center

Tail
Aerodynamic
Center

Aircraft CG

X AC WB
CRITICAL PARAMETERS
SH
S

ACH

xCG

Tail MAC
cH

X CG

X AC H

CRITICAL PARAMETERS
Vertical Arm of
Vertical Tail

SV
S
ZVS X VS
,
b
b

SV
ZVS
SV

X VS

YS
Aircraft CG

XS

ZS

Horizontal Arm of
Vertical Tail

Sample figure from Ch. 8 showing the STATE VARIABLE modeling of the aircraft dynamics

Dimensional Longitudinal
Derivatives

Dimensional Lateral
Directional Derivatives

X u , X Tu , X , X E

Y , Yp , Yr , Y A , Y R

Z u , Z , Z , Z q , Z E

L , Lp , Lr , L A , L R

M u , M T u , M , M T , M , M q , M E

N , N p , Nr , N A , N R

Dimensional Primed
Longitudinal Derivatives

Dimensional Primed
Lat. Direct. Derivatives

X u , X , X , X q , X E

Y , Yp , Yr , Y , Y A , Y R

Z u , Z , Z q , Z , Z E

L , Lp , Lr , L A , L R

M u , M , M , M q , M E

N , N p , N r , N A , N R

Dimensional
Double Primed
Long. Derivatives

Dimensional
Double Primed
Lat. Dir. Derivatives

Zu , Z , Z q , Z , Z E

Y, Yp, Yp, Y, YA , YR

and / or others

and / or others

Longitudinal SV Model
xLong ALong xLong BLong uLong

Lat. Directional SV Model

xLat .Dir ALat .Dir xLat .Dir BLat .Dir uLat .Dir

yLong CLong xLong DLong uLong

yLat .Dir CLat .Dir xLat .Dir DLat .Dir uLat .Dir

Total Aircraft SV Model

xLong ALong

xLat .Dir 0
yLong CLong

yLat .Dir 0

0 uLong
xLong BLong

BLat Dir uLat .Dir

ALat .Dir xLat Dir 0
0 xLong DLong
0 uLong

CLat .Dir xLat Dir 0

DLat .Dir uLat .Dir
0

Sample figure from Ch. 9 showing the general architecture of a simulation code
FDC Toolbox
BEAVER, level 1
M.O. Rauw, October 1997

time
Clock
In

To Workspace
Out

To Workspace

1
2

To Workspace

alpha
3

Mux
click
2x for
info!

Mux

Double-click for info!

beta
5

Deflections of
Control Surfaces

deltae
3
deltar

2
x Demux

deltaa
Mux

r
7

uaero

psi

Motion
Variables

theta
deltaf
5

Throttle Settings

9
10

Mux uprop

phi

xe
11

pz
7
uw

Atmospheric
Turbulence
(optional)

9
ww
11
vwdot

12
8
Mux

uwind
xdot Demux

10

13

Beaver dynamics
and output equations

uwdot

ye

vw

H dot
y dl

15

12

14
pb/2V

Demux
qc/V

16

wwdot

rb/2V

Aircraft Equations of Motion

Pilot Inputs and
External Disturbance

Aircraft
Outputs

BEAVER,
2 (main level)
FDC level
Toolbox
M.O. M.O.
RauwRauw
1997
15
16
17
18
Airdata group

Modeling of the
Aerodynamic Forces
and Moments
Modeling of the
Propulsive Forces
and Moments

5
9
11

Aerodynamics
group (Beaver)

ydl

Caero

FMaero
7

2
10
uprop

12
Engine group (Beaver)

Modeling of the
Gravity Forces

ypow

Cprop

FMprop

Gravity

13

Gravity forces

Fgrav

Fwind

Modeling of the
Atmospheric Turbulence
Forces

AIRCRAFT
EQUATIONS
OF MOTION

yad1

yad2

yad3

1
uaero

yatm

14

Wind forces

Fwind

FMsort

Add + sort
forces and
moments

1
-K-

uwind

-KAircraft equations
of motion (Beaver)

2
3

xdot

ybvel

6
4
8
Additional outputs
hlpfcn
yhlp
xdot
x

(co)sines of
alpha, beta,
psi, theta, phi

yacc

yuvw

yfp

Sample drawing and tables from Appendix C showing aircraft data for aerodynamic modeling

Samples of INSTRUCTOR NOTES from an

extensive set of approx. 500 slides freely available to the instructors !

Conceptual Modeling of cl (cont.)

LE

Perpendicular to
leading edge wing line

LE

LEFT WING wrt. pilot

V
V

RIGHT WING wrt. pilot

Parallel to leading
edge wing line

Perpendicular to
leading edge wing line

V
Parallel to leading
edge wing line

V nL

V nR
Leading edge wing line
(right wing wrt. pilot)

21
Chapter IV

Aircraft Dynamics:
From Modeling to Simulation

Conceptual Modeling of cl (cont.)

V nR V cos LE
V nL V cos LE

V nR V nL

LR LL
Negative rolling moment
NOTE: R indicates
RIGHT wrt pilot

cl

0
WB # 3

LR
LL

LR LL

Wing body dihedral effect #3

XS

cl WB

0
III

22
Chapter IV

Aircraft Dynamics:
From Modeling to Simulation

Numerical Examples of cl (cont.)

McDonnell Douglas F4 Aircraft
(see Student Sample Problem 4.3)
Term
Wing contribution due to the
geometric dihedral angle
Wing contribution due to the
wing-fuselage position
Wing contribution due to the
sweep angle
Wing contribution due to the
aspect ratio
Wing contribution due to the
twist angle
Body (fuselage) contribution
Horizontal tail contribution
Vertical tail contribution
TOTAL ( c l )

Value
[1/rad]
-0.014

% of

cl

16.6
0.029
-34.4
-0.045
53.4
-0.027
32.1
-0.002
-0.007
0.0118
-0.030

2.6
8.3
-14
35.6

-0.0842

100

Key results
- The predominant (53%) POSITIVE contribution to the dihedral
effect comes from the wing sweep angle.
- The second POSITIVE contribution (36%) comes from the vertical
tail.
- The low-wing configuration provides a substantial NEGATIVE
contribution (anhedral).
- UNIQUE FEATURE OF THIS AIRCRAFT: the high geometric
anhedral angle of the horizontal tail provides a substantial
NEGATIVE contribution (anhedral).

41
Chapter IV

Aircraft Dynamics:
From Modeling to Simulation

Conceptual Modeling of cn (cont.)

..Starting from:

cn WB

XS

V
0
V from right

of the pilot

YS

XS
Resultant of the
Lateral Side Force
in front of CG

V
0
V from right

Moment Arm

in front of CG
Negative
Yawing Moment

of the pilot

YS

Positive
Yawing Moment
Moment Arm
behind CG

cn

XS

Resultant of the
Lateral Side Force
behind CG

WB

V
Moment Arm
in front of CG
Negative
Yawing Moment

YS

Positive
Yawing Moment
Moment Arm
behind CG

For most aircraft

V

cn WB 0

47
Chapter IV

Aircraft Dynamics:
From Modeling to Simulation

Conceptual Modeling of cn (cont.)

..next, on: cn
V

XS

V
0

YS

Lateral force on
the vertical tail

Point of application of the lateral

force on the vertical tail

XS

Positive yawing moment

cn 0
V

ZS

Moment arm

X VS

Lateral force

X VS

YS

cn V 0
0

Chapter IV

XS

ZS

49
Aircraft Dynamics:
From Modeling to Simulation

Ranking of Stability Derivatives

Relative

Ranking

Stability

Importance

(0 to 10)

Derivatives

Group #1

10

cL , cm , cl , cn

Group #2

cm , cm q , cl p , cn r

Group #3

7-8

cD 0 , cD

Group #4

cL 0 , cm 0

Group #5

cL , cL q

Group #6

cY , cY p , cY r , cn p , cl r

Group #7

0-1

cD 0, cD q 0,
cY 0, cl 0, cn 0

The stability derivatives in Group #1 and Group #2 have MAJOR

implications on the aircraft static & dynamic stability (as discussed
in chapter VI and VII)

87
Chapter IV

Aircraft Dynamics:
From Modeling to Simulation

Review of Basic Aircraft Performance

Conservation of Linear Momentum Equations (CLMEs) along X and Z:

W dV
g dt
W V2
T sin T L W cos
g R
T cos T D W sin

Assuming:T 0,cos T 1,sin T 0

T D W sin

W dV
g dt

W V2
L W cos
g R

At steady state rectilinear conditions: R ,

T D W sin 0
L W cos 0
Chapter V

with:

dV
0
dt

x V cos
h V sin

Aircraft Dynamics:
From Modeling to Simulation

Review of Basic Aircraft Performance :

Power at Level Flight
Level Flight: 0

T D 0T D
L W 0 L W

1
2

1
2

2
2
with: D V S cD , L V S cL

where: cD cD
O

cL 2
AR e

Maximum Aerodynamic Efficiency

1
V 2 S cL c
L 2
Definition: E
L
D 1 V 2 S c
cD
D
2

EMax

c
L
D

D
D Max L Min cL

Goal: to evaluate: cL E

Max

Min

cDO AR e

cL 2
c

d cD
d DO AR e
0

d cL c L d c L
cL

2
2
2

cL 2 2 cL c cL cL
cDO
cDO

DO

AR e AR e
d
AR e AR e
0

2
2
d cL
cL
cL
cL

2
cL

cL E cDO AR e
cDO 0 cL 2 cDO AR e

Max

AR
e

cD AR e
cDO O
AR e
2 cDO
cDO
c
EMax D

2
cL Min
AR e
cD AR e
cD AR e
O

Aircraft
Min

Chapter V

Dynamics:
From Modeling to Simulation

Review of Basic Aircraft Performance :

Power at Level Flight (cont.)
Minimum Aerodynamic Drag
T D 0T D
L W 0 L W
1
2W
4W 2
2
2
, cL 2 4 2
with: V S cL W cL
2
V 2 S
V S

leading to:

c2 1
1
1
4W 2
V 2 S cDO L V 2 S cDO
2 4 2
2
AR e 2
AR e V S

1
1
2W 2
V 2 S cDO

D
D
2
AR e V 2 S Parasite Induced

Goal: to evaluate: V D

MINIMUM

dD
d 1
1
2W 2
1
4W 2
2

V
S
c

V
S
c

DO
DO
dV dV 2
AR e V 2 S
AR e V 3 S

V S cD
O

4
DMinimum

1
4W 2
1
4W 2

S
c

DO
AR e V 3 S
AR e V 4 S
1

AR e S cD

2
DMinimum

DMinimum

2W

4W 2
S

1
AR e cDO

2W
1
4
S AR e cDO

8
Chapter V

Aircraft Dynamics:
From Modeling to Simulation

Applications of the Trim Diagram

CG

0.3, 1 2

42
Chapter VI

Aircraft Dynamics:
From Modeling to Simulation

Numerical Example:
2 Engines-Out Condition for Boeing B747
FAA Worst Case Scenario
Loss of 50% of installed
thrust (same side)
LT1

1
1
NT1 T1 yT2,4 T1 yT1,2
4
4
1
b
b
T1 0.75 0.4
4
2
2
13786 112.7 1,553, 682.2 lbs ft

1 EO

1st step Analysis of the Yawing Moment

2nd step Analysis of the Rolling Moment

EO

NT 1

1.76

cn q1 S b

LT1

cl 1 EO

q1 S b

11.98
cl
A

3nd step back to the Yawing Moment

EO

cn 1 EO cn A1

A

cn

EO

NT1

q1 S b

0.35

4th step back to the Rolling Moment

EOFINAL

A1

EOINITIAL

A1

A1

EO

A1

EO

l R

cl

EO

0.13

12.10
EO

58
Chapter VI

Aircraft Dynamics:
From Modeling to Simulation

NUMERICAL EXAMPLE:
F-104 Longitudinal Dynamics (Approach Conditions) (cont.)

Short Period response:

- High natural frequency;
- High damping.

Pilot elevator doublet

Phugoid response:
- Low natural frequency;
- Low damping.

Phugoid response:
- Low natural frequency;
- Low damping.

Short Period response:

- High natural frequency;
- High damping.

Phugoid response:
- Low natural frequency;
- Low damping.

Short Period:
- high SP
- highnSP

Phugoid:
- high Ph
- highnPh

poles=roots(den)
poles =
-0.4514 + 1.3967i
-0.4514 - 1.3967i
-0.0205 + 0.1465i
-0.0205 - 0.1465i

27
Chapter VI

Aircraft Dynamics:
From Modeling to Simulation

SPECIAL CASE:
Short Period Approximation (cont.)
Numerical Example : Cessna 182
Cessna 182 (Altitude=5,000 ft, Mach=0.21)
FULL-BLOWN Characteristic Equation

D1 A1s 4 B1s 3 C1s 2 D1s E1

222.05 s 4 1985.95 s3 6262.29 s 2 329.88 s 180.58
-4.4498 + 2.8248i, -4.4498 - 2.8248i
-0.0220 + 0.1697i, -0.0220 - 0.1697i
with:

SP 0.844, n SP 5.27

rad
rad
, Ph 0.129, n Ph 0.171
sec
sec

SHORT-PERIOD APPROXIMATION Characteristic Equation

Z
D1 SP VP1 s s 2 M M q

VP1

Z M q

s
M
VP

464.71 464.71 4.337

220.1 s s 2 2.5428 4.337

19.26
s
220.1
220.1

s 2 8.99s 28.41 s 2 2 SP n SP s n2SP

SP

APPROX .

0.843, n SPAPPROX . 5.33

rad
sec

Approximation error: < 1% !!

33
Chapter VI

Aircraft Dynamics:
From Modeling to Simulation

Rolling Approximation (cont.)

Comparison of Roll Responses between a F4 and a Boeing B747
Mc Donnell Douglas F-4 roll response following a +2 deg. aileron deflection
Mach 0.9

pSS 0.2765

Alt. 40, 000 ft.

63% pSS 0.1742

rad
deg
15.84
sec
sec

rad
sec

Roll Time Const. RTC TR

(rad / sec)

0.813sec

t (sec)
Boeing B747-200 roll response following a +2 deg. aileron deflection
Mach 0.9
Alt. 40, 000 ft.

p
(rad / sec)

pSS 0.0119

63% pSS 0.0075

rad
deg
0.682
sec
sec

rad
sec

Roll Time Const. RTC TR

1.98sec

t (sec)

67
Chapter VI

Aircraft Dynamics:
From Modeling to Simulation

Transfer Function-Based vs.

State Variable-Based Modeling (cont.)
SUMMARY
DYNAMIC SYSTEM

Differential Equations (DEs)

s domain

time domain

Transfer Functions Model

Y (s)
U (s)

l x1

m x1

G ( s )

l xm

G11 ( s )
G ( s )
21
...

Gi1 ( s )
...

Gl1 ( s )

State Variable Model

G12 ( s ) ... G1 j ( s) ... G1m ( s)

G22 ( s) ... G2 j ( s) ... G2 m ( s)
...
...
...
...
...

Gi 2 ( s ) ... Gij ( s) ... Gim ( s)

...
...
...
...
...

Gl 2 ( s ) ... Glj ( s) ... Glm ( s)

l xm

n x1

A n x n x n x1 B n x m u m x1

yl x1 C l x n x n x1 D l x m u m x1

1
Y ( s)
G( s) C s I A B D

U ( s)

8
Chapter VIII

Aircraft Dynamics:
From Modeling to Simulation

State Variable Modeling of the

Longitudinal Dynamics
Starting from Chapter VII longitudinal equations:

u X u X T u u X g cos 1 X E E

VP1 Z u u Z Z g sin 1 Z q VP1 Z E E

M u M T u M M T M M q M E
u

Using the relationship: q ,

u X u X T u u X g cos 1 X E E

P1

Z Z u u Z g sin 1 Z q VP1 q Z E E

q M u M T u u M M T M M q q M E E

q
NOTE: The 2nd equation is nested within the 3rd equation through the
ALPHA_DOT term. Therefore, neglecting:(M T , M T )

u X u X T u u X g cos 1 X E E

P1

Zu
Z

P1

Zu

q M

V Z

P1

Z V
q
P1

V Z

P1
q
Chapter VIII

Z
Z

g sin 1

P1

M u M
u

V Z

P1

Z
E
q M
q

V Z

P1

VP1

P1

q Z
V Z
E

P1

M M g sin 1

V Z

P1

M
E
E

Aircraft Dynamics:
From Modeling to Simulation

State Variable Modeling of the

Longitudinal Dynamics (cont.)
Define: xLong u

q , uLong E
T

STATE EQUATIONS

xLong ALong xLong BLong uLong

u
u




ALong BLong E
q
q


X u X X q X u X E
Z Z Z Z Z

q
E
u


M u M M q M q M E E

0
1
0 0
0

with:

X u X u X Tu ,
Z u

Zu
Z

P1

, Z

g sin 1

P1

X X ,

P1

, Z E

X g cos 1 ,

, Z q

Z E

P1

Z
V

X q 0,

VP1

P1

X E X E

M u M Z u M u , M M Z M
M M Z , M q M Z q M q
M E M Z E M E

10
Chapter VIII

Aircraft Dynamics:
From Modeling to Simulation

Introduction to the Flight Dynamics

& Control (FDC) Toolbox
Matlab/Simulink-based flight simulation package freely available on
www.dutchroll.com
FDC Toolbox
BEAVER, level 1
M.O. Rauw, October 1997

time
Clock
In

To Workspace

To Workspace
Out

1
2

To Workspace

alpha
3

Mux
click
2x for
info!

Mux

Double-click for info!

p
5
6

Deflections of
Control Surfaces

deltae
3
deltar

2
x Demux

deltaa
Mux

beta

r
7

uaero

psi

theta
deltaf
5

Throttle Settings

9
10

Mux uprop

xe
11

pz
7
uw

Atmospheric
Turbulence
(optional)

9
ww
11
vwdot

12
8
Mux

uwind

uwdot

ye

vw
10

phi

Motion
Variables

xdot Demux

Beaver dynamics
and output equations

13
H dot

y dl

15
Demux

12

14
pb/2V

qc/V
16

wwdot

rb/2V

Aircraft Equations of Motion

Pilot Inputs and
External Disturbance

Aircraft
Outputs

FDC 1st Level

12 inputs (aerodynamic control surfaces, throttle settings,

atmospheric turbulence)

27 outputs (12 aircraft states + 12 derivatives of aircraft states,

3 dimensionless angular velocities)

4
Chapter IX

Aircraft Dynamics:
From Modeling to Simulation