ORGANIZATI ONAL

COMMUNICATI ON
ll\[ ,\l{Ci{(; ( t[\Tl\/l TY,r\Ntf ( (-)NS I l\l\

Eric

M. Eisenberg H. L. Coodall J r.
Angela Trethewey

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For Bedford./St. Martin's

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Elise S' Kaiser

Library of Congress Control Number:2009928646

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of America'
Manufacrured in the United States

43
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Boston' MA021I
Martin's' 75 ArllnCton Street'

(17-199-4000)

ISBN-l0:

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0-312-57
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Communication and the

Changing World of Work

PTRSPECTIVE

From the moment we are born, we are surrounded by people. fu we seek to understand the people on whom we rely most, we learn many related things at once

language, a culture, and, most important, a sense of self. We discover who ry_g:

though our communication w! p1rs. {

us experiences this discovery process, no two people come
out the same. Even small differences in genetics or upbringing result in marked

pggeptiot.
oldview
raUrmaifm

and
led

op habitual ways

of

reflect our inclinaEasrern European,

people perceive the world differently in accord with their worldview; and no rwo
are exact alike.
Where do these worldviews come from? Which life experiences re most influential in shaping who we become? We spend our lives as members of numerous social groups: famil church, school, business, and country. Our membership in these
groups shapes our sense of self. At the same rime, participation in these groups requires interaction with others who are often quite different from us. To both have a
self and be a functioning member of a society, we must learn how to communicate
with diverse others. In primitive times, humans banded together to hunt, gather,
and grow food, as well as to propgate the species. Human survival has always
hinged on our ability to work togetler. The history of human civilization is fundamentally a history of orgnizing.

P.nr I : Ap p noe c u

n c,rq r zar

NL

Cou

r,t

u N I c AT I o

While collaborating with diverse others is unavoidable, it is by no means easy,

though it is easier to organize around some tasks t}tan others. In sports, for example, where tiere are clearly defined rules, roles, and goals, coordination is relatively
unproblematic. Simple bank uansactions, mail delivery and trafc patterns on an
interstate are other examples of continuous coordination around clear defined
rules that are not open to interpretation. In each of tlese instances, people know
what they want and have a well-defined notion of what it will take to get it.
IJnfortunately, many organizing challenges are fr more complex and ambiguous. For exmple, how does one build a successful business? What is the best structure for local government? What kind of communication characterizes successful
work-life balance? We are on very different ground here: Goals, rules, and roles are
negotiable and open to interpretation. Particularly in contemporary societies (as
almost everything
opposed to traditional ones), tlere are few givens in social life
is negotiable.

In school, the dreaded group project provides an emotionally charged example

of the challenges inherent in organizing. On the surface, the assignment seems
straightforward, and we tend to assume that our fellow group members have ideas
and work habits similar to ours. In time, however, it often becomes clear that people have very different goals, values, motivations, and worldviews. For each group
member who seeks perfection, tlere is sonleone who hras no problem settling for a
grade of C; for every person who likes to get work done in advaDce, there is someone who prefers finishing the project the night before it is due. Organizing people
in business is equally challenging. In any setting, organizing takes work, and the
special challenge of organizing is to collaborate in ways that both acknowledge and
bridge differing worldviews.
The interaction required to direct a group toward set of common goals is
called organizatonal communication. Nothing about tlis process is automatic or
easy; certain knowledge and skills are required to succeed. Moreover, s we go
bout our lives, we enter into one interaction after another, always in the shadow of
multiple large organizati'ons, whether at a school, a hospital, or a local restaurnt.
In each of these interactions, we re occasionally satisfied, but more often frusrated
by incompetence, insensitivity, lack of coordination, and red tape
- all a result of
ineffective organizational communication. A deeper understanding of communication permits us to better comprehend the factors that conuibute to successful organizing. We designed this book to help you develop this deeper understanding.

THE CHANGTNG WORLD OF WORK

What kinds of communication are required for survival in the world of work? To
ans\/er this, we must first understand how this world has evolved and the conditions to which we must adapt and respond to be successful. These conditions
have changed significandy in recent years, so it is important that we reexamine our

Chapter

l: Communication

assumptions about what is most likely to be effective

and the Changing World of Work

as

we strive to create a success-

ful work life.

n The Inevitability

of Change

Studens embarking on careers often harbor misconceptions abour the world of

work. Many expect their first "real" job to be far more serious and orderly than it
turns out to be. Likewise, they expect competent and fair mngrs. They are often
disappointed. once on the job, they may expecr a relatively srable career with a
compny, only to be surprised by the steady stream of mergers, acquisitions, and
joint ventures that change their job duties and add to their workload. It's common
in many
to joke about the number of new bosses tJrey've
ing of continuous change is disturbing to some,
"trained.
and each
ffy, is challenged to find ways to deal with it.
with constant change in the world ofwork? There ar no easy
enswers. Even seemingly srragh6rwai quesdTkl/ht is the best way to
".Flow does one attract
ise employees?"
superuse
employees/" or "How
attfact and keep customers?" don't
r
permit a simple response. As a result, the definition
oelriluon ot
of ettecve
effective commumcauon
communicati
necessarily varies by comnany ^nd industry, the parti-cular
particular
nization's unigue culture. OVI1U
? | A" e
Put anoter way, answers to qstions about o
^
^are highly t@ta
pft6ri.y
"situated" we mean that communication that
works well for an online T:shirt distributor like Digital Gravel may be inappropriate for mature film-production company
- like Paramount Pictures. By "perishable" we mean that pattelns of interAligllt!4t were effective last year may be outdated todav due to bhanEes in customer tastes and technolow.Comnanies that fail

!!e-nqgl

ves a machine shop

chry_9 rnay

peris[.iffiFffiomffi ffi e

in Californa- The eneral manger,

Marine Corps vet-

ousted by the board of directors and replaced by an outsider with a more participative approach.
The rapid changes taking place in today's world demand speedy, flexible responses. Flexibility is not characteristic of the traditional hierarchical model. In a
historic company-wide restructuring in the 1980s, IBM escaped obsolescence by
creating numerous independent business units to meet the demand for greater flexibility. More recend Apple Compurer pur potential employees through numerous
rounds of interviews aimed at identiSring those candidates who would fit best with
its challenging, dynamic corporate culture. When we first taught classes in organizational communication over thirty years ago, the banking, air transportation, and

Ch t,tn gi

*1

Penr I: AppnoecnINc Oncwrzrto{al CoilaauNIcATIoN

fast-food industries were considered to be relatively stable. Toda these are among
the most highly competitive industries in the world. Rapid change also means that
the nature of organizational communication in the business world of even five years

must develop a talent for asking good questions about organizational communication situations. Over time, your actions will be guided by how you see and make
sense of such situations, by keeping an open mind to the various interpretations,
and by remaining committed to a lifetime of learning. Flexibility enables you to
adapt more readily to a turbulent business environment. You will be able to reinvent yourself and your organization both in resPonse to and in anticipation of
changing times.

n New Developments in the World

of Work

b.egan this seclion by expressing our outrage with

by trusted executive ofcers and their
perpetrated
te massive financial misconduct
Athur Andersen). Incredibly, these
(e.g.,
Tybo,
Enron, WorldCom,
accountants
act in what has become a worldwide
opening
enofmous ethics abuses were only the
market
decline of 2008 snatched bilstock
economic meltdown. fu the disastrous
financial services industry at
in
the
lions from investors' portfolios, the executives
(e.g., Merrill L1mch, Counin
bonuses
the root of the decline escaped with millions
'What
some hoped to
Mutual).
tywide Financial, Lehman Brothers, Washington
now
unequivocally
to e
appers
be the result of a few "bad apples" in the industry
capitalism'
fu
governa systemic problem showcasing the dangers of unregulted
ments around the world work feverishly to bail out companies that are "too big
to fail," ivo conclusions are inescapable: (1) The economy is irrefutably global, as
actions and events in one country immediately affect all others, s ws evident in
the recent credit crisis; and (2) the idea tlrat "free markets know best" and should be
permitted to operte with minimal oversight is a dangerous fction.
Three years ago, people were shocked by the staggering abuses of corporate
and government power, and the intensity of these feelings continued to grow But
alongside these hopeless feelings there was also some slim sense of a possible rebirth, of a desire to rediscover and recommit to the things that matter most: our
core values and beliefs. Some scholars regard the 2008 U.S. presidential election as
an endorsement of a new degree of humility on the part of American leaders and
a willingness to better acknowledge our political, economic, and physical impact
on the world and its inhabitants. The administration of Barack Obama claims to
endorse greter government oversight of economic dealings both at home and
abroad; if these individuals are effective, they may help to reestablish public confidence in governance ofall kinds, both federal and corporate.

In the last edition of this book, we

Chapter

l: Communication

and the Changing World of Work

Anothe ray of hope in te search for value-driven work lies in the proliferation and increasing sophistication ofnot-for-profit organizations (Eisenberg &
Eschenfeldel2009; Eisler, 2008). Although these types of agencies were traditinally founded to address specific social problems, governments are increasingly refying on them both to provide needed scial services and ro promore elements-of the
common good. Tvo notable examples are homeless services and environmental advocacr/. In the Tmpa Bay area, not-for-profit agencies like Mustard Seed receive
federal and state funding to provide services to t]le homeless population. Less formally, concerned Tmp citizens formed the Hillsboro"gh Ri"; Greenways Tsk
Force as a not-for-profit whose mission is to ensure a positive future for the river
(Andrews, 2000). while neither organization operares for profit, both provide advocacy for important issues and direct ppblic service. In this way, not-for-profits
serve by emphpsizing tJre importance of community within our increasingly individualis
All
anges in the realities of organizing in the hvenry-first
century
using three critical dimensions: space, time, and loyalty.
In tJre remainder of this chapter, we discuss each dimension
provide exampi"r f
"trd
how it has ch4nged th nature and meaning of organizarional
communication.

Beyond Space: The Global Economy

Toward the end of the rwentierh century remarkable changes in global politics _
the end of the Cold war, the breakup of the soviet lJnion, the destruction of the
Berlin Wall in German and the forging of a unified European Communityaltered or dissqlved divisions that onc seeme d insurmounrable. Many saw iri the
co[apse of old structures t]re promise of new alliances striving to end poverty and
suffering wprldwide and the potenrial
of human rights. This is one version o
the closer integration of the counuies and peo
about by the epormous reduction of costs of
the breaking down of artificial barriers to the
edge and (tq a lesser exterit) people across borders. (Stiglitz, 2002,p.9)

Many aspects of globalization, such as artistic exchange and easier access ro medical
care, are universally welcome. More controversial have been the economic issqes,
specifically the policies, agenda, and effectiveness of the international institutions
that have emerged to regulate the global economy: the world Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and rre world rlade organization (wro). Both
the world Bank and the IilIF were formed in 1944 to rebuild a war-torn Europe
and to prevent future international economic depressions. (Note the focus on
Europe: Many of today's so-called Third world counrries were colonies of Eurqpean nations at the time, and their development was clearly a secondary concern.)
The same 1944 agreement called for the formation of a facilitating bodythat would

Pnr I: AppnoecgrNc OncNIzuoNAL CoMMUNIcATIoN

encourage the free flow of goods through measures such as lowering tariffs. More
than fiS years lateq the World'Tiade Organizaion came into being, and its conf.r"n"", harr. become a lightning rod for those protesting the negative economic
and the world's poor' Violent protests
effects of globalizatio on-th"
"tt.iton-".tt
,""o-prrrling WTO meetings (in Washington, D'C'; Seattle; and Genoa,Italy'
a"ti"g ZOf n 2002) highlighted for the first time opposition to aspects of eco-

nomic globalization.

2008, there was a growing feeling among social commentators that the
institutions promoting a global economy rad made a number of serious errors' The
most criticai mistakes-invked the pace at which it is possible for a country to ma
the transition to a market economywhere prices and wages are determined mainly by
the laws of supply and demand, rather tha
unreasonably optimistic belief in the self-r
led the INF in particular to force nations n

B.ior.

t capitalism than they were under their

th the current approach has been the

e models for a market economy and that
other versions-for example, thJapanes_e, German, and Swedish models-have
countries than
advantages that may be -te useful.nd a beiter fit for developing
magic of selfthe
on
the Amrican modI. Those countries that have not relied
transition to
in
the
play
overnment can
een more successful (Stiglitz, 2002)'

in the operation of the

nomic collapse of 2008.
rist attacks of September 11, 2001, gov"went from broken to heroic, brokering

for Pakistan, Iceland, H*ggy, and the ukraine. . . . whatever

glotrtiadion tkes next, it will not be despite g,overnments but because of

rescue packages

for-

them',"(Malcomson, 2008). Blind faith in market capitalism as a model for organizing has been replaced by a more balanced approach that sees an important role for
government and international
s
Amidst this struggle, the
I
of
rwo-thirds
srown expqqgnq4lly.Nearly
includs having foreign customers, supplier.s, and employees.
ffiFhi
global economy hai jncreased dramatically as a result of
the
Participatio in
O"-"r,doo, advances i'n commonication technology and e-commerce' While more
than half of Xerox's 110,000 employees work overseas' over half of Sony's employThe united states enjoY, s imported music, and American
ees are nor
Jpnese.
music, films, and television command large markets abroad'

regions will dominate the global markelace during the next few depaific
Rim (China, in partiiular), North America (Canada, especial,
cades: the

Thr".

Chapter

l: Communication

and the Changing World of Work

union @I-). Althou gh globalization gives the united srares an

it also thratens ro erode U.S. busiAt one time, U.S. consumers could
respond meaningfirlly to these challenges by "buying American," but the globalization of business has made this slogan almost meaningless. Many new automobile
and the European

expanded market for its products and services,

ness because of increased foreign competition.

buyers who wish to remain loyal to American brands hve discovered that what they

thought were "American" crs are in fact manufactured or assembled in foreig

countries. Smirtf, it is harder to define precisely what is foreign. Consider that
laguar and Land Roveq once British manufacrurers, are now a i=ubsidiary of rta
Motors of India and that volvo, once a Swedish company, is now owned by Ford.
But globalization has
wo@irnPlygom
orservice. Ithas also bffi
q@"agemenr;nd
ztionl Cornrnunictn on

and
e define the

comm

oriqin of

a particular Droducr

(see Euerydry Orgni-

pagel}).

Questionable Labor Practices

The eme
for

of a newvorld labor pool has encoulagedbusinesse.s to search the

lowest possible labor costs.and to tti-o"e br *her."ei.heap labor can
, pracEce
rh
in textiles and ma-acturing, tley were once confied almost exclusively to blue-collar jobs. Today, white-collar jobs in most industries are also affected
bythis trend. For example, most u.s. software designers employ engineering and
call-center staffs in India and the Philippines. It is even like tht the final rianuscript for this textbook was prepared by keyboarders in Asia.
Outsourcing was a $ trillion business in 2008. Some researchers believe that

potential
debat
to reduce

The

center of the

ttempt

moved overses were at the

eIAtr IA), an
United States, Canada, and

ade Agreement

Pnr I: AppnocHtxe Onc,r'rIzerIoNeL CouuuNIcATIoN

EVE RYDAY

ORGAN IZATIO NAL COMMU N ICATION

Globalization and You!

' httP://wwry.usft'org
' http://'www.unionlabel.org
'http://www.h
. ht://www g
. http://www.6

Ens/sweatshoPs

cando/act-now

Chapter

l: Communicarion

and the Changing World of Work

Drscussrou QunsuoNS
1. Generate a list of strategies recommended by antiglobalization advocates
(e.9.,
Day campaign, asking for fairtrade
cling, and urging your campus
decisi
pliers). Which strategies would
you b

2. Which strategies,

if

any, do you

think have the greatest potential to bring

about positive social change? Why?

3. Can you envision any unintended negative consequences that may result
from these suggested actions?

4. Do you think that the

efforrs of indiviuals or acrivisr groups can make a difference in the way multinational organizations operate? Why or why not?

Mexico. On the one hand, an expanded labor pool makes U.S. companies more
compettive by allowing them to hold down costs. By hiring people from less developed countries (thereby putting money in their pockets), U.S. companies gain new
consumers for their products and services. On the other hand, sending work elsewhere may lead to the destruction of u.S. communities that are unable to withstand plant closings or massive job losses. Furthermore, the low wages paid to
workers in less developed countries
as little as l0 to I 5 percent of U.S. wages
raise questions about exploitation.

e
refl

But

es. One domestic statistic

in the United States today.
According to the advocacy group united for a Fair Economy, the average annual
CEO pay for top companies in 2007 was $10.5 million, or 344 times that of the
average U.S. worker (see http://www.faireconomy.orglissues/ceo_par. The Corporate Library a corporate governance research firm, puts the figure even higher
neady

at $14.2 million (http://www.aflcio.orglcorporte\ryatch./paywatch/paylindex.cfrn#

-ftnrefl2). In 2000, the United States became the Western industrial nation with

the largest percentage of the world's rich and the biggest gap between rich and poor
(Phillips, 2002). Barbara Ehrenreich's book, Nicel nd Dimed: On Q,{ot) Getting by
in Americ (2001), offers numerous dramaric examples of what this discrepancy
loola like in real life, revealing how difficult it is to get by while working a low-end
job (or two or three).
Offshore it can be worse. Many workers in the new global economy do not
operate with the safeguards that American organizations often provide, including
fair wages, health benefits, and safe working conditions. Immigrants in America,

lt

12

Pn'r I : Appnoecnn'c

ncNI zrI oNer Counuwl cATIoN

for considerably less than

both legal and illegal, often work in subpar conditions
as farm laborindlstry.or
garm-ent
minimum rrage as pi"""-t"," workers in the
in cramped,
living
while
the
all
ers who follow the hest across the .oorrti,
not

un-air-conditione
function without
country in search

s:r
itts

-r-:--

^^^-,-

this
cely

fJ,iff'ri:,1T"'*"*"'
afcking industrY across

the globe, and particular i

of human beings across bbr
lion people are uafcked e
are sold into the sex trade
nd children are lured bY

refers

ttttt"t

to the illegal trade

that over two mil-

faqily members.or acquaintances

work, or an education,hil" otfiers -"t: :oq by
end up working in brothels where
often
fh"r" yorrrrg;o*"" and girls
i"t
,,o"!tfo*.tr
rights"
"'ptni.
(Flaly' 2003, para' 3)' Vicbasic"human
the need for money

or identity documents are

of trafficking'are physicatly confihed, theii travel
do
if
thev
,"";r ;*ry, ,t'.ii-ifi.J "'-" 'i"""t""ed
made dependent on their
worki-ng to curbthe illegal uafckthe United Nations and o
significant problem in our increas-

ti-,

ilJi',f,:fl"fi^l:

;i;;;;r,

ingly global world.

"titr"

Multicultural Management

four or more languages.

Chapter

l: Communicarion

and the Changing World of Work

addition, when the park first opened, it did not serve alcohol, which conflicted with
the French custom of drinking wine at lunchtime. More recendy, it appears that
Disney has learned its lesson; the appointrnent of a French citizen to .o.r Disneyland Paris and the serving of alcoholic beverages on the property have noticeably
eased tensions.

with the aquisition of global

quire a more

cutu

markets, businesses have no choice but to acard-

ganizattonal communication today must address a host of multicultural and multinational concerns.

Being ale to manage across cultures can be useful even within the same counone case, sofrw
company that spun offfrom AT&T in 1996) were challenged to crere an incredibly
complexproduct (a fiber-optic phone switch called the Bandwidth Manager), using
five hundred engineers scttered over three continents and thirteen time iones. Th
work process was called "distributed development," and the managers found that
the technolory was the easy part, The hard part was agreeing on the meanings of
basic rvords, like test, and reaching consensus on procedureJ and protocols, since

jry.

It

t3

Pnr I: AppnoeculNc OncNtzt.I-IoNel- Couu

uNICATIoN

WHAT WOULD YOU DO?

Religious Differences in the Classroom

DrscussroN Qunsrroxs

if anything, and whY?

3. What should th. ittst o.tor's response be to the pastor's daughter? lVhat are
do about it,

rhe trade-offs betrveen validating individual belief systems and standing up

ular and cri

:::ffl'

you anticipate, and how might you address them?

l*U:

Chapter l: Communicarion and t}le Changing World of Work

each location had its own culture and taditions. Personality tests revealed that
Lucent's New Jersey employees, who were mostly former professors, exhibited a
highlr rational style of thinking. In contrasr, Massachusens employees (who were
mosdy manufacturing engineers) were more in hrne with values ndthe human impact of decisions. In the end, the managers' ability to workwith tlese differences and
across tlese vast distances paid offhandsomely. The switch shipped on schedule, was
tr1 budget, and was technically superior to what was expected. The projecr is
now described as a success story showing the potential of distributed development.
The center for creative Leadership, a research and development firm in-North
Carolina, studied te factors that lead global managers to succeed and idenrified
four pivotal skills: (l) international business knowldge; (2) cultural adaptability;
(3) ability to take the perspective of others; and (4) ability to play the role oltrrrovK
tor (Dalton et a1.,2002). The thread conriecting these capabilities is effecrive communication, the ability to forge relationships with others in an open, informed way.

Communication Technology
Although we will detail the role of communication technology in conremporary organizations later in this text, it is important to sy at the outset that the global business community-and the global markets, economy, and joint ventures that we
have been describing
is in large part qac poqsible by recenr advances in com-

lng
or erson-to-Derson interaction.
.-clouati@ies

to communic te in

ways

trat

transcend

space and time. For example, software and hardware manufacturer Txas Instruments has operations in Txas, Ireland, and Indonesia that allow it to conduct business continuously. Before the workday ends in Indonesia, employees forward their
work electronically to employees in Ireland, who are just startingthe workday. The
employees in lreland, in turn, transmit their work to their counterparts in Txas be-

fore they sign off for the day.

Communication technologies also both require and invite organizations to use
information in new and often complex ways. In an increasingly dynamic environment,
organizations are challenged not only to discover what they know, but also to ctalog,
package, and utilize their knowledge productively. Knowledge management refeis
g_ " ways organizations make use of lnowledge as a resource an commodity.
There are two broad approaches to knowledge management: information-based and
people- or interaction-based knowledge management (Iwerson & McPhee, 2002),
lnformation-based knowledge management is concerned with tracking, cataloging,
managing, and displaying knowledge products, which might include organizational
documents and records, speech ("this call may be recored for quality-assurance
purposes"), and behaviors, People-based knowledge management assumes that organizational knowledge is comprised not of "information," but of networks of

15

CouuuNI cATIoN
Panr I : Appnoacs t.lc Oncer'lzerIoNr'

it meaningful and sharot'it*'' To be truly successful' orgaknow-how with people-based "know&

the
ge bY making

e
new

ir

do

of

social networks' These programs re-

nication technology on organizations

ork trafc has some drawbacks' You have

entity theft, whereby someone steals your
es

you in transactions with various stores

Chapter

l: Comrnunication

17

and the Changing World of Work

lions of customers to hackers who infiltrated their databases. The threat posed by
such thefts puts significant pressure on corporations to secure access and use of
customer information.

n Beyond Time: Competition

anA the Urgent

*:,'-x1""3::::i:"i* :I::*:"^:1":':l1r

*:t*X.i"j?l#,"tent
to shorten the tlme '

r\
A"f

Orgnization

Iitt

y'" :,'l-T:::
rrnizetirns cnmnrniec :*":
whncc 'noin nhollon*
"

I
K i./
-qY .,Ul-'i ,.1
V

,v

L"

that began with fast food, fax, and overnight mail continues today with
the proliferation of ATMs, virtual libraries, and customer service call centers tht
are open twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week. The main motivation for all
this emphasis on speed is increased competitiveness. Customers now expect ro get
exactly what they want, exacdy when they want it (Gleick, 2000). The volume of
calls to 911 has prompted some cormunities to create 912 numbers for serious
conditions, reserving 91 I for true emerge ncies. lf qality.was te watchword of the
last decade, uelocity is ruling this one (Gates, 1999). Moreoveq this increase in velocity is often accompanied by extreme customization; Web 2.0 applications such as
those used by Amazon.com and Netflix allow drese companies to better meet and
even anticipate their customers'wants and needs.
ber. of aduantages to one,company ouer another (Stalk,
l5
l99B). Consi
ree examples. -t lrst, companres E{q qqg
bring a new

-d, rn."-p"r.* and elecuonirtf" nsoffi@roducts are measured. Second, businesses today compete
g.

over who can provide the cuickest resDonse time to cusrm{'r inquiries and con-

cerns.InthepLrsonal"o-p,@",,,,o,-o,,sinvestment

in next-day, on-site service if needed, but most problems can be resolved over the
phone through a customer service representative. Finally, companies today strive to
shorten delivery times so that the product or service is available to you as close ro
the moment of purchase as possibl. In the past, it was common for every to take
six to eight weeks for a simple order; today people are demanding that customized
products be both assembled and shipped within a few days ar most.
one impact of organizations' viewing rime as a competitive advantage is gready
increased pressure on mangers and employees to work faster and to be available
around the clock to keep tleir customers and, ultimatel their jobs. Tchnology

f I
-1::1
fe
I e 4.r6d

Got+,r

vi cK
' C-A'|,/ n
I

rv\a'
e.ryT'1/

Pnr I: AppnocnINc OnceNrzrtoNl Cout'tvNIcATIoN

At a recent executive development program we atattention between the invited spekers and the
their
tended, senior leaders split
s for the full two days of the meeting, res" to reflect their addictive nature. While
e for customers, its downside is the toll it
makes this easier all the time.

tionship with

their relationshiPs'
w organizations are changing their relathe concept of an organization's envi-

edasthesu@)f p(gjn-

ranization's boundaries but exert

operauons I he character
internal
rfre*company's
over
influence
,-rli!Tti^l
by customers' cominfluenced
are
environment
organizational
co^jl"*i ty of

,"i.rr"nt governments, and the physical setting..From a biologip"trp."n", * typically-thin of successful organisms as effectively adapting to
""ppli".r,
""t
changes in their environment'

"od
p"airorr,

this case, the changes could be

nments until a crisis reveals

it to them'
in touch with

#:f,n::
customer serle important information about the outside world'
the opinions
Boundary spnners serve t least thre functions: (1) They can ccess
use
can
and
of peopl ouside of the organization
decision making; (2) their awareness of
can serve s a r/arnlng system for environmental

,.,iott"l

nization to its environment (Adams, 1980)'

s to provide resPonsive
e as company, on the
sponses-or what one
an enormous investrequires
st-for-me" service

nies nor the megacaPital and r

we do not necessarilY welcom

Chapter

l: Communication

tries we will soon have three or four major players

the market.

l9

and the Changing World of Work

tat control the vast majority of

n Beyond Loyalty: The New Social Contract

over the last hundred years, people have left their homes, farms, and communities
to work for large companies in exchange for wages. Many worked all their lives for
a single c
ecurity and a decent pension. The

old

socia
be

would

performance and good behavior

At the close of the twentieth cen-

tury this relationship between organizations and employees became obsolete, both
States and abroad. with global competition came plant closings,
downsizing, and cutbacks. As economies picked up, people were rehired under different terms, as either temporary or short-term contract employees. This change
has had a dramatic impact inJapan, where individual identity is closely tied to corporate membership; layoffs there have caused stress levels to skFrocket and have
contributed to an increase in the suicide rate.
Today, few employees believe that their employer will remain loyal to them, _
and indeed the feeling is mutual. The
rr4ir a diffcren.k,id-of 6
employment .oltiershi- .'herein "iob'security" is fleeting and tied exDresslv to
whether one's skills fit the orsanization's qeeds ar that ulG-nJump at te

in the united

pos5ibilityofsellingoutforatidypr@lwaysonthelookout

for a better opportunity. Many business schools teach their srudents to think of
tlemselves as a small business and to see tleir creers as a series of finite contracts
with corporations. In this new environment, employees must engage in continual
learning to remain in demand; at the same time, businesses must suive to attract
and retain the best talent. In this spirit, one of Pfizer's senior human resources
managers is now director of "talent mnagement," with the job of continually "rerecruiting" the best employees, making sure that they are challenged, satisfied, and
likely to stay with the firm.
Perhaps the greatest challenge to employee loyalty in recent years has been the
extraordinary number of corporate officers (e.g., CEos, CFos), corporate directors, and corporte accountants who either are being investigated for or have been
indicted for criminal behavior. The most storied of these cases is Enron, now synonymous with grievous etfrics violations. In 2001, as the company was clearly moving toward bankruptcy, it paid out $81 million in cash and stock to its 140 most
senior mangers (nearly $5 million per manager), while most of Enron's former
employees received a maximum of only $13,500 in severance pay ("Managing to
make money," 2002). The documentary film Enron: Tbe Sma.rtest Guys in tbe Roont
(2005) chronicles one perspective on the spectacular rise and fall of the Enron Corporation, foreshadowing the trials of Enron's most senior leaders (Kenneth Lay and
Jeff Skilling), which resulted in their convictions. Lay died before he could be sentenced; Skilling was convicted in 200 of multiple federal felony charges relating to

'

e..l..r Locr-lcg

20

Panr I: App nocnrxc

ncIzert o ur,

C otrllruNl

carlo

Enron's financial collapse and is currently serving a twenty-four-year prison sentence at the Federal Correctional Institution in Waseca, Minnesota.

Shifting Power Bases

In nineteenth-century America, power was mesured by a person's tangible asseS:
land, equipment, oil, and even slaves. Not surprisingl those in control of these resourceswielded the greatest power. By the second half of the rwentieth century in-

(<-

the Year

ing, or transmittal of information, a figure that is predicted to increar. ,ig"p;:;;t;

by 2010 (U.S.'Department of Labor, 2002)' A growing number of people can be
classified as "knowledge workers," and those with the best access to information are
the most likely to succeed.
However, some observers argue that having the right information is not suffilrif f^.
riont
f^r olri'atrin:o ol maintoinino nnwer Accnrdino to Rosnheth Krnfer ll 9891

rv orsaniz.ttions becaus of the r

-*),
..$-il;,i;;il.i;;:y"::t,i::.1:1x'":tu*""
fo,,,'r reporrreoorrth" ror*l
n rni' "r'allengins.r,urr,*"r,,,
h";;';;';f;;J"i.
sP r{",,,,",,-",,.
(for

Cr'

those companies tlat

ing relationships specified by the organizational chart
still have organizational chars!) are far too limiting to be effective. Informal relationships allow employees to get things done across functions within organizations,
across organizations, and among business, government, and otler stakeholders.
And as mentioned earlier, new communication technology has made social networking exuemely easy, even across gret physical distances.
Finall under the new social contract, the career ladder (an expectation that
one's creer will follow an orderly progression of increasingly responsible jobs in
the hierarchy) has been replaced by the opportunity to work on an expanding set of
challenges to hone one's skills and the suategic application of those skills through a
web of work opportunities and projecs. Since careers no longer follow predictable
pats, personal connections and interpersonal relationships have become essential

for

success.

New Values and Priorities

At the same time that competition has increased and @
tnnloyees. new values and priorities about home and family have emerged. Many
if not most workers struggle to succeed at work while also attending to the care of
2007). The desire for baiance between work and

{grkgls; at te same timel}o]'lGFtnore

meaningful, involving work-exilences. American workers in particular are altering their definition of success to include not just a career, but also a deeper involvement with family and community.

Chapter 1: Communication and the ChangingWorld of Work

Tvo primary factors have contributed to this shifting of priorities. First, with
fewer high-papng, unionized manufacturing jobs available in the United States,

It was not that long ago that the model American employee came to work earl
stayed late' and was willing to travel anywhere at a moment's notice. Being a success
else, leading many to become
. Today's men and women are
gh some are willing to work as
ced lives. Some businesses are

moving to accommodate these needs by providing child care, flexible hours, and
parental leave (Moskowitz & Townsend, L99l;Zedeck& Mosie 1990). while flex-

agement reports that 64 percenr of organizanons offered flextime in 2002.In 200,

that number dropped to 57 percent (2009). Analysts suggest that the currenr lbor
market does not require employers to offer flextime and otler work-life programs
to attract employees. Moreover, many employees are hesitant to ask for or demand
flexible schedules because they believe it may signal a lack of commitment to the
organization that could put their careers in jeopardy.
In sum, today's organizations acknowledge the importance of the employee's
quality of life. Broadly speaking, an employee's quality of life is overall satisfaction

2002). on-site day care is seen as a boon by many but is resisted by some who see it
further encroachment by business into employees' personal lives. In the end,
probably the best any organization can do is to treat employees as whole people
while allowing them latitude in how they establish balance in their own lives.
as

The Meaning of Work

L
L

Some of the values being espoused today about work signal not a retreat from it but
a trnsformtion of its meaning
from drudgery to a source of personal significance and fulfillment. Employees wanr to feel that the work they do is worthwhile,

r/

not just a way to draw a paycheck. This trend is increasingly pervasive. For example,
while white-collar workers and college students tend to view blue-collar workers

P.nr I : Ap p nonc n r c

ceN t zer

N,er Co u

ut

uN I cAT I o N

WHAT WOULD YOU DO?

Or ganizati on al Structure an d Employe e We llWorkabolic is a term used

ein g

to describe a person who is unnaturally preoccupied

work, including nights

often abandoned in
are
friendships
and
relationships
and weekends. Family
Some workaholics
workaholics.
or
other
with
coworkers
favor of relationships
getting
unfinished work
about
worry
obsessively
work,
but
most
truly enjoy their
to
dedicate themwho
choose
people
viewed
as
are
often
done. Workaholics
and
friends. Some
health,
family,
of
their
work
at
the
expense
selves to their
a sign of the
desirable
workaholics
of
the
behavior
organizations consider
job
of
increased
a
source
proand
and
te
company
to
the
employee's dedication
technology
have
led
in
communication
new
developments
ductivity. Moreove
ways.
in
unprecedented
on
call"
many people to be "always
Several organizational theorists propose a new interpretation of workaholism as a disease, a condition brought about by the profound influences tlrat
organizations have over how people define themselves through their work
(Alvesson, 1993;Deetz, Tlacy, and Simpson, 2000). In this view, organizational
power structrures may destabilize the employee's personality and produce an unhealthy level of dependence.
The causes and symptoms of workaholist4 are, in a sense, ethical problems.
fu organizational theorist Stan Deetz arg'ues, "It is wrong to knowingly do physical or psychological harm to others" (1991, p. 38).This raises several ethical

with

work. Typically, a workaholic spends long hours at

questions.

DrscussroN QuESTroNs
1. To what extent do organizations intentionally reward unhealthy but productive behavior as a way of maximizing employee output?

2. What role does communication technolory ply in promoting workaholic

behavior?

3. If you were manager in a company that rewards workaholic behavior, how

would you counteract te problem? What questions would you ask? Who in
the company would you consult?

4. If you were an employee of a company tlat rewards workaholic behavior,

how would you address the problem? Who would you discuss it with?
employee or managet would you have an ethical obligation to help a
coworker who is a workaholic? Explain.
6. Cana student be a workaholic? What might this term mean in an educational
environment? Do you know anyone who fits the description?
7. Can you identi$' any generational differences in the likelihood of someone
becoming a workaholic? Explain.

5.

fu

Chapter 1: Communication and the Changing World of Work

as being motivated primarily by mone job securiry and benefits, rhe most
important incentives for workers at all levels idclude positive relationships with
coworkers and managers. Also intportant are opportunitjes to participare in rganizattonal decision making. Wthout these major determinants of job satisfaction,
worker stress and burnout may occur. Work has considerable social significance for
Americans, who, despite increased concerns for balance, as a rule spend more time
on the job than they do with their families.

Who Can Afford to Prioritize?

For many people,

prioritizin

er needs is a luxury. "Sure,"

they say, "I want all those thi
work, more time for myself,
more time with family and fri
ally need this job to suryive!"
This is especially true in light of the recent credit crisis, which has resulted in an
unprecedented number of home foreclosures and record unemployment in the
United States.
Any discussion of the quality of work life must take into account the millions of
U.S. workers who are either unemployed or underemployed and live below the
poverty line. fu we struggle to make work more meaningful, we rnust also seek to
improve the education, living srandards, and working conditions of those at the
bottom of tlre economic ladder by setting priorities that include everyone. More
specifically, we must recognize that traditionally disadvantaged groups
for example, people of color nd \yqrnsn
are disproportionately represented- among the
- lead us ro redouble our efforts to fight both
working poor. This awareness must
racism and sexism on the wy to establishing economic parity.

t..$u-.ffilnv''' ., t., ,' ..' ,. '.r ., .

,,. -,, ,

'.',,,

'

Defining organizational communication for the twenty-first century requires the

identification of important social trends and the repositioning of communication
practices in an ever-changing landscape. In the present turbulent environment, traditional ways of doing business
and of communicating
are no longer effective.
- organizational communication
Instead, new principles of effective
must be developed to reflect the new environment-principles that transcend time and space
and that acknowledge the formation of a new social contract between owners and
employees. Dissatisfaction with current forms of economic globalization and corporate corruption on an unprecedented scale have created conditions for a new activism around the nature of work.
fu we stated at te outser, the history of humanity is the history of organizing,
which is in turn accomplished through communication. In the next chapters we will
consider more specifically the theories and denitions that will guide us toward a
better understandin g of or ganizaional communication today.

23

24

Pnr I: AppnoecutNc OnceNtzrtoNer' Couu

uIcATI oN

tQ"ur. r'S F;oR RVrnw lqP DrscussroN

Explain what is meanr by the idea that organizing always involves bridging di-u"*. p"rrp.ctives. How is this idea directly related to the study and practice of
communication at work?
the statement "Answers to questions about organtzattonal
what do we mean by"trighty
situated and perishable"? How is te answer to this
are
"o--.rrri""tion
q""tai"" directly rel"tJd io the idea that there are no hard-and-fast rules for effective communication?
is it more important to learn how to ask good questions than
about communication in orp anizations?
answers
set

why

it is to have

inDescribe how the global economy, changing mPa-gem:nt practices, and

how
explain
for-"tion technolo"gies have reshaped the world of work. Then
in
each of these changs has affected the study and practice of communication
organizations.

Describe tlre concept of the urgent organization' Explain how this concept relates to the idea of today's business being done in a "turbulent environment'"
What is ment by the "new social contract"? What social changes have helped
create it?

you
7. FIow can studying organizational communication prepare

for tfie world of

work, regardless of your future professional plans?

I :.l
i.

r-h

.i

j,
.ii',, ,.,': i"r lt
,;,,'i_ ,ii
|
:
: r. -t
':'
.
,; '
ii.i:1.' ...;1.
.
.

Boundaryspanner,P. l8
Communication network, P. 20
Communication technologY' P. 15
Globalizatiorr, p.7
Identity theft, p. 16
Knowledge mnagement, P. 15

Multicultural management, P.
New social contract, P. 19

12

n_ir

..,;r'1,.: .riilii

Organizational communication' p. 4
Organizational environment, P. 18
Outsourcing, p. 9
Quality of life, p. 21
Tlafcking, p. 12
Urgent organization, P. 17
Worldview, p. 3