AFN 305 Environmental Health

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH
Environmental heath in rural and urban settlements is concerned with the living and working
environment of the people. The major health problems in Kenya arise from:
In adequate or lack of housing.

Inadequate ventilation facilities in houses.
Lack of clean water, poor sanitation including inadequate excreta disposals.
Poor surface water drainage.
Poor solid, liquid, and gaseous waste management as well as some cultural practices.
These environmental heath factors, lead to prevalent transmission of diseases such as malaria,
acute respiratory infections, diarrhea diseases like cholera, and malnutrition, and sexually
transmitted diseases such as syphilis and HIV/AIDS. To some extent, better management of the
living and working environments can prevent environmental diseases.
Environmental diseases such as typhoid, tuberculosis and sexually transmitted disease (STDS)
are on the increase in Kenya. Infectious diseases are still the leading cause of ill health. The
modification of natural ecosystems for settlements and agriculture as well as interference with
the natural river flow has accelerated the spread of environmental disease. The construction of
dams along Tana River was well as irrigation in Mwea and Ahero provide breeding areas for
mosquitoes and bilharzias snails. In Urban settlements, the change of lifestyle and eating habits
have caused the increase of chronic adulthood disease such as: heart disease, stroke; cancer, in
respiratory diseases, and skin disease
These diseases have multiple causes and are largely in relation to; work environment diet,
smoking habit, exercise, sexual habits, and taking alcohol and other harmful drugs.
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www.sekuonlinenutritionlibrary.ac.ke
The solution to environmental health issues depend on individual community and national
government. Some of the strategies at individual, community and national levels include: Making good lifestyle choices such as, not to smoke, to practice safe sex, to follow a
healthy diet, and to protect our eyes and skin from the sun.
Preventing air, water soil and noise pollution.
Better nutrition for pregnant women, and children.
Provision of clean drinking water.
Providing cheap antibiotics to cure infections.
Involving local communities in managing human surrounding to minimize disease
causing vectors.
Conservation of biodiversity which control spread of diseases vectors.
Regular exercise for urban dwellers to release stress.
Improve working environment to minimize health hazards.
Promote activities that lead to healthy environment.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH
Definition
Since 1950, the International Labour Organization (ILO) and the World Health Organization
(WHO) have shared a common definition of occupational health. It was adopted by the Joint
ILO/WHO Committee on Occupational Health at its first session in 1950 and revised at its
twelfth session in 1995. The definition reads: "Occupational health should aim at: the promotion
and maintenance of the highest degree of physical, mental and social well-being of workers in all
occupations; the prevention amongst workers of departures from health caused by their working
conditions; the protection of workers in their employment from risks resulting from factors
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adverse to health; the placing and maintenance of the worker in an occupational environment
adapted to his physiological and psychological capabilities; and, to summarize, the adaptation of
work to man and of each man to his job."
Occupational health and safety is a cross-disciplinary area concerned with protecting the
safety, health and welfare of people engaged in work or employment. The goal of all
occupational health and safety programs is to foster a safe work environment.
Reasons for health and safety
1. For safety (from moving machinery, working at heights, slippery surfaces, mobile equipment,
etc.)
2. For ergonomic reasons (material handling, environment, work organization, etc.)
3. Safety from chemical agents
4. Safety from biological agents
5. Safety from physical agents (noise, lighting, radiation, etc.)
6. Safety from psychosocial (stress, violence, etc.)
The reasons for establishing good occupational health and safety standards are frequently
identified as:
Moral - An employee should not have to risk injury or death at work, nor should others
associated with the work environment.
Economic - many governments realize that poor occupational health and safety
performance results in cost to the State (e.g. through social security payments to the
incapacitated, costs for medical treatment, and the loss of the "employability" of the
worker). Employing organizations also sustain costs in the event of an incident at work
(such as legal fees, fines, compensatory damages, investigation time, lost production, lost
goodwill from the workforce, from customers and from the wider community).
Legal - Occupational requirements may be reinforced in civil law and/or criminal law; it
is accepted that without the extra "encouragement" of potential regulatory action or
litigation, many organisations would not act upon their implied moral obligations.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
1951: Industrial Health And Safety in the 1950s
Recent technological advances in industry created new and more difficult problems of industrial
health and safety. Although the forty-first person affected by radium poisoning from painting
luminous dials on watch faces in 1916 did not die until 1951, industrial medicine was faced with
new and equally serious diseases stemming from the handling of radioactive substances related
to atomic energy. Industrial hygiene officials throughout the country were concerned with a
variety of health hazards, such as an arsenic-bearing dross in a lead refining process, ozone
generators in garages, solvent hazards in dry-cleaning establishments, and carbon-monoxide
developed by space heaters.
The condition which attracted the greatest attention and caused the most controversy of all
industrial health situations was still silicosis and other lung conditions caused by dust in the
atmosphere. From the rock quarries of Vermont to the foundries of the mid-west, studies of dust
concentrations and systematic X-ray programs for workers were taking place. For the first time,
figures were made available on the incidence of silicosis and other lung infections through mass
X-ray programs.
Higher employment in 1950 brought higher frequency rates on industrial accidents. The rapid
expansion of the labor force invariably means the employment of large numbers of lessexperienced and generally more marginal workers among whom more accidents will occur.
Overtime work means fatigue and consequently higher rates of industrial injuries. Comparative
figures for 1949 and 1950 show direct correlations between accident frequency rates and
employee accession rates, and total man-hours worked. Figures for 1951 were more than 10 per
cent higher than for corresponding months of 1950. Highest increases over previous years were
reported in logging and machine shop fields.
Unquestionably the most shocking of all industrial accidents in 1951 was the bituminous coal
mine disaster in West Frankfort, Ill., two days before Christmas, in which 119 miners died. This
was the most serious mine accident since 1928, and it brought to the public's attention once more
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the need for mine safety regulation. The haphazard state safety laws appeared to be inadequate,
and consequently federal legislation was proposed to give federal mine inspectors the authority
to shut down unsafe mines, and to make the recommendations of the mine inspectors mandatory.
Unfortunately, laws alone will not solve the problem of mine accidents miners and operators
will have to become more safety conscious.
All too often the economic cost of industrial accidents is figured solely in terms of payments
made to or in behalf of injured employees. Studies of the uninsured costs of industrial accidents
resulted in estimates of a minimum ratio of 4 for uninsured costs to 1 for insured (it should be
noted that uninsured costs consisting of first aid, lost time, no-injury, and doctor's cases were
frequently overlooked). New studies published in 1951 cast new light on the problem of
uninsured costs and offer new incentives to accident prevention.
Industrial health and safety are concerned with the well-being of workers in the course of their
employment. Interest in industrial safety is sporadic, resulting from great public concern
associated with disasters. The most hazardous industries are coal mining, lumbering, and
sawmilling.
Health and safety a case study of the US in 1948s
Industrial safety still suffered from lack of rational safety codes and effective enforcement in
1948. The mine tragedy in the US in March 1947, brought the matter of mine safety to the
attention of the United States Congress. Legislation leading to more systematic mine inspection
and reporting was enacted; but this act, which was much less forceful than many people desired,
expired in August 1948 without Congress attempting to extend it. This incident was illustrative
both of the stimulus to enactment of legislation, and the way declining public interest caused
laws to lose effectiveness; and was indicative of the human, political, and economic factors
which often undermined efforts to create a safe place to work. The isolation and transient nature
of the lumbering and milling industries, as well as their naturally hazardous character, made
them difficult to regulate by legislation.
Injury Statistics.
The actual time lost because of work injuries during the full year of 1947 was approximately
44,700,000 man-days, or roughly a year's employment of 150,000 workers. More than 17,000
workers died, 1,800 were totally disabled, and 90,000 partially disabled for life. Increases in the
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total number of accidents were noted in practically all industrial groups: manufacturing, railroad
operations, construction, mining and quarrying, and public utility operations, largely because of
the increased amount of activity in these groups. Although the number of injuries per 1,000,000
employee hours worked declined for manufacturing generally, substantial increases were
recorded in logging, planning mills, and building construction.
The severity rate, although of doubtful validity, remained the only index of the serious nature of
work injuries. Stevedoring in 1947 showed the greatest number of days lost by accident per
1,000 hours worked, but logging, stone cutting, heavy engineering construction, and iron and
steel manufacturing also had high rates.
OSHA 2007 HIGHLIGHTS

Health & Safety At Work
The law imposes a responsibility on the employer to ensure safety at work for all their
employees.
Employers duties
Under the Act the employer has a duty to ensure the employees safety, health and welfare at
work as far as is reasonably practicable. In order to prevent workplace injuries and ill health the
employer is required, among other things, to:
Provide and maintain a safe workplace which uses safe plant and equipment
Prevent risks from use of any article or substance and from exposure to physical agents,
noise and vibration
Prevent any improper conduct or behaviour likely to put the safety, health and welfare of
employees at risk
Provide instruction and training to employees on health and safety
Provide protective clothing and equipment to employees

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Appointing a competent person as the organisations Safety Officer
Employees' health and safety responsibilities

Your rights as an employee
Your rights as an employee to work in a safe and healthy environment are given to you by law,
and generally can't be changed or removed by your employer. The most important rights are:
as far as possible, to have any risks to your health and safety properly controlled
to be provided, free of charge, with any personal protective and safety equipment
if you have reasonable concerns about your safety, to stop work and leave your work
area, without being disciplined
to tell your employer about any health and safety concerns you have
to get in touch with the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) or your local authority if
your employer won't listen to your concerns, without being disciplined
to have rest breaks during the working day, to have time off from work during the
working week, and to have annual paid holiday
Your responsibilities
Your most important responsibilities as an employee are:
to take reasonable care of your own health and safety
if possible avoid wearing jewellery or loose clothing if operating machinery
if you have long hair or wear a headscarf, make sure it's tucked out of the way (it could
get caught in machinery)
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to take reasonable care not to put other people - fellow employees and members of the
public - at risk by what you do or don't do in the course of your work
to co-operate with your employer, making sure you get proper training and you
understand and follow the company's health and safety policies
not to interfere with or misuse anything that's been provided for your health, safety or
welfare
to report any injuries, strains or illnesses you suffer as a result of doing your job (your
employer may need to change the way you work)
to tell your employer if something happens that might affect your ability to work (eg
becoming pregnant or suffering an injury). Because your employer has a legal
responsibility for your health and safety, they may need to suspend you while they
find a solution to the problem, but you will normally be paid if this happens
if you drive or operate machinery, to tell your employer if you take medication that
makes you drowsy - they should temporarily move you to another job if they have
one for you to do.
HEALTH
The measures outlined in this section contribute to the general working environment
of people in the workplace.
Personal protective equipment

Your employer must provide personal protective equipment (PPE) to you free of charge. You
must use this correctly, and follow the training and instruction you have been given.
In some jobs, failure to use PPE properly can be grounds for disciplinary action or even
dismissal. However, you can refuse to wear PPE if it puts your safety at risk (eg PPE of the
wrong size could put you at risk because of its poor fit). Ask your employer or the firm's safety
representative for the right size (which must be provided free of charge).
Ventilation
Workplaces need to be adequately ventilated. Fresh, clean air should be drawn from a source
outside the workplace, uncontaminated by discharges from flues, chimneys or other process
outlets, and be circulated through the workrooms.
Ventilation should also remove and dilute warm, humid air and provide air movement which
gives a sense of freshness without causing a draught. If the workplace contains process or
heating equipment or other sources of dust, fumes or vapours, more fresh air will be needed to
provide adequate ventilation.
Windows or other openings may provide sufficient ventilation but, where necessary, mechanical
ventilation systems should be provided and regularly maintained.
Temperatures in indoor workplaces
Environmental factors (such as humidity and sources of heat in the workplace) combine with
personal factors (such as the clothing a worker is wearing and how physically demanding their
work is) to influence what is called someones thermal comfort.
Individual personal preference makes it difficult to specify a thermal environment which satisfies
everyone. For workplaces where the activity is mainly sedentary, for example offices, the
temperature should normally be at least 16 C. If work involves physical effort it should be at
least 13 C (unless other laws require lower temperatures).
Work in hot or cold environments
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The risk to the health of workers increases as conditions move further away from those
generally accepted as comfortable. Risk of heat stress arises, for example, from working in
high air temperatures, exposure to high thermal radiation or high levels of humidity, such as
those found in foundries, glass works and laundries. Cold stress may arise, for example, from
working in cold stores, food preparation areas and in the open air during winter.
Assessment of the risk to workers health from working in either a hot or cold environment needs
to consider both personal and environmental factors. Personal factors include body activity, the
amount and type of clothing, and duration of exposure. Environmental factors include ambient
temperature and radiant heat; and if the work is outside, sunlight, wind velocity and the presence
of rain or snow.
Some remedial measures to this:
Actions arising from your assessment may include:
introducing engineering measures to control the thermal effects in a workplace environment, for
example heat effects, may involve insulating any plant which acts as a radiant heat source,
thereby improving air movement, increasing ventilation rates and maintaining the appropriate
level of humidity. The radiant heat effects of the sun on indoor environments can be addressed
either by orientating the building so that it doesnt suffer from the effects of solar loading, or
where this is not possible, by the use of blinds or shutters on windows. Where workers are
exposed to cold and it is not reasonably practicable to avoid exposure you should consider, for
example, using cab heaters in fork-lift trucks in cold stores;
restriction of exposure by, for example, re-organising tasks to build in rest periods or other breaks
from work. This will allow workers to rest in an area where the environment is comfortable and,
if necessary, to replace bodily fluids to combat dehydration or cold. If work rates cause excessive
sweating, workers may need more frequent rest breaks and a facility for changing into dry
clothing;
medical pre-selection of employees to ensure that they are fit to work in these environments;
use of suitable personal protective clothing (which may need to be heat resistant or insulating,
depending on whether the risk is from heat or cold);
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acclimatisation of workers to the environment in which they work, particularly for hot
environments;
training in the precautions to be taken; and
supervision, to ensure that the precautions identified by the assessment are taken.
Lighting
Lighting should be sufficient to enable people to work and move about safely. If necessary, local
lighting should be provided at individual workstations and at places of particular risk such as
crossing points on traffic routes. Lighting and light fittings should not create any hazard.
Automatic emergency lighting, powered by an independent source, should be provided
where sudden loss of light would create a risk.
Cleanliness and waste materials
Every workplace and the furniture, furnishings and fittings should be kept clean and it should be
possible to keep the surfaces of floors, walls and ceilings clean. Cleaning and the removal of
waste should be carried out as necessary by an effective method. Waste should be stored in
suitable receptacles.
Room dimensions and space
Workrooms should have enough free space to allow people to move about with ease. The volume
of the room when empty, divided by the number of people normally working in it, should be at
least 11 cubic metres. All or part of a room over 3.0 m high should be counted as 3.0 m high. 11
cubic metres per person is a minimum and may be insufficient depending on the layout, contents
and the nature of the work.
Workstations and seating
Workstations should be suitable for the people using them and for the work they do. People
should be able to leave workstations swiftly in an emergency. If work can or must be done
sitting, seats which are suitable for the people using them and for the work they do should be
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provided. Seating should give adequate support for the lower back, and footrests should be
provided for workers who cannot place their feet flat on the floor.
SAFETY
Workplace safety
Workplace safety is a category of management responsibility in places of employment.
To ensure the safety and health of workers, managers establish a focus on safety that can include
elements such as:
management leadership and commitment
employee engagement
accountability
ensuring all task are carried out safely and efficiently and effectivily
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safety programs, policies, and plans
safety processes, procedures, and practices
safety goals and objectives
safety inspections for workplace hazards
safety program audits
safety tracking & metrics
hazard identification and control
safety committees to promote employee involvement
safety education and training
safety communications to maintain a high level of awareness on safety
Personal protective equipment

Your employer must provide personal protective equipment (PPE) to you free of charge.
You must use this correctly, and follow the training and instruction you have been given.
In some jobs, failure to use PPE properly can be grounds for disciplinary action or even
dismissal. However, you can refuse to wear PPE if it puts your safety at risk (eg PPE of
the wrong size could put you at risk because of its poor fit). Ask your employer or the
firm's safety representative for the right size (which must be provided free of charge).
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Maintenance
The workplace, and certain equipment, devices and systems should be maintained in efficient
working order (efficient for health, safety and welfare). Such maintenance is required for
mechanical ventilation systems; equipment and devices which would cause a risk to health,
safety or welfare if a fault occurred; and equipment and devices intended to prevent or reduce
hazard.
The condition of the buildings needs to be monitored to ensure that they have appropriate
stability and solidity for their use. This includes risks from the normal running of the work
process (eg vibration, floor loadings) and foreseeable risks (eg fire in a cylinder store).
Floors and traffic routes
Traffic route means a route for pedestrian traffic, vehicles, or both, and includes any stairs,
fixed ladder, doorway, gateway, loading bay or ramp.
There should be sufficient traffic routes, of sufficient width and headroom, to allow people and
vehicles to circulate safely with ease.
Horizontal swinging barriers used as gates at car park or similar entrances should be locked
open or locked shut (preferably by padlock) so that they do not swing open and constitute a risk
to oncoming vehicles. This guidance also relates to duties under the requirements of the
Regulations covering doors and gates.
To allow people and vehicles to move safely, the best approach is to keep vehicles and
pedestrians apart by ensuring that they use entirely separate routes. If people and vehicles have
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to share a traffic route, use kerbs, barriers or clear markings to designate a safe walkway and,
where pedestrians need to cross a vehicle route, provide clearly marked crossing points with
good visibility, bridges or subways. Make sure the shared route is well lit.
It is often difficult for drivers to see behind their vehicle when they are reversing; as far as
possible, plan traffic routes so that drivers do not need to reverse. This can be achieved by using
one-way systems and drive-through loading areas.
Set appropriate speed limits, and make sure they, and any other traffic rules, are obeyed.
Provide route markings and signs so that drivers and pedestrians know where to go and what
rules apply to their route, so they are warned of any potential hazards.
Loading bays should have at least one exit point from the lower level, or a refuge should be
provided to avoid people being struck or crushed by vehicles.
Where a load is tipped into a pit or similar place, and the vehicle is liable to fall into it, barriers
or portable wheel stops should be provided at the end of the traffic route.
Floors and traffic routes should be sound and strong enough for the loads placed on them and
the traffic expected to use them. The surfaces should not have holes or be uneven or slippery,
and should be kept free of obstructions and from any article or substance which may cause a
person to slip, trip or fall.
Criteria for defects such as subsidence, unevenness, pot holes, collection of surface water, cracks
and ruts should be determined and set, and maintenance systems developed to undertake repair
when these limits are exceeded.
Open sides of staircases should be fenced with an upper rail at 900 mm or higher, and a lower
rail. A handrail should be provided on at least one side of every staircase, and on both sides if
there is a particular risk. Additional handrails may be required down the centre of wide
staircases. Access between floors should not be by ladders or steep stairs.
Falls into dangerous substances
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The consequences of falling into dangerous substances are so serious that a high standard of
protection is required. Dangerous substances in tanks, pits or other structures should be
securely fenced or covered. Traffic routes associated with them should also be securely fenced.
Duties to prevent falls from height in general are covered by the Work at Height Regulations
2005 (see Further reading).
Transparent or translucent doors, gates or walls and windows
Windows, transparent or translucent surfaces in walls, partitions, doors and gates should, where
necessary for reasons of health and safety, be made of safety material or be protected against
breakage. If there is a danger of people coming into contact with it, it should be marked or
incorporate features to make it apparent.
Employers will need to consider whether there is a foreseeable risk of people coming into
contact with glazing and being hurt. If this is the case, the glazing will need to meet the
requirements of the Regulations.
Windows
Openable windows, skylights and ventilators should be capable of being opened,closed or
adjusted safely and, when open, should not pose any undue risk to anyone.
Windows and skylights should be designed so that they may be cleaned safely.When considering
if they can be cleaned safely, account may be taken of equipmentused in conjunction with the
window or skylight or of devices fitted to the building.
Doors and gates
Doors and gates should be suitably constructed and fitted with safety devices if necessary.
Doors and gates which swing both ways and conventionally hinged doors on main traffic
routes should have a transparent viewing panel.
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Power-operated doors and gates should have safety features to prevent people being struck or
trapped and, where necessary, should have a readily identifiable and accessible control switch
or device so that they can be stopped quickly in an emergency.
Upward-opening doors or gates need to be fitted with an effective device to prevent them
falling back. Provided that they are properly maintained, counterbalance springs and similar
counterbalance or ratchet devices to hold them in the open position are acceptable. Powered
vertical opening doors that are powerful enough to lift an adult or child should be fitted with
measures to prevent this.
Escalators and moving walkways
Escalators and moving walkways should function safely, be equipped with any necessary safety
devices, and be fitted with one or more emergency stop controls which are easily identifiable and
readily accessible.
WELFARE
Sanitary conveniences and washing facilities
Suitable and sufficient sanitary conveniences and washing facilities should be provided at readily
accessible places. They and the rooms containing them should be kept clean and be adequately
ventilated and lit. Washing facilities should have running hot and cold or warm water, soap and
clean towels or other means of cleaning or drying. If required by the type of work, showers
should also be provided. Men and women should have separate facilities unless each facility is in
a separate room with a lockable door and is for use by only one person at a time.
Drinking water
An adequate supply of high-quality drinking water, with an upward drinking jet or suitable cups,
should be provided. Water should only be provided in refillable enclosed containers where it
cannot be obtained directly from a mains supply. The containers should be refilled at least daily
(unless they are chilled water dispensers where the containers are returned to the supplier for
refilling). Bottled water/water dispensing systems may still be provided as a secondary source of
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drinking water. Drinking water does not have to be marked unless there is a significant risk of
people drinking non-drinking water.
Accommodation for clothing and facilities for changing
Adequate, suitable and secure space should be provided to store workers own clothing and
special clothing. As far as is reasonably practicable the facilities should allow for drying
clothing. Changing facilities should also be provided for workers who change into special
work clothing. The facilities should be readily accessible from workrooms and washing and
eating facilities, and should ensure the privacy of the user, be of sufficient capacity, and be
provided with seating.
Facilities for rest and to eat meals
Suitable and sufficient, readily accessible rest facilities should be provided.
Seats should be provided for workers to use during breaks. These should be in a place where
personal protective equipment need not be worn. Rest areas or rooms should be large enough and
have sufficient seats with backrests and tables for the number of workers likely to use them at
any one time, including suitable access and seating which is adequate for the number of disabled
people at work.
Where workers regularly eat meals at work, suitable and sufficient facilities should be
provided for the purpose. Such facilities should also be provided where food would otherwise
be likely to be contaminated.
Work areas can be counted as rest areas and as eating facilities, provided they are adequately
clean and there is a suitable surface on which to place food.
Where provided, eating facilities should include a facility for preparing or obtaining a hot drink.
Where hot food cannot be obtained in or reasonably near to the workplace, workers may need to
be provided with a means for heating their own food (eg microwave oven).
Canteens or restaurants may be used as rest facilities provided there is no obligation to
purchase food.
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Suitable rest facilities should be provided for pregnant women and nursing mothers. They
should be near to sanitary facilities and, where necessary, include the facility to lie down.
Smoking in public places is prohibited in Kenya
Trade Unions
When you start working you can choose to join a Trade Union, which is an organised group of
workers that aims to protect your interests as a worker.
Trade Unions can help to negotiate with employers for better terms and conditions including pay
and working conditions on your behalf. They can also provide legal and financial advice,
sickness benefits and education facilities.
What you can do
If you are concerned about your rights as a worker, a Trade Union can help you to
negotiate better pay and improve working conditions.
If you want to further your skills, Trade Unions can give you support and advice on
training.
For general advice and support whilst you are working, your Trade Union can act as a
great sounding board.
Interpretation of terms used

Workplace - these Regulations apply to a very wide range of workplaces, not only factories,
shops and offices but also, for example, schools, hospitals, hotels and places of entertainment.
The term workplace also includes the common parts of shared buildings, private roads and paths
on industrial estates and business parks, and temporary worksites (except workplaces involving
construction work on construction sites).
Work - means work as an employee or self-employed person.
Premises - means any place including an outdoor place.
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Domestic premises - means a private dwelling. These Regulations do not apply to domestic
premises, and exclude home-workers. However, they do apply to hotels, nursing homes and to
parts of workplaces where domestic staff are employed, such as the kitchens of hostels.
Disabled person - has the meaning given by section 1 of the Disability
Discrimination Act 1995.
MORE OSH RESPONSIBILITIES TO EMPLOYER UNDER OSHA 2007
As well as this legal responsibility, the employer also has an implied responsibility to take
reasonable steps as far as they are able to ensure the health and safety of their employees is not
put at risk. So an employer might be found liable for his actions or failure to act even if these are
not written in law.
An employer should assess the level of risk as against the cost of eliminating that risk in
deciding whether they have taken reasonable steps as far as they are able.
The employer's responsibility to the employee might include a duty to provide safe plant and
machinery and safe premises, a safe system of work and competent trained and supervised staff.
Certain groups of employees may require more care and supervision than others, for example
disabled workers, pregnant workers, illiterate workers etc.
The employer must consult either directly with their employees or through an elected
representative on health and safety matters. If there is a recognised union with an appointed
safety representative they must consult with them and allow them time off for training in health
and safety issues.
Usually the employer's responsibility is only to his or her own employees and premises;
however, the responsibility can be extended in some circumstances.
For example:
1. Where employees from different firms are employed on one job, the main contractor will then
be responsible for co-ordinating the work in a safe manner and must inform all employees of
possible hazards whether they are his actual employees or not.
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2. Where the employee is sent to work for someone else but remains employed by the same
employer but an accident happens at the place where he has been sent to work, the responsibility
may fall on the original employer.
3. The employer may also have responsibility to customers or visitors who use the work place.
It is always advisable for employers to have a written code of conduct, rules regarding training
& supervision, and rules on safety procedures. This should include information on basic health
and safety requirements. Leaflets and posters giving warnings of hazards are always advisable.
In any event an employer must establish a health and safety policy if they employ five or more
workers. Where there is a recognised trade union in the workplace, which has appointed a safety
representative that person must be consulted when drawing up the safety policy.
Also the management of Health & Safety At Work Regulations requires an employer to carry out
a risk assessment of the work place and put in place appropriate control measures.
Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations (Management Regulations)
Places an obligation on the employer to actively carry out a risk assessment of the work place
and act accordingly. The assessment must be reviewed when necessary and recorded where there
are 5 or more employees. It is intended to identify health and safety and fire risks.
Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations
Deals with any modification, extension or conversion of an existing workplace. The
requirements include control of temperature, lighting, ventilation, cleanliness, room dimensions
etc. The regulations also provide that non-smokers should be allocated separate rest areas from
smokers.
The Provision And Use Of Work Equipment Regulations
Deals with minimum standards for the use of machines and equipment with regard to suitability,
maintenance and inspection.
The Manual Handling Operations Regulations (Manual Handling Regulations)
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Deals with the manual handling of equipment, stocks, materials etc. Where reasonably
practicable an employer should avoid the need for his or her employees to undertake manual
handling involving risk of injury.
Personal Protective Equipment Work Regulations (PPE)
Deals with protective clothing or equipment which must be worn or held by an employee to
protect against health and safety risks. It also covers maintenance and storage of such equipment.
Employers cannot charge for such clothing or equipment which must carry the "CE" marking.
The Health & Safety (Display Screen Equipment) Regulations (Display Screen Regulations)
Introduced measures to prevent repetitive strain injury, fatigue, eye problems etc. in the use of
technological equipment. Every employer should make a suitable and sufficient analysis of each
workstation and surrounding work environment to ensure it meets the detailed requirements set
out in the Regulations. This includes eyesight tests on request, breaks from using the equipment
and provision of health and safety information about the equipment to the employee.
Other relevant Regulations include:
Working Time Directive and Working Time Regulations 1998
Regulates the maximum working hours for workers, (including night workers) and free health
assessments to assess suitability to work particular hours. It also governs rest periods and breaks.
For more detail see Working Time Regulations.
The Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations
Employers must notify the Health and Safety Executive or local authority about work accidents
resulting in death, personal injury or sickness where an employee is off work for more than 3
days. Records must be kept of all such accidents at the workplace for at least 3 years. Accident
books must be kept where an employer employs ten or more persons on the same premises. (If
the employment is at a mine, quarry or factory, accident books must be kept regardless of the
number of employees.)
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The Construction (Design and Management) Regulations

These Regulations set out detailed requirements with regard to the design and management of
certain areas of construction work and together with the Construction (Health, Safety and
Welfare) Regulations 1996 provide for the maintenance of safe and healthy environments on
construction sites.
Electricity at Work Regulations
These place a duty on an employer to assess risks involved in work activities involving
electricity, (this can even cover electrical appliances such as kettles). All such equipment must be
properly maintained.
Fire Precautions (Workplace) (Amendment) Regulations
All workplaces should be inspected by the fire authority to check means of escape, fire fighting
equipment and warnings and a fire certificate issued. A breach of a fire certificate could lead to a
prosecution of the employer or responsible manager or other staff member.
Health and Safety (First Aid) Regulations
Employers have to make adequate and appropriate provision for first aid.
Employers Liability (Compulsory Insurance) Regulations
Employers must insure against liability for injury or disease sustained by an employee in the
course of their employment.
Noise at Work Regulations (Noise Regulations)
Imposes a duty on employers to reduce risk of damage to hearing of employees from exposure to
noise.
OHS inspectors/ officers can provide information and guidance as well as enter premises to
investigate conditions or seize and destroy harmful substances. They can also prosecute
employers or serve Notices on them to improve working conditions, or in some cases serve
Notices that work should stop altogether.
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Under the provisions in the Employment Rights Act employees are protected from dismissal or
victimisation by an employer for a health and safety related reason, (eg. bringing to the
employer's attention matters connected to the work which is harmful or potentially harmful and
breaches health and safety regulations).
Under the OSHA 2007 employers must have a written policy on health and safety at work which
must be provided to all employees. Failure to provide such written information is an offence and
carries a fine.
RISK ASSESSMENT AND SAFETY STATEMENT

Under the OSHA 2007 every employer is required to carry out a risk assessment for the
workplace which should identify any hazards present in the workplace, assess the risks arising
from such hazards and identify the steps to be taken to deal with any risks.
The employer must also prepare a safety statement which is based on the risk assessment. The
statement should also contain the details of people in the workforce who are responsible for
safety issues. Employees should be given access to this statement and employers should review it
on a regular basis.
Protective equipment and measures
The employer should tell employees about any risks that require the wearing of protective
equipment. The employer should provide protective equipment (such as protective clothing,
headgear, footwear, eyewear, gloves) together with training on how to use it, where necessary.
An employee is under a duty to take reasonable care for his/her own safety and to use any
protective equipment supplied. The protective equipment should be provided free of charge to
employees if it is intended for use at the workplace only. Usually, employees should be provided
with their own personal equipment.
There is a range of measures that employers must take in regard to visual display units (VDUs).
These include examining the reflection and glare, the operator's position in front of the VDU, the
keyboard and the software used. Operators must be given adequate breaks from the VDU. In
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addition, employers must arrange for eye tests and, if required, make a contribution towards the
purchase of prescription eyeglasses.
Reporting accidents
All accidents in the workplace should be reported to the employer, who should record the details
of the incident. Reporting the accident will help to safeguard social welfare and other rights
which may arise as a result of an occupational accident. An employer is obliged to report any
accident that results in an employee missing 3 consecutive days at work (not including the day of
the accident) to the Health and Safety Authority.
Health and safety leave
An employer should carry out separate risk assessments in relation to pregnant employees. If
there are particular risks to an employee's pregnancy, these should be either removed or the
employee moved away from them. Under OSHA 2007 if neither of these options is possible, the
employee should be given health and safety leave from work, which may continue up the
beginning of maternity leave. If a doctor certifies that night work would be unsuitable for a
pregnant employee, the employee must be given alternative work or health and safety leave.
Following an employee's return to work after maternity leave, if there is any risk to the employee
because she has recently given birth or is breastfeeding, it should be removed. If this is not
possible, the employee should be moved to alternative work. If it is not possible for the employee
to be assigned alternative work, she should be given health and safety leave. If night work is
certified by a doctor as being unsuitable after the birth, alternative work should be provided. If
alternative work cannot be provided, the employee should be given health and safety leave.
Time spent on health and safety leave is treated as though the employee has been in employment,
and this time can be used to accumulate annual leave entitlement. The employee is entitled to
leave for any public holidays that occur during health and safety leave. During health and safety
leave, employers must pay employees their normal wages for the first three weeks, after which
Health and Safety Benefit may be paid.
Health and safety and young people
An employer should carry out a separate risk assessment in relation to an employee under 18
years of age. This risk assessment should be carried out before the young person is employed. If
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certain risks are present, including risks that cannot be recognised or avoided by the young
person due to factors like lack of experience, the young person should not be employed.
Violence in the workplace
The possibility of violence towards employees should be addressed in the safety statement. For
example, factors like the isolation of employees and the presence of cash on the premises need to
be taken into account. Proper safeguards should be put into place to eliminate the risk of violence
as far as possible and the employee should be provided with appropriate means of minimising
the remaining risk, for example, security glass.
Bullying
One of the employers duties is to prevent improper conduct or behaviour (which includes
bullying). An employer should have established procedures for dealing with complaints of
bullying in the workplace and deal with such complaints immediately. Ignoring complaints of
bullying could leave an employer open to a possible claim for damages by an employee. It is
advisable for an employer to have an established grievance procedure to deal with complaints of
bullying. An employee who feels that he or she is the victim of bullying can also refer the matter
to a Rights Commissioner see How to apply' below. The Code of Practice for Employers and
Employees on the Prevention and Resolution of Bullying at Work (pdf) sets out guidance notes
for addressing bullying in the workplace.
Harassment
The Employment Equality Acts 1998-2008 place an obligation on all employers in Kenya to
prevent harassment in the workplace. Under this law, you are entitled to bring a claim to the
Equality Tribunal and your employer may be obliged to pay you compensation if you are
harassed by reason of your gender, marital status, family status, sexual orientation, age,
disability, race, religious belief or membership of the Traveller community.
Victimisation
Under the Safety, Health and Welfare at Work Act 2005 the employee may not be victimised for
exercising his or her rights under safety and health legislation such as making a complaint. This
means that the employer may not penalise an employee by dismissal or in some other way, for
example, by disciplinary action or by being treated less favourably than other employees see
Enforcing your rights below.
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Your rights in work and training

Once you have a job, you are said to have a contractual agreement with your employer, even if
you don't have a written contract.
From your first day of work, including if you work for an agency, you have the right to be paid
the National Minimum Wage and working time rights (breaks, holidays, holiday pay and limited
working hours per week). You also have Health and Safety protection and protection from unfair
discrimination and dismissal.
What can you do
Make sure that you know what treatment to expect as an employee. If you don't receive
the treatment you are entitled to, a Connexions Direct Adviser or the Citizens Advice
Bureau will be able to help you do something about it.
It is also important to know what your employer expects from you to uphold your
contract and to follow health and safety procedures.
Your Employment Rights

What you need to know
There are certain rules in place to look after the interests of children and young people who want
to work. The age at which you can get a job, how many hours you can work and where you can
work are just some of the things laid down in law to help protect all workers.
The amount of hours you are allowed to work depends on your age and whether it's term time or
school holidays. If you're under the age of 13, you can only get a job in special circumstances
and with permission from your local authority. Once you are 13 you are allowed to do light work
which includes jobs like babysitting and paper rounds.
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What you can do

Find out how many hours you can work, what rate of pay you are entitled to and how many
breaks you should be getting. You can find most of the answers to those queries in this article and
by following the links in the 'Who Can Help?' section.
Before you get a full or part-time job, it is important that you know how many hours you are
legally allowed to work, the minimum rate of pay you're entitled to, and what breaks you should
legally be given. Employers should know, and abide by, employment laws, but it is useful if you
know about them too.
Hazards, risks, outcomes

The terminology used in OSH varies between states, but generally speaking:
A hazard is something that can cause harm if not controlled.
The outcome is the harm that results from an uncontrolled hazard.
A risk is a combination of the probability that a particular outcome will occur and the
severity of the harm involved.
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Hazard, risk, and outcome are used in other fields to describe e.g. environmental damage,
or damage to equipment. However, in the context of OSH, harm generally describes the direct
or indirect degradation, temporary or permanent, of the physical, mental, or social well-being of
workers. For example, repetitively carrying out manual handling of heavy objects is a hazard.
The outcome could be a musculoskeletal disorder (MSD) or an acute back or joint injury. The
risk can be expressed numerically (e.g. a 0.5 or 50/50 chance of the outcome occurring during a
year), in relative terms (e.g. "high/medium/low"), or with a multi-dimensional classification
scheme (e.g. situation-specific risks).
Hazard assessment
Hazard analysis or hazard assessment is a process in which individual hazards of the workplace
are identified, assessed and controlled/eliminated as close to source (location of the hazard) as
reasonable and possible. As technology, resources, social expectation or regulatory requirements
change, hazard analysis focuses controls more closely toward the source of the hazard. Thus
hazard control is a dynamic program of prevention. Hazard-based programs also have the
advantage of not assigning or impling there are "acceptable risks" in the workplace. A hazardbased program may not be able to eliminate all risks, but neither does it accept "satisfactory" -but still riskyoutcomes. And as those who calculate and manage the risk are usually managers
while those exposed to the risks are a different group, workers, a hazard-based approach can bypass conflict inherent in a risk-based approach.
Risk assessment
Modern occupational safety and health legislation usually demands that a risk assessment be
carried out prior to making an intervention. It should be kept in mind that risk management
requires risk to be managed to a level which is as low as is reasonably practical.
This assessment should:
Identify the hazards
Identify all affected by the hazard and how
Evaluate the risk

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Identify and prioritize appropriate control measures
The calculation of risk is based on the likelihood or probability of the harm being realized and
the severity of the consequences. This can be expressed mathematically as a quantitative
assessment (by assigning low, medium and high likelihood and severity with integers and
multiplying them to obtain a risk factor, or qualitatively as a description of the circumstances by
which the harm could arise.
The assessment should be recorded and reviewed periodically and whenever there is a significant
change to work practices. The assessment should include practical recommendations to control
the risk. Once recommended controls are implemented, the risk should be re-calculated to
determine of it has been lowered to an acceptable level. Generally speaking, newly introduced
controls should lower risk by one level, i.e, from high to medium or from medium to low.
Common workplace hazard groups
Mechanical hazards include:

By type of agent:
Impact force
Collisions
Falls from height
Struck by objects
Confined space
Slips and trips
Harry McShane, age 16, 1908. Pulled into

machinery in a factory in Cincinnati. His arm
was ripped off at the shoulder and his leg broken.
No compensation paid. Photograph by Lewis
Hine.
Chemical hazards include:

o
Acids
Bases
Heavy metals
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Falling on a pointed object
Compressed air/high pressure

fluids (such as cutting fluid)
Solvents
o
o
Petroleum
Entanglement
o
Equipment-related injury
Particulates
Asbestos and other fine

dust/fibrous materials
Silica
By type of damage:
Crushing
Fumes (noxious gases/vapors)
Cutting
Highly-reactive chemicals
Friction and abrasion
Fire, conflagration and explosion

hazards:
Shearing
Lead
Explosion
Deflagration
Detonation
Conflagration
Stabbing and puncture
Other physical hazards:

o
Noise
Vibration
Lighting
Barotrauma
(hypobaric/hyperbaric pressure)
Ionizing radiation
Psychosocial issues include:

o
Work-related stress, whose causal

factors include excessive working
time and overwork
Violence
from
outside
the
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Electricity
Asphyxiation
Cold stress (hypothermia)
Heat stress (hyperthermia)
organisation
Dehydration
sweating)
(due
to
Biological hazards include:

o
Bacteria
Virus
Fungi
Bullying, which may include

emotional, verbal, and sexual
harassment
Mobbing
Burnout
Exposure to unhealthy elements

during meetings with business
associates,
e.g.
tobacco,
uncontrolled alcohol
Musculoskeletal disorders, avoided by

the employment of good ergonomic
design
Mold
Blood-borne pathogens
Tuberculosis
Fire prevention (fire protection/fire safety) often comes within the remit of health and safety
professionals as well.
WORKPLACE EXPOSURES
1. Mechanical hazards
Unshielded machinery, unsafe structures in the workplace and dangerous tools are some
of the most prevalent workplace hazards in developed and developing countries.
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Adoption of safer working practices, improvement of safety systems and changes in

behavioural and management practices could reduce accident rates, even in high-risk
industries, by 50% or more within a relatively short time.
Approximately 30% of the workforce in developed countries and between 50% and 70%
in developing countries may be exposed to a heavy physical workload or ergonomically
poor working conditions, involving much lifting and moving of heavy items, or
repetitive manual tasks.
Workers most heavily exposed to heavy physical workloads include miners, farmers,
lumberjacks, fishermen, construction workers, storage workers and healthcare personnel.
Repetitive tasks and static muscular load are also common among many industrial and
service occupations and can lead to injuries and musculoskeletal disorders.
2. Exposure to biological agents
Exposure to some 200 biological agents, viruses, bacteria, parasites, fungi, moulds and
organic dusts occurs in selected occupational environments.
The hepatitis B and hepatitis viruses and tuberculosis infections (particularly among
healthcare workers),
Asthma (among persons exposed to organic dust) and chronic parasitic diseases
(particularly among agricultural and forestry workers) are the most common occupational
diseases resulting from such exposures.
Blood-borne diseases such as HIV/AIDS and hepatitis B are now major occupational
hazards for healthcare workers.
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3. Physical factors
Noise
Vibration,
Ionizing and no ionizing radiation and
Microclimatic conditions can all affect health adversely.
Between 10 and 30% of the workforce in developed countries, and up to 80% of the
workforce in developing and newly-industrializing countries, are exposed to such physical
factors.
In some high-risk sectors such as mining, manufacturing and construction, all

workers may be affected.
Noise-induced hearing loss is one of the most prevalent occupational health

effects in both developing and developed countries.
4. Chemical hazards
About 100 000 different chemical products are in use in modern work
environments and the number is growing.
High exposures to chemical hazards are most prevalent in industries that

process chemicals and metals, in the manufacture of certain consumer goods, in the
production of textiles and artificial fibres, and in the construction industry.
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Chemicals are also increasingly used in virtually all types of work, including nonindustrial activities such as hospital and office work, cleaning, and provision of cosmetic
and beauty services. Exposure varies widely.
Health effects include:
Metal poisoning,
Damage to the central nervous system and liver (caused by exposure to solvents),
Pesticide poisoning,
Dermal and respiratory allergies,
Dermatoses, cancers and
Reproductive disorders.
Reproductive hazards in the workplace include around 200300 chemicals known to be

mutagenic or carcinogenic.
The reported adverse effects include infertility in both sexes, spontaneous

abortion, fetal death, teratogenesis, fetal cancer, fetotoxicity and retarded development of the
fetus or newborn.
Numerous organic solvents and toxic metals, many biological agents, such as certain
bacteria, viruses and zoonoses, as well as heavy physical work, are also associated with an
increased risk of reproductive disorders.
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The reproductive hazards of ionizing radiation are now well-established,
About 300350 substances have been identified as occupational

carcinogens. They include chemical substances, eg benzene, chromium, asbestos,
5.
Allergenic agents
Exposure to the estimated 3000 allergenic agents in the environment is mainly

occupational.
In the work environment, such hazardous agents enter the body via the respiratory tract
or the skin.
Allergic skin diseases are some of the most prevalent occupational diseases. Occupational
respiratory diseases should therefore be the focus of any occupational health programme.
6.
Psychological stress
Psychological stress caused by time and work pressures has become more prevalent
during the past decade.
Monotonous work, work that requires constant concentration, irregular working hours,
shift-work, work carried out at risk of violence (for example, police or prison work),
isolated work or excessive responsibility for human or economic concerns, can also have
adverse psychological effects.
Psychological stress and overload have been associated with sleep disturbances, burnout
syndromes and depression.
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Epidemiological evidence exists of an elevated risk of cardiovascular disorders,

particularly coronary heart disease and hypertension in association with work stress.
Severe psychological conditions (psychotraumas) have been observed among workers

involved in serious catastrophes or major accidents.
7.
Social conditions
Social conditions of work such as gender distribution and segregation of jobs and
equality (or lack of) in the workplace, and relationships between managers and
employees, raise concerns about stress in the workplace.
Many service and public employees experience social pressure from customers, clients or
the public, which can increase the psychological workload.
Measures for improving the social aspects of work mainly involve promotion of open and
positive contacts in the workplace, support of the individual's role and identity at work,
and encouragement of teamwork.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AT THE WORKPLACE

The work environment exposes many workers to health hazards that contribute to
Injuries,
Respiratory diseases,
Cancer,
Musculoskeletal disorders,
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Reproductive disorders,
Cardiovascular diseases,
Mental and neurological illnesses,
Eye damage and
Hearing loss, as well as to communicable diseases.
The workplace environment and economic development

The main causes of occupational morbidity and mortality
o Heavy physical work, often combined with
o Heat stress,
o Occupational accidents,
o Pesticide poisonings,
o Organic dusts and
o Biological hazards
Additionally, numerous non-occupational factors such as parasitic and infectious

diseases, poor hygiene and sanitation, poor nutrition, general poverty and illiteracy
aggravate these occupational health effects.
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The informal sector and small-scale industries, in particular, are subject to numerous
workplace hazards.
Many migrants find work in the informal sector and SSIs since these offer easy entry for
newcomers, and often do not require formal trade skills, or large amounts of capital or
machinery.
In rapidly industrializing countries occupational health problems often arise due to use of
technologies that are less advanced and more hazardous than those favored by developed
countries.
Managing all aspects of production for example, health and safety at work and the
health of the work environment, as well as the external environment can be difficult
when technical and financial resources are limited, as is often the case.
In such circumstances, occupational accidents, traditional physical and ergonomic

hazards, and occupational injuries diseases become major problems.
ERGONOMICS
What are good ergonomics in the workplace?

The simple answer is to make sure that the body is not compromised at all in the work place.
39
Ensure your body position and posture is conducive to comfort and that you have minimal
distraction from physical discomfort. This correct use of the body in the workplace is simply
called 'correct ergonomics'.
In the office:
To achieve correct ergonomics and reduce the risk of Repetitive Strain Injuries (RSI), which if
not considered can lead to crippling disorders, try the following helpful tips.
TIP 1:
Feet: At your desk, make sure your feet can rest solidly and comfortably on the floor while
sitting. Use an adjustable work surface and chair that allow your feet to rest firmly on the floor,
or use a footrest.
TIP 2:
Knees: Be sure you have sufficient space under your work surface for your knees and legs. Avoid
concentrated pressure points along the underside of your thigh near the knee and the backside of
your lower leg. Stretch your legs and vary your leg posture throughout the day.
TIP 3:
Legs: Get up from your desk frequently and take brief walks. Make sure you vary your leg
positions throughout the day. Avoid placing boxes or other items under your desk that limit your
legroom.
TIP 4:
Legs: Do not sit with legs crossed as this can cause the pelvis to twist over an extended period of
time.
TIP 5:
Posture: Sitting still for long periods can cause discomfort and muscle fatigue. Within your
comfort zone, change postures often throughout the day. Pay particular attention to adjusting
your posture in the afternoon when you may tend to get fatigued.
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TIP 6:
Posture: Take frequent short breaks: stand up, carefully stretch, or walk around. Frequently
switch to brief tasks that require getting up, such as retrieving output from a printer, filing
paperwork, or consulting a colleague down the hall.
TIP 7:
Sitting: The seat should be tilted forward slightly so that the edge of the seat does not dig into the
back of the thigh. If necessary a wedge shaped cushion could be placed on the chair, with the
wider end at the back of the chair. This will help the seated person to seat with the pelvis
correctly
aligned. The feet should be flat on the floor, directly beneath the knees. Tucking the legs under
the seat causes congestion at the back of the knees and in some cases can create extreme
discomfort in the knees.
TIP 8:
Lower Back: Use your chair to fully support your body. Distribute your weight evenly and use
the entire seat and backrest to support your body. If your chair has adjustable low back support,
match the contours of the chair's backrest to the natural curve of your lower spine. There should
be some support in the hollow of the back to maintain the correct lumbar curve. Badly designed
chairs do not support the hollow of the back, allowing the person to slump.
TIP 9:
Lower Back: If your chair is adjustable, experiment with the adjustments to find numerous
comfortable positions, then adjust the chair frequently.
TIP 10:
Position of head: If you allow your head to be held forward of your shoulders over a long period
of time, the muscles in the back of the neck tighten and tense up. Position your head so it is
above the shoulders and not forward of the shoulders. Also avoid holding the phone between ear
and shoulder. This can create multiple problems in the musculature of the neck and shoulder.
TIP 11:
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Shoulders & Elbows: When sitting at the computer, adjust your chair height or keyboard height
so that your shoulders are relaxed and your elbows hang comfortably at your sides. Adjust your
keyboard slope so that your wrists are straight.
TIP 12:
Eyes: Working at your computer for long periods can be a visually demanding task and may
cause your eyes to become irritated and fatigued. Give your eyes frequent breaks. Periodically
look away from the monitor and focus at a distant point. This may also be a good time to stretch,
breathe deeply, and relax.
TIP 13:
Eyes: Give your eyes frequent rests by focusing them on a distant point. While looking at your
monitor and also while resting your eyes, remember to blink. This helps keep your eyes naturally
protected and lubricated and helps prevent dryness, a common source of discomfort.
TIP 14:
Monitor: To determine a comfortable viewing distance for your computer monitor, stretch your
arm toward the monitor and notice the location of your knuckles. Place your monitor near that
location. You should be able to clearly see the text on your monitor. If you look at the monitor
more than you look at paper documents, avoid placing your monitor to the side.
TIP 15:
Monitor: Tilt the monitor so that it faces your eyes. In general, the monitor screen and your face
should be parallel to each other. To check for correct monitor tilt, have someone hold a small
mirror in the centre of the viewing area. When sitting in your normal work posture, you should
be able to see your eyes in the mirror.
TIP 16:
Taking Breaks: When you work at your computer for long periods, take short breaks at least once
per hour and preferably more often. You may find that frequent, short breaks will benefit you
more than fewer, longer breaks. During your breaks, stand up and stretch, especially any muscles
and joints you may have held in an extended static posture while using the computer.
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TIP 17:
Taking Breaks: Break up the routine and try to vary your tasks during the day. By doing so, you
may avoid sitting in one position or performing the same activities continuously for several hours
using your hands, arms, shoulders, neck, or back. Contrary to what some may believe; several
studies have found that productivity does NOT decline when frequent short breaks are added to
the day.
TIP 18:
Reduce Stress: Take an inventory of things at work that are stressful to you. If you perceive that
your physical or psychological health is being affected, take time to evaluate what changes you
can make to reduce or eliminate the sources of stress.
TIP 19:
Breathe deeply: Breathe fresh air deeply and regularly. The intense mental concentration that
may accompany computer use may tend to cause breath-holding or shallow breathing.
Things to avoid at home:
TIP 1: Do not sit with both legs up on the seat and twisted to the side.
TIP 2: Avoid sleeping on your front. This forces the lower back into exaggerated curve over an
extended period of time. It's Better to sleep on your side with pillow supporting the neck, and
both knees bent.
TIP 3: Avoid lying on your back with your head propped up on too many pillows, e.g. reading in
bed or watching TV in bed. This can cause neck strain and muscle tension.
TIP 4: Avoid lying on your front, propped up on your forearms reading, sunbathing or watching
TV. This can cause lower back pain.
Are you sick of your building?
Dizziness, headaches, sore eyes, fatigue, soar throat, hand and foot spasms, colds, coughs, dry
43
and itchy skin... who would have thought these are just some of the symptoms of the condition
we call 'Sick Building Syndrome' (SBS).
The offices in which you work could be having a detrimental affect on your daily life and repercussion on your health. SBS has come about as a result of the way in which buildings are
constructed and is most often apparent in new and modern structures. Retention of heat through
keeping windows closed, poor air conditioning, quality (the presence of tobacco smoke) and
circulation, heating and cooling that stems from a common source, copying equipment and even
the plastic casing and VDU screens of computers are the culprits for employees being exposed to
some unpleasant substances. These effects of SBS are having a damaging effect on a company's
bottom line. Medical expenditure and staff absenteeism results in poor efficiency, effectiveness
and productivity, factors no organization can afford to have.
Beating SBS can be a relatively straightforward process. With the improvement of the thermal
environment - air circulation, ventilation, room temperature and humidity - an office can become
a healthier place to work. Chemical contamination needs to be contained, for example, ensuring
all photocopy and fax equipment are in one enclosed room will ensure less chemicals are spread
throughout the office. Biological contamination levels derived from such pollutants as bacteria
can be found in various systems such as air-conditioning units, humidifiers and carpets. The
contamination levels can be reduced with regular cleaning and ensuring systems are working
efficiently and effectively.
If you feel you or your office is being subjected to any on the human or environmental effects of
SMS it is advised that you contact a specialist in these respective areas.
Your Working Environment
Apart from SMS, the general surroundings of your office could be having negative effects on
your mental state and work productivity. The condition of your office furnishings and the
equipment you have to use can play a very important role in how much you enjoy your day and
how effective you are as an employee. In some instances you will find that people would prefer
to take a lower salary and work for a company that has newer furnishings and equipment, better
surrounding and office ergonomics than a job with a higher salary and older furnishings and
equipment. Psychologically your office has a big effect on you.
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It is essential that as an employee you receive a decent amount of natural light when sitting at
your desk and when anywhere in your office. You must also be able to control the amount of
natural light in the office with the use of blinds or shades. Apart from natural light, electric light
can have a major effect. Harsh overhead lighting that can cause headaches, eyestrain and fatigue
can be reduced by simply adding filters or introducing lower indirect lighting. Eyestrain and
headaches can come about as a result of the glare you get on your monitor screen. Implementing
such lighting and shading will enable you to reduce these ailments.
The noise you are subjected to and the amount of privacy you have can play a very important
role in how much you enjoy your day and how effectively you work. Ideally, if your office is
open plan there needs to be somewhere you can go to have privacy, be it a separate office or
meeting room. Noise can become very stressful as it causes distraction, if it's possible, have
acoustical panels fitted to absorb the noise.
Remember, the way you work and the conditions in which you work will definitely affect your
effectiveness and efficiency as an employee. Ensuring you are able to control your stress, both
physical and psychological, have a balanced daily diet, the ability to rest and recharge your
batteries and work in a well planned office environment are major factors in your working life.
Approaching the subject matters we have discussed these past four weeks with the wrong attitude
and lack of understanding will have its consequences. A little thought in to how you operate as an
individual will of course reap rewards for your employer, but most importantly you will be the
one leading a happier, healthier working and social life.
Workplace posture and ergonomics

Posture and ergonomics for workstations and computers, for back-pain remedy and
repetitive strain injury (RSI) and workplace stress reduction
Employers have a duty to provide safe working conditions and stress-free work environment for
all staff, which includes the provision of information and training for employees about workplace
posture and ergonomics. Poor posture at work is a major cause of back pain, workplace stress,
repetitive strain injury, resulting in lost time, reduced productivity, poor employee health, low
morale, and higher costs. This free theory article is provided by Hugh Babington Smith of the
Etcom People Engineers company, and this contribution is gratefully acknowledged. Applying
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these simple workplace posture and ergonomics techniques and principles will improve the
working environment and well-being of staff.
This material initially clarifies and defines what posture is. It also explains the implications of
poor posture, why we should improve posture and the techniques for how doing so. Furthermore
the article explains in detail why the employer should take an interest in posture.
UK Government statistics do not show the effects of poor posture in the workplace - the Health
and Safety Executive reports instead on absence generally through work-related injury, which
includes posture-related causes.
Every employee absence is the culmination of a chain of events. For accidents, that chain may be
short. For long term effects of poor posture, the chain is invariably longer. The loss to companies
is not just the employees who do take time off because of back pain or posture-related repetitive
strain injuries, the loss to organizations is also the reduced efficiency, morale and attitude of
those who suffer posture-related discomfort or stress and who 'grin and bear it'.
Although we refer in this article largely to work at computer workstations, the principles apply to
any work activity and to our whole life - relaxation, hobby, sport, housework, childcare, in fact
any activities which involve the use of our bodies.
What is posture?
Posture is a static state - 'A position of the body' or 'An attitude' (dictionary.com), 'Posture is
arrested movement' (Bobath). By itself it's a word which is often qualified - defensive, poor, bad,
aggressive, happy - and is often used in related ways, with overtones of opinion towards
something, sometimes with a meaning of falsehood. What distinguishes it from 'position' is the
inclusion of a mental ingredient, particularly mood or emotion; ie., posture is a 'position with
attitude', so to speak. We always have a posture of some kind or another, even if the mental
intention behind it is subconscious. And, of course, it is well documented that body language
plays a large part in communication.
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Our bones hold us up, our joints link our bones, our muscles move the bones around the joints
and our nerves facilitate control of the whole. The key to good posture is correct joint alignment,
but muscle activity, balance and nerves are all part of the picture.
posture - joint alignment
'Joints' are not just the obvious ones such as those on the arms or legs, but the term applies to any
links between bones including the spine, shoulders and hips and weight-bearing joints in the feet.
There are about 230 mobile and semi-mobile joints in the body. Our bodies evolved for certain
purposes and our joints move in particular ways to fulfil those purposes most efficiently. When
alignment is 'correct' - that is, in the evolved position - our body is in balance and our muscles
and joints are working with least effort.
This actually applies to movement as well as to static posture. Professional athletes go to great
lengths to understand this, for then their bodies are not just in balance but achieving maximum
output as well. If our joints are used differently from their 'designed' position, we say they are
'out of alignment'. One of the effects of using joints out of alignment is at least discomfort, which
can manifest as pain and eventually become injury.
The degree of mal-alignment is material; a very slight amount and the effect is not immediately
serious. A greater degree and we know about it instantly. If a joint is both mal-aligned and under
stress, something gives and a break or a tear ensues. 'Something gives' can mean quickly or over
a period of time if the stress is lower level but repetitive - hence repetitive strain injury. This can
occur anywhere in the body.
Mal-alignment leads to muscle imbalance. Muscles adapt; for instance, an arm in plaster cannot
be stretched immediately when the plaster comes off. The same effect happens when a joint is
held in the wrong position over a period of time, which is why some people have round backs or
slumped shoulders.
posture - muscle activity
There are two kinds of muscle in the body, each with their own function. The first kind, postural
or 'slow twitch' muscle, is for holding us in the 'correct' position; these muscles are short and in
the deepest layers. The other kind, movement or 'fast twitch' muscles, are for moving us, lie over
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several joints and are closer to the surface than slow twitch muscles. We need both in varying
degrees to perform properly.
Even postural muscles will not hold positions for any length of time if they are not used
regularly, a good reason in itself for sedentary workers to take exercise and understand
alignment. Slow-twitch fibres determine endurance, whereas quick-twitch fibres determine
muscle power. The phrase 'muscle tone' in physiotherapy refers to the amount of fibres in the
muscle 'firing' at any one time. Even at rest, some fibres are firing and the muscle is 'ready to go'.
Only when a body is dead is there no muscle tone. The amount of muscle tone in a posture is
largely a function of the amount of support being provided. At an extreme, a person lying on
their back has a wide support base, so minimum muscle tone. At the other extreme, a person
standing on tiptoes on one leg has a very narrow base and so needs maximum muscle tone in
perfect alignment. The muscles are, of course, governed by the brain: lift an empty box that you
believe to be full, and it shoots up into the air as your brain orders too many muscle fibres to fire
for the task.
posture - balance
A contributory factor to holding a posture is balance. Balance can be used in two ways when
talking about posture. It can mean the balance of opposing forces - for instance, are the muscles
holding the shoulders back strong enough in comparison with those pulling the shoulders
forward? If not, the result is a round back. Secondly, it can mean balance in the sense that if it is
not right, the person falls over.
A person with good muscle balance will be able to hold an unstable position for longer because
they recruit the postural muscles in the correct alignment and their movement muscles are less
involved. A person with poor balance will move a lot and have to use the movement muscles to
try to get back to balance. These muscles will get tired quickly and the correct posture will be
lost.
posture - nerves
We control our movement through our nerves. Messages are passed in both directions between
the brain to and from the extremities, the muscles and the joints. If this passage of information is
disturbed, we cannot have proper movement. Nerves are physical entities and just as subject to
maltreatment as bones and muscle; they can be affected by blows, by stretching, by pressure, by
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twisting. They pass between muscles, along bones and joints on paths developed, like the rest of
the system, during evolution. So again it follows that if alignment is not right, the nerves may be
affected.
poor posture effects
What happens if posture is poor? In each of the areas of joints, muscles and nerves there can be
effects of mal-alignment. These ill effects may start out as very slight, they may remain at a very
low level, but if the cause does not disappear, they will get worse and may become intolerable.
Mal-aligned joints and ligaments may just feel uncomfortable, may ache, or hurt. Shear forces
(that is, across rather than along) the spine may affect the discs, putting pressure on the nerves
that fan out from the spine.
Muscles will suffer through lack of circulation, which may manifest itself as discomfort, ache or
pain as well as lack of performance, getting tired quickly. The body's healing process is impeded
when blood-flow is restricted.
Pain may arise when nerves are stretched or inflamed by mal-alignment. Again, the range of
symptoms may be from discomfort, through tingling, pins and needles, hot or cold feeling or
numbness to pain. A characteristic of nerve damage is that sometimes the symptom is not in the
place where the damage is being caused. For instance, a nerve being damaged in the lower back
may cause tingling in the thigh or pain around the ankle.
poor posture causes
Why do we have poor posture? There are two sides to this, physical and mental. Physically, the
short answer, going right back to fundamentals, is that we are hunter-gatherers, with our roots on
the savannah, evolved to spend our days wandering in search of berries or pursuit of prey. We no
longer do what we evolved to do. We are emphatically not designed to spend our day sitting on
our bottoms staring fixedly at a computer screen or in a car seat staring at the road ahead, or for
any of the other activities of our modern life that are so far from our origins.
Mentally, we have unnatural pressures that bear on us all the time. No doubt the link between
posture and attitude derives from relationships within our hunter-gatherer community - authority,
submission, joy, sadness and so on - but today life is complicated by the sheer variety and
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duration of circumstances and information that affect us. Thus a person with an oversized
mortgage, an unpleasant commute and an unhappy job will tend to have a worn-out demeanour
with the posture to show it: round shoulders and a curved spine.
posture discomfort and pain - remedial actions

What can we do to relieve discomfort and pain? There are three main steps:
1. understand that you can take control
2. listen to the body
3. take action
1 - take control
Mind and body are closely linked. In many instances we are, without realising it, in control of the
conditions that give rise to pain and are therefore in a position to get rid of it. Once we
understand this and consciously take control, we can achieve quite remarkable advances and be
very much happier.
It's as much a mental as a physical approach. We know a happy person when we see one - we
talk of 'a spring in their step, head up, chest out.' We know instinctively what such a posture
means.
Our brain controls our posture through the nerves. Our mind can control our brain One way of
implementing that control is to alter our posture positively. Try walking with a spring in your
step, add in a little skip, your head up and chest out - you will probably feel a lift and may well
have a smile on your face at the same time. That is the first step. Think positively about
improving your physical posture.
Very relevant to this is the work by Professor Michael Marmot, Professor of Epidemiology and
Public Health at University College, London. He believes that "The reason that low status may
translate into poorer health is lack of control and fewer opportunities for full social engagement
or participation." (newscientist.com).
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There is no reason for anyone to be in 'victim mode', feeling that the world has it in for them, that
there is nothing they can do. As many practitioners will tell you, if you cannot bring a person to
believe that they can do something for themselves and get them to exercise some initiative, you
cannot begin to change their pain. Once they have decided to change, the results can be
remarkable.
When people understand why and how to take control, their health improves.
2- listen to the body
The second step is to listen to the body. Why do people 'grin and bear it'? Because they are not
listening. Discomfort and pain are telling you something. In particular, with musculo-skeletal
matters, the pain and discomfort are telling you that something is not right, something is out of
alignment, or something is moving in an incorrect way. Analyse the feeling, look for the root
cause and seek ways of changing.
Pain is subjective. There are many cases of people with quite severe injuries that they hardly
notice, whilst other people with injuries in the same area but to a lesser degree may be in agony.
It is noticeable that when a person is concentrating, they may even temporarily put themselves in
the position of not feeling the pain. Indeed, it can take a very long time for the body to 'get
through' to the mind and make the point that something is not right. Unfortunately, all this time
the damage is getting worse. So it is worth treating the messages of discomfort and pain
positively, by listening to them.
3 - take action
The third step is taking action. There is nothing to be gained from inaction, from grinning and
bearing it.
The best action is prevention. Not the lazy form of prevention, expecting ergonomic equipment
on its own to solve the problem - anyone can habitually slump in even the best chair in the world.
The principles and outlines of human bio-mechanics combined with movement training and
exercises are an effective and long-lasting form of prevention, requiring a degree of application.
Even if we are not in direct control of our discomfort - for instance, our equipment is ill-designed
- we are usually in a position to talk to someone who is in charge so that something can be done.
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In the workplace, we have a legal duty to report problems whilst the employer has a duty of care
towards the employee.
In particular, it is essential that if you have tingling, pins or needles, numbness or discomfort
in the fingers, wrists and/or hands, ask for expert medical opinion to be sought
immediately. It is not enough to rely on the opinion of someone who does not have this
training.
Even some general practitioners/doctors do not yet recognise the importance of immediate
intervention. A recommended first point of contact in the UK is a member of the Association of
Chartered Physiotherapists in Occupational Health and Ergonomics (ACPOHE).
In other cases a solution may be easy; many people do play around with their circumstances and
find that a change removes the pain. Unwittingly, they have achieved the right result. Sometimes
people may not be so perceptive or their circumstances are more complicated and they might
need some postural re-education. To change posture is a more mental than physical challenge.
We all have our own posture ingrained in our brains as being 'correct' either by habit or by
upbringing. However, in cases in which posture is in fact incorrect, the brain needs to be reprogrammed to accept the correct messages; training with constant reminders and repetitions in
the early stages is required. This need not be particularly time consuming. Complete postural reeducation for people who have problems should, with weekly professional help, take no more
than 4-6 weeks; the effects can last a lifetime.
good posture at work is important to employers

Providing education, advice and training about workplace posture is an integral part of
maximising the investment in employees. Employers now have to invest huge amounts of
management time to comply with employment and health and safety legal requirements. Many of
these are designed to deal with negative circumstances that arise - ie., they are reactive; investing
in prevention is an excellent way of minimising management time overheads.
In many businesses employees are the most expensive asset. It makes sense to ensure that this
asset can work most efficiently. Therefore something that is fundamental to the individual is
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fundamental to the employer as well. Modern life is bad for posture and the chances are that any
new employee may have musculo-skeletal problems. If this is tackled at its roots, management
time is saved; each employee be giving better value for money, and the employer achieves an
advantage over its competitors who fail to act in this area. Enabling a positive approach to
posture is a serious competitive advantage.
good posture and the individual at work
Home life will be affected if a person is in pain - sometimes to horrendous degrees, a vicious
spiral downwards that can end in the divorce courts.
In the workplace, many employers believe that nothing is wrong because no one has complained.
In fact, because people suffer in silence - the 'grin and bear it' effect - they are not working to full
efficiency. Unless something gives and the employee speaks out or takes time off, the employer
simply does not realise that the salary bill he is paying is not bringing the value for money or
performance expected.
Relationships suffer from an individual's poor posture. It is hard to be polite or friendly when
you are in pain, especially if you think that there is nothing you can do. Supervisors will manage
less effectively; colleagues will be harder to bear; subordinates will be less cooperative.
employers benefit from investing in workplace posture and ergonomics
How do organizations benefit from investing in posture? Workplace posture is very important to
employers. There are three main areas of business life in which the employer will gain from
investing in improving posture at the workplace:
1. greater efficiency through improved morale, higher productivity, and less absenteeism
2. compliance with health and safety law
3. reduction of the risks litigation from injured or stressed employees
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1 - posture improvement effects on employees' efficiency and absenteeism

Reference was made at the beginning of the article to UK Government statistics. Those for
2001/02 show that about 10 million days were lost through work-related musculo-skeletal
absence, with an average absence of about 20 days per case per year. Over the same period there
were about 28 million people in employment, so the lost days amount to 0.2% of the days
available for work. The days lost involved just over 2.2 people per 100. To reiterate the point
made in the introduction, these statistics do not show that the real loss to companies. The full loss
is not just the work-related absenteeism, it is also the inefficiency of those who 'grin and bear'
their discomfort.
During the period - often weeks and months - before time is taken off work because of pain, a
person will be working with ever decreasing efficiency. The Etcom People Engineers company is
gathering facts and figures in this area. Results (August 2004) from a sample of about 200 people
in several companies show that 70% of people in offices suffer musculo-skeletal problems.
About one third of all respondents have low level discomfort, but nearly one fifth of people
report 'moderate' pain. It is the latter who also report reduced efficiency. This reduction in
effectiveness means that, on average, for every 100 people being paid an employer is probably
achieving 94 employees' worth of work. Leaving these employees to suffer in silence has a price.
Taking measures to reduce pain and discomfort due to poor posture is often a significant
opportunity to increase efficiency, morale and working conditions, requiring much lower
investment compared to many other performance initiatives.
2 - health and safety legislation (uk) relating to workplace posture
Most computer users are by law subject to the display screen equipment work-station risk
assessment regulations. Don't let the sheer length of the title of the relevant regulation deter you this is important employment law in the UK, and will have equivalent provisions in many other
parts of the world:
Health and Safety (Display Screen Equipment) Regulations 1992 as amended by the
Health and Safety (Miscellaneous Amendments) Regulations 2002
Also refer to the raft of related legislation, notably:
Health and Safety at Work etc Act 1974

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Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999
Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1992 (as amended)
Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations 1998 (as amended)

The Display Screen Equipment Regulations mentioned above not only require employers to
carry out assessments, but also that users are 'provided with adequate health and safety training
in the use of any workstation upon which he may be required to work'.
The UK HSE guidance on the regulations (ISBN 0-7176-2582-6) suggests a six-step approach to
this training including
1. user awareness in correct and timely detection and recognition of hazards and risks
2. simple explanation of causes of risk mechanisms of harm (i.e. poor posture)
3. user-initiated actions to bring risks under control including training on posture
4. arrangements for bringing problems out into the open and doing something
5. information about the regulations to be given to users, and
6. the user's duties.
Throughout the regulations there is mention of the importance of users taking control (generally
a principle in effective health and safety policy) and of the importance of good posture. It is
understanding of good posture that seems often to prove a sticking point in effective
implementation of the regulations and is one of the reasons for this article being written. Without
good posture, the best assessment in the world will not prevent discomfort, pain and injury. So a
fundamental element in actually complying with regulations is the effective and knowledgeable
training in posture.
3 - reduction of litigation risks
In this age of increasing litigation - the modern blame culture - there are most certainly risks for
employers in allowing people to suffer from posture-related musculo-skeletal problems. Even
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though risk of legal action and prosecution is currently relatively low, the costs to employers of
finding themselves on the wrong end of a claim for damages can be so high that it is worth
reducing all risks as far as possible, especially as there are positive benefits as well from such
investment. Employers that are able to demonstrate adequate steps have been taken to prevent
and avoid posture-related problems and injuries will most easily be able to defend any claims
that do arise.
Understanding ergonomics at work

Reduce accidents and ill health and increase productivity by fitting the task to the worker.
Understanding ergonomics at work reduces accidents and ill health and increases
productivity by fitting the task to the worker.
Ergonomics is a science concerned with the fit between people and their work. It puts people
first, taking account of their capabilities and limitations. Ergonomics aims to make sure that
tasks, equipment, information and the environment suit each worker.
To assess the fit between a person and their work, ergonomists have to consider many aspects.
These include:
the job being done and the demands on the worker;
the equipment used (its size, shape, and how appropriate it is for the task);
the information used (how it is presented, accessed, and changed);
the physical environment (temperature, humidity, lighting, noise, vibration); and
the social environment (such as teamwork and supportive management). Ergonomists consider all
the physical aspects of a person, such as:
body size and shape;
fitness and strength;
posture;
the senses, especially vision, hearing and touch; and
the stresses and strains on muscles, joints, nerves. Ergonomists also consider the psychological
aspects of a person, such as:
mental abilities;
personality;
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knowledge; and
experience.
By assessing these aspects of people, their jobs, equipment, and working environment and the
interaction between them, ergonomists are able to design safe, effective and productive work
systems.
How can ergonomics improve health and safety?
Applying ergonomics to the workplace:
reduces the potential for accidents;
reduces the potential for injury and ill health; and
improves performance and productivity. Ergonomics can reduce the likelihood of an accident. For
example, in the design of control panels, consider:
the location of switches and buttons - switches that could be accidentally knocked on or off might
start the wrong sequence of events that could lead to an accident;
expectations of signals and controls - most people interpret green to indicate a safe condition. If a
green light is used to indicate a warning or dangerous state it may be ignored or overlooked;
information overload - if a worker is given too much information they may become confused,
make mistakes, or panic. In hazardous industries, incorrect decisions or mistaken actions have
had catastrophic results.
Ergonomics can also reduce the potential for ill health at work, such as aches and pains of the
wrists, shoulders and back. Consider the layout of controls and equipment; these should be
positioned in relation to how they are used. Those used most often should be placed where they
are easy to reach without the need for stooping, stretching or hunching.
Failure to observe ergonomic principles may have serious repercussions, not only for
individuals, but whole organisations. Many well-known accidents might have been prevented if
ergonomics had been considered in designing the jobs people did and the systems within which
they worked.
What kind of workplace problems can ergonomics solve?
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Ergonomics is typically known for solving physical problems. For example, ensuring that work
surfaces are high enough to allow adequate clearance for a workers legs. However, ergonomics
also deals with psychological and social aspects of the person and their work. For example, a
workload that is too high or too low, unclear tasks, time pressures, inadequate training, and poor
social support can all have negative effects on the person and the work they do.
The following examples highlight some typical ergonomic problems found in the workplace:
Display screen equipment
The screen is poorly positioned - it is too high/low/close/far from the worker, or is offset to one
side.
The mouse is placed too far away and requires stretching to use.
Chairs are not properly adjusted to fit the person, forcing awkward and uncomfortable postures.
There is glare on the screen from overhead lights or windows, increasing the risk of eyestrain.
Hardware and/or software are not suitable for the task or the person using it, causing frustration
and distress.
Not enough breaks or changes of activity.
These problems may result in mistakes and poor productivity, stress, eye strain, headaches
and other aches or pains.
Manual handling
The load is too heavy and/or bulky, placing unreasonable demands on the person.
The load has to be lifted from the floor and/or above the shoulders.
The task involves frequent repetitive lifting.
The task requires awkward postures, such as bending or twisting.
The load cannot be gripped properly.
The task is performed on uneven, wet, or sloping floor surfaces.
The task is performed under time pressures and incorporates too few rest breaks.
These problems may result in physical injuries such as low back pain or injury to the arms,
hands, or fingers. The problems may also contribute to the risk of slips, trips, and falls.
Work-related stress
Work demands are too high or too low.
The employee has little say in how they organise their work.
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Poor support from management and/or colleagues.

Conflicting demands, eg high productivity and quality.
Poor control of the risks causing work-related stress could lead to ill health and reduced
performance and productivity.
Managing the working day
Insufficient recovery time between shifts.
Poor scheduling of shifts.
Juggling shifts with domestic responsibilities.
Employees working excessive overtime.
These problems may lead to tiredness or exhaustion, which can increase the likelihood of
accidents and ill health.
How do I identify ergonomic problems?
There are many ways in which ergonomic problems can be identified. These can range from
general observations and checklists to quantitative risk assessment tools.
Ideally, several approaches should be used:
talking to employees and seeking their views. Employees have important knowledge of the work
they do, any problems they have, and their impact on health, safety, and performance;
assessing the work system by asking questions such as: -Is the person in a comfortable position?
-Does the person experience discomfort, including aches, pain, fatigue, or
stress? -Is the equipment appropriate, easy to use and well maintained? -Is the person
satisfied with their working arrangements? -Are there frequent errors? -Are there signs of
poor or inadequate equipment design, such as plasters on
workers fingers or home-made protective pads made of tissue or foam?
examining the circumstances surrounding frequent errors and incidents where mistakes have
occurred and people have been injured. Use accident reports to identify details of incidents and
their possible causes;
recording and looking at sickness absence and staff turnover levels. High numbers may result
from the problems listed earlier and/or dissatisfaction at work.
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What can I do if I think I have identified an ergonomic problem?
Look for likely causes and consider possible solutions. A minor alteration may be all that is
necessary to make a task easier and safer to perform. For example: -provide height-adjustable
chairs so individual operators can work at their
preferred work height; -remove obstacles from under desks to create sufficient leg room;
-arrange items stored on shelving so those used most frequently and those
that are the heaviest are between waist and shoulder height; -raise platforms to help
operators reach badly located controls; -change shift work patterns; and -introduce job
rotation between different tasks to reduce physical and mental
fatigue.
Talk to employees and get them to suggest ideas and discuss possible solutions. Involve
employees from the start of the process - this will help all parties to accept any proposed
changes.
Always make sure that any alterations are properly evaluated by the people who do the job. Be
careful that a change introduced to solve one problem does not create difficulties elsewhere.
You dont always need to consult ergonomics professionals, and the expense of making changes
can often be kept low. However, you may need to ask a qualified ergonomist if you are unable to
find a straightforward solution or if a problem is complex.
Good ergonomics sense makes good economic sense. Ergonomics input does not necessarily
involve high costs, and can save money in the long term by reducing injuries and absence from
work.
An understanding of ergonomics in your workplace can improve your daily work routine. It is
possible to eliminate aches, pains, and stresses at work and improve job satisfaction. Ergonomic
solutions can be simple and straightforward to make even small changes such as altering the
height of a chair can make a considerable difference.
Lifting Technique
Eight Safety Tips When Lifting Heavy Objects
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1)Stand close to the load and center yourself over it with your feet shoulder width apart
2)Tighten your abdominal muscles
3)Keeping your back straight, bend your knees and squat down to the floor
4)Get a good grasp on the load with both hands
5)Keeping the load close to your body use your leg muscles to stand up lifting the load off the
floor
6)Your back should remain straight throughout lifting, using only the muscles in the legs to lift
the load
7)Do not twist your body when moving the load. Instead take small steps with your feet turning
until your are in the correct position
8)Again bend at the knees using only your leg muscles and place the load in the appropriate spot
Case study 1.
Eddie works on an engine assembly line. In his job he has to use a
handheld impact wrench to fit a temporary adapter to an engine. The
assembly line makes up to 2400 engines a day and it takes approximately
3 seconds to tighten each adapter.
As well as the risk from using a vibrating tool, Eddie often had to adopt
poor postures to reach some parts of the engine. He had to repeatedly
stretch out his arm and constrain his posture while tightening the adapter.
After some time on the job, Eddie found he was leaving work with shoulder
and neck pain. One tea break, Eddies line manager saw him rubbing his
neck and shoulder and recognised the pain could be due to the type of
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work Eddie was doing. The line manager told the company health and
safety representative about what she had seen.
The company responded by making the following modifications:
They replaced the impact wrench with a smoother running device
andsuspended it to support the weight. As a result, very little vibration
wouldbe passed to the operator.
They modified the workplace layout and allowed workers better access toall
sides of the engine, so they didnt need to adopt poor workingpostures.
They implemented a job rotation scheme whereby the five workers on theline
were moved around a number of different tasks. Some of these tasksstill
required the use of vibrating tools, but the overall exposure washalved.As a
result of the modifications there was
a reduction in vibration exposure;
no need to adopt poor and constrained postures;
reduced boredom and fatigue for Eddies team; and
improved productivity.
Case study 2
Dominique is a receptionist in a large financial company. Much of her work
involves using a telephone to take messages and redirect calls to
appropriate departments. Dominique regularly uses a computer (display
screen equipment or DSE) to make appointments, record messages and
respond to e-mails.
After working at the front desk for eight months, Dominique found she
wasleaving work with an aching shoulder and neck, and with sore eyes and
aheadache. Dominique asked her manager for a risk assessment to
identifypossible problems with her working arrangements and to determine
whereimprovements could be made.
The risk assessment identified the following areas for improvement:
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Dominique would often hold the telephone between her shoulder and ear
while talking on the phone and typing a message on the computer. She
regularly adopted this awkward, static, strained posture during her working
day.
During the summer Dominiques computer screen was difficult to read
because of glare and reflections from light through the window. This meant
she struggled to avoid making mistakes and would repeatedly adjust her
posture to view the screen.
The assessment led to the introduction of simple, cost-effective measures to
reduce the risks:
A hands-free telephone headset was provided, which helped to

eliminateDominiques neck and shoulder problems.
An eye test to establish if Dominique had any problems with her vision.
With the help of her manager, Dominique rearranged her workstation soher
screen was no longer facing the window, to remove the glare causedby
daylight.
Dominiques manager arranged for periodical DSE training sessions for all
staff, so they were aware of the health problems associated with computer
use and how to prevent them by adjusting their chairs, arranging their
workstation appropriately, and taking regular breaks from keyboard work.
Dominique was much happier in her work, her health problems diminished,
and productivity was increased.
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ACCIDENTS INVESTIGATION AND REPORTING

What is an accident and why should it be investigated?
The term "accident" can be defined as an unplanned event that interrupts the completion of an
activity, and that may (or may not) include injury or property damage.
Reasons for workplace accident investigation are:
To fulfill the legal requirement
To determine the cost of an accident
To determine compliance with applicable safety regulations
To process workers' compensation claims

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Most importantly accident investigations are conducted to find out the cause of accidents and to
prevent similar accidents in the future.
Incidents that involve no injury or property damage should still be investigated to determine the
hazards that should be corrected. The same principles apply to a quick inquiry of a minor
incident and to the more formal investigation of a serious event.
Who should do the accident investigating?

Ideally, an investigation would be conducted by someone expert in accident causation,
experienced in investigative techniques, fully knowledgeable of the work processes, procedures,
persons, and industrial relations environment of a particular situation.
Who and how many people should investigate an accident?

Some jurisdictions provide guidance such as requiring that it must be conducted jointly, with
both management and labour represented, or that the investigators must be knowledgeable about
the work processes involved.
Should the immediate supervisor be on the team?

The advantage is that this person is likely to know most about the work and persons involved and
the current conditions.
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Furthermore, the supervisor can usually take immediate remedial action.

The counter argument is that there may be an attempt to gloss over the supervisor's shortcomings
in the accident.
This situation should not arise if the worker representative(s) and the management members
review all accident investigation reports critically.
How to make sure that investigators are impartial?

An investigator who believes that accidents are caused by unsafe conditions will likely try to
uncover conditions as causes. On the other hand, one who believes they are caused by unsafe
acts will attempt to find the human errors that are causes.
Therefore, it is necessary to examine briefly some underlying factors in a chain of events that
ends in an accident.
The important point is that even in the most seemingly straightforward accidents, seldom, if ever,
is there only a single cause. For example, an "investigation" which concludes that an accident
was due to worker carelessness, and goes no further, fails to seek answers to several important
questions such as:
Was the worker distracted? If yes, why was the worker distracted?
Was a safe work procedure being followed? If not, why not?
Were safety devices in order? If not, why not?
Was the worker trained? If not, why not?
An inquiry that answers these and related questions will probably reveal conditions that are more
open to correction than attempts to prevent "carelessness".
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What are the steps involved in investigating an accident?

The accident investigation process involves the following steps:
Report the accident occurrence to a designated person within the organization
Provide first aid and medical care to injured person(s)
Investigate the accident
Identify the causes
Report the findings
Develop a plan for corrective action
Implement the plan
Evaluate the effectiveness of the corrective action
Make changes for continuous improvement
As little time as possible should be lost between the moment of an accident or near miss and the
beginning of the investigation. In this way, one is most likely to be able to observe the conditions
as they were at the time, prevent disturbance of evidence, and identify witnesses. The tools that
members of the investigating team may need (pencil, paper, camera, film, camera flash, tape
measure, etc.) should be immediately available so that no time is wasted.
What should be looked at as the cause of an accident?

Accident Causation Models
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Many models of accident causation have been proposed, ranging from Heinrich's domino theory
to the sophisticated Management Oversight and Risk Tree (MORT).
The simple model shown in Figure 1 attempts to illustrate that the causes of any accident can be
grouped into five categories - task, material, environment, personnel, and management. When
this model is used, possible causes in each category should be investigated. Each category is
examined more closely below. Remember that these are sample questions only: no attempt has
been made to develop a comprehensive checklist.
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Figure 1: Accident Causation
Task
Here the actual work procedure being used at the time of the accident is explored. Members of
the accident investigation team will look for answers to questions such as:
Was a safe work procedure used?
Had conditions changed to make the normal procedure unsafe?
Were the appropriate tools and materials available?
Were they used?
Were safety devices working properly?

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Was lockout used when necessary?
For most of these questions, an important follow-up question is "If not, why not?"
Material
To seek out possible causes resulting from the equipment and materials used, investigators might
ask:
Was there an equipment failure?
What caused it to fail?
Was the machinery poorly designed?
Were hazardous substances involved?
Were they clearly identified?
Was a less hazardous alternative substance possible and available?
Was the raw material substandard in some way?
Should personal protective equipment (PPE) have been used?
Was the PPE used?
Again, each time the answer reveals an unsafe condition, the investigator must ask why this
situation was allowed to exist.
Environment
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The physical environment, and especially sudden changes to that environment, are factors that
need to be identified. The situation at the time of the accident is what is important, not what the
"usual" conditions were. For example, accident investigators may want to know:
What were the weather conditions?
Was poor housekeeping a problem?
Was it too hot or too cold?
Was noise a problem?
Was there adequate light?
Were toxic or hazardous gases, dusts, or fumes present?
Personnel
The physical and mental condition of those individuals directly involved in the event must be
explored. The purpose for investigating the accident is not to establish blame against someone
but the inquiry will not be complete unless personal characteristics are considered. Some factors
will remain essentially constant while others may vary from day to day:
Were workers experienced in the work being done?
Had they been adequately trained?
Can they physically do the work?
What was the status of their health?
Were they tired?
Were they under stress (work or personal)?

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Management
Management holds the legal responsibility for the safety of the workplace and therefore the role
of supervisors and higher management must always be considered in an accident investigation.
Answers to any of the preceding types of questions logically lead to further questions such as:
Was safety rules communicated to and understood by all employees?
Were written procedures available?
Were they being enforced?
Was there adequate supervision?
Were workers trained to do the work?
Had hazards been previously identified?
Had procedures been developed to overcome them?
Were unsafe conditions corrected?
Was regular maintenance of equipment carried out?
Were regular safety inspections carried out?
This model of accident investigations provides a guide for uncovering all possible causes and
reduces the likelihood of looking at facts in isolation. Some investigators may prefer to place
some of the sample questions in different categories; however, the categories are not important,
as long as each pertinent question is asked. Obviously there is considerable overlap between
categories; this reflects the situation in real life. Again it should be emphasized that the above
sample questions do not make up a complete checklist, but are examples only.
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How are the facts collected?

The steps in accident investigation are simple: the accident investigators gather information,
analyze it, draw conclusions, and make recommendations. Although the procedures are
straightforward, each step can have its pitfalls.
An open mind is necessary in accident investigation: preconceived notions may result in some
wrong paths being followed while leaving some significant facts uncovered.
All possible causes should be considered. Making notes of ideas as they occur is a good practice
but conclusions should not be drawn until all the information is gathered.
Injured workers(s)
The most important immediate tasks--rescue operations, medical treatment of the injured, and
prevention of further injuries--have priority and others must not interfere with these activities.
When these matters are under control, the investigators can start their work.
Physical Evidence
Before attempting to gather information, examine the site for a quick overview, take steps to
preserve evidence, and identify all witnesses. In some jurisdictions, an accident site must not be
disturbed without prior approval from appropriate government officials such as the coroner,
inspector, or police. Physical evidence is probably the most non-controversial information
available. It is also subject to rapid change or obliteration; therefore, it should be the first to be
recorded. Based on your knowledge of the work process, you may want to check items such as:
Positions of injured workers
Equipment being used

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Materials being used
Safety devices in use
Position of appropriate guards
Position of controls of machinery
Damage to equipment
Housekeeping of area
Weather conditions
Lighting levels
Noise levels
You may want to take photographs before anything is moved, both of the general area and
specific items. Later careful study of these may reveal conditions or observations missed
previously. Sketches of the accident scene based on measurements taken may also help in
subsequent analysis and will clarify any written reports. Broken equipment, debris, and samples
of materials involved may be removed for further analysis by appropriate experts. Even if
photographs are taken, written notes about the location of these items at the accident scene
should be prepared.
Eyewitness Accounts
Although there may be occasions when you are unable to do so, every effort should be made to
interview witnesses. In some situations witnesses may be your primary source of information
because you may be called upon to investigate an accident without being able to examine the
scene immediately after the event.
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Because witnesses may be under severe emotional stress or afraid to be completely open for fear
of recrimination, interviewing witnesses is probably the hardest task facing an investigator.
Witnesses should be interviewed as soon as practicable after the accident. If witnesses have an
opportunity to discuss the event among themselves, individual perceptions may be lost in the
normal process of accepting a consensus view where doubt exists about the facts.
Witnesses should be interviewed alone, rather than in a group. You may decide to interview a
witness at the scene of the accident where it is easier to establish the positions of each person
involved and to obtain a description of the events. On the other hand, it may be preferable to
carry out interviews in the quiet of an office where there will be fewer distractions. The decision
may depend in part on the nature of the accident and the mental state of the witnesses.
Interviewing
Interviewing is an art that cannot be given justice in a brief document such as this, but a few do's
and don'ts can be mentioned. The purpose of the interview is to establish an understanding with
the witness and to obtain his or her own words describing the event:
DO...
Put the witness, who is probably upset, at ease
Emphasize the real reason for the investigation, to determine what happened and why
Let the witness talk, listen
Confirm that you have the statement correct
Try to sense any underlying feelings of the witness
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OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES
What is work-related stress?
Work-related stress is the natural reaction of people to being put under intense pressure at
work over a period of time.
Many people are motivated by the challenges and difficulties that normally occur with
work demands and react by improving performance.
When the pressure of work demands becomes excessive and prolonged, however, people
perceive a threat to their well-being or interests and then experience unpleasant emotions
such as fear, anger or anxiety.
The stress response is designed to be used in short bursts and then switched off. If it is
activated for too long, or the period between stressful situations is too short, then the
body has no time to repair itself, and fatigue and damage occurs.
The stress hormones then literally begin to destroy the body so, over time, this affects
physical and mental health and quality of life in just the same way as exposure to
industrial toxins.
What causes stress?
The reactions of individuals will vary according to the nature of the pressures and the
extent to which the person is directly or indirectly involved.
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A person's background, motivation, experience, skills and knowledge on the one hand
and the support and encouragement from managers, supervisors and colleagues on the
other, all play an important role.
While it may be beyond the employer's or supervisor's responsibility or expertise to
overcome, it is necessary to take into consideration that people will come to work with
various character traits and in various moods.
Problems outside of work can also contribute to stress, eg. relationship problems and
financial pressures.
Non-work problems can make it difficult for people to cope with the pressures of work,
and their performance at work may suffer. A death or sickness in the family, a temporary
setback or other personal problems may exacerbate the situation and influence the way
people cope with work pressures.
The causes of stress (stressors) can be many and varied, and can occur as a result of
combinations of more than one stressor.
Most stressors can be grouped into one of three areas. For each group of stressors are
suggestions for managers and supervisors to consider when dealing with those triggers.
1. Stress from doing the job . . .
Boring or repetitive work, or too little to do

Too much to do, too little time
To little/too much training or support for the job
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Confusion over, or too much, responsibility for managing others

Confusion over priorities, timeframes and standards
Non-performance resulting in disciplinary action such as dismissal, retrenchment,
demotion, discipline, transfer or redeployment; a worker not being promoted, reclassified,
transferred or granted leave of absence or any other benefit in relation to employment or
a workers' expectations of any of these matters or of the employer's decision in relation to
these matters
What to do about it
2.
Change the way jobs are done, consult with individuals before moving them to
comparable work, give individuals more responsibility, increase job scope, vary job tasks,
give workers responsibility for group performance
Try to give warning of urgent or important tasks, prioritize tasks, remove unnecessary
work
Match individuals to jobs, increase the scope of jobs for the over-trained
Ensure everyone has clearly defined and achievable objectives and responsibilities linked
to organizational objectives.
Provide supervisor training and support
Ensure disciplinary procedures are developed and applied by trained and authorized
officers able to communicate effectively with employees
Give staff the knowledge and skills to enable them to manage their own stress response
Ensure staff and supervisors receive the skills, training and resources they need to work
purposefully, confidently and are appreciated
Ensure that policies and procedures are clearly stated and uniformly applied.
Stress from work relationships . . .
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Poor relationships with colleagues

Bullying or harassment
Lack of communication or consultation between manager and employee
Negative culture based on blame for and denial of problems
Misguided practical jokes or initiation ceremonies
What to do about it
Provide training in interpersonal skills

Establish and review policies, grievance procedures and investigation of complaints
Provide opportunities for employees to contribute ideas and to be consulted
Encourage management lead by example with honesty, respect and support
Ensure people are treated fairly and consistently with an intolerance of harassment and
bullying
Provide opportunities for social interaction among workers
Bullying (any unfavourable treatment, such as aggression, passive non-cooperation,
ignoring the person or their work, refusing to renew a contract of employment, or
dismissal.
Employers and supervisors could consider timely transfer or withdrawal from the
workplace of the bully, or the "shared concern" approach in which both the victim and
bully express their experiences and then agree on acceptable behaviours to be adopted by
both.
3. Stress from working conditions . . .

Physical danger, or the threat of it
In contact with human suffering and people's reactions to it
Single incident such as armed robbery or a workplace fatality
Poor physical working conditions
Inflexible work schedules or unpredictable hours
Organizational change, such as restructuring
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What to do about it
Provide adequate control measures against physical pressures, in particular, clear support
for those faced with violent situations
Consultation with staff over restructuring plans
Encourage managers to have an open and understanding attitude towards those who
admit to being under too much pressure, especially if employees are fearful of losing
their jobs
Provide scope for flexible and variable working conditions over which people have some
control, to increase interest and ownership of the job, and assist people to meet their
family responsibilities.
Promote and Encourage consultation and cooperation between employers, employees and
their representatives, especially during periods of organizational change
Evaluate the effectiveness of changes put in place and review the situation from time to
time
Organizational change, or the threat of change, should ensure employees and stakeholders
are consulted and informed as much as possible well before the change occurs.
Understanding the likely impact on them can help individuals cope with any natural fear
they may have of change.
There are also some general strategies relevant to most organizations that may help:
Encourage employers to take stress seriously and make themselves aware of the warning
signs of people under too much pressure;
Encourage staff to talk about the pressures they perceive in their jobs;
Be understanding of stressors outside the workplace, but only seek information you need
to know;
Propose and prioritize intervention strategies and inform employees; and
Encourage employers to provide a consistent management approach
Larger employers may have the resources to provide stress management training, a
confidential employee assistance program or use risk management consultants as tools to
assist with stress problems in their organization.
What Are The Signs Of Stress?

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Personal signs of stress

Immediate body changes that may be associated with distress, such as changes in heart
rate and breathing rate, muscle tension, nausea or vomiting;
Feelings of anger, protest or frustration;
Feelings of anxiety or being out of control;
Feelings of guilt or embarrassment;
Irritability and loss of concentration, poor memory, learning difficulties;
Prolonged sleeplessness and disturbing dreams.
Outward signs of stress in individuals that could be noticeable to colleagues and
managers:
Deteriorating relationships with colleagues;
Irritability, indecisiveness, absenteeism, reduced performance;
Demand for more precise instructions;
Increased smoking or alcohol consumption, or drug taking;
Complaining about ill-health;
Actual ill-health such as frequent headaches, gastro-intestinal disturbance, ongoing minor
illnesses, skin rashes, deteriorating immune response
Signs of stress across an organization that represent a business cost:
High staff turnover, increased absenteeism, reduced work performance, poor timekeeping
and more customer complaints;
Stress appearing in those people who cover for the stressed colleague who is absent from
work;
Increased rate of workplace accidents;
Compensation claims from people whose unchecked stress results in ill-health
Reduction in output, product quality, service or morale;
Increased wages/overtime payments
Deterioration of industrial relations
Organizational sabotage
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The effects of stress indicated above could each be signs of a range of other health problems. The
diagnosis of severe stress generally requires a trained professional.
Stressors cover a large range of symptoms: from poor performance, boredom and deteriorating
relationships to aggressive and threatening behaviour, or single shocking incidents.
What Laws Apply?
Stress becomes an occupational hazard if it adversely impacts on safety and health in the
workplace.
Both employers and employees have a special duty of care role to play in making sure
risks that are caused by stress from all sources are minimized and workers are fit for
work.
EMPLOYERS have a duty to provide a workplace where, so far as practicable,
employees are protected from hazards in their workplace.
This includes providing safe systems of work, information, instruction, training and
supervision.
There is also a requirement for employers to consult and cooperate with safety and health
representatives and other employees.
EMPLOYEES must take reasonable care for their own safety and health and avoid
adversely affecting the safety and health of others in the workplace.
They must also cooperate with employers in safety and health matters so that employers
can act responsibly.
How Are The Risks Arising From Stress Assessed?

It is difficult to objectively measure the level of stress in the workplace. For example,
there are no simple tests to measure how much pressure a person is under and then assess
their ability to work safely.
The design and appropriate solutions identified from stress prevention programs will vary
according to the size and complexity of the organization, available resources and
especially the unique types of stress problems faced by the organization.
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In spite of difficulties in measuring stress, both employers and employees regularly make
judgements about levels of stress and the level of associated risk. The absence of
objective tests does not remove the need to do a risk assessment nor does it mean that the
assessment is invalid.
Responsibility for risk assessment rests with the employer, main contractor, selfemployed person or person with control over the workplace or access to it, and involves:
Identifying pressures at work, which could cause high and long-lasting levels of
stress;
Identifying people who might be affected by these pressures;
Deciding whether preventative action in place is sufficient;
Taking action to prevent pressure growing to an unacceptable level; and
Reviewing the success of the control measures.
It is important that there is early intervention if stress is identified.

Mechanisms should be in place to ensure the risk of stress is identified as early as possible,
followed by a risk assessment and the introduction of controls appropriate to your
workplace.
STRESS MANAGEMENT
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The application of good management practices that include appropriate organization of

work, a healthy corporate attitude, successfully managed change and an appropriate
management style will all contribute towards reducing unwanted stress levels in the
workplace.
Is all this important?
Work organizations need to develop a workplace culture that recognizes that job
satisfaction factors such as flexibility, autonomy, security, recognition, ownership,
participation and involvement are as essential as stable industrial relations.
Employers in such organizations should have no doubt that health, safety, security and
morale are inextricably linked to employee satisfaction, productivity and customer
satisfaction.
NOTES ON PETROL STATIONS
Occupational Safety and Health (OSHA) for Petrol Station

Depending on the occupational safety and health hazards encountered while performing
assigned job tasks, workers may require using properly fitting personal protective
equipment (PPE) to avoid injuries and illness. They (workers) must be provided with full
protective gear. This include working boots, overalls, helmets, goggles, earmuffs, masks,
gloves etc
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A first aid kit should be provided within the site. This should be fully equipped at all
times and should be managed by qualified persons.
Adapt effective emergency response plans. A good start of learning how to respond to an
emergency is through certification in Basic First Aid. Regular drills and emergence
simulations should follow to impart the anticipated insight and awareness to the workers.
This should happen during both construction and operation phases.
Properly design to allow for deceleration and acceleration to the site. Clearly indicate
direction of traffic throughout the project cycle. Internal driveways should also be erected
with bumps to control speed and thus reduce potential accidents. There should be careful
design and layout of the site entrance, providing adequate visibility. Visible boards shall
be erected to notify of the construction works
Safety awareness may be gained through regular safety meetings, safety training or
personal interest in safety and health. This awareness will increase ability to respond if,
some day in future, one is a bystander in an emergency.
The contractor should have workmens compensation cover. It should comply with
workmens compensation Act, as well as other ordinances, Regulations and union
Agreements.
Sanitary facilities should be provided with respect to gender. Standard cleanliness of the
facilities should be maintained.
Local individuals preparing food for the workers at the site must be controlled to ensure
that food is hygienically prepared.
Workers should always be sensitized on social issues such as drugs, alcohol, diseases etc.
There should be training programs to facilitate this.
Emergency Response Plans- ERPs
The service station ERP should be documented, employees provided with the requisite training
and annual drills conducted. A service station ERP should typically contain information on the
following information and types of emergencies likely to be encountered:
Mitigation Measures
A emergency contacts telephone list
Emergency response notification instructions
Simple instructions on how to handle fires (on the forecourt and in the sales building),
product spills, LPG incidents, armed robbery, product contamination, etc.
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Fire Preparedness
Fire outbreaks are natural disasters and are common in Kenya where they usually leave behind
detrimental effects to the environment. Fire incidences result to economic and social drawbacks.
There are operations that are prone to such outbreaks i.e. poor handling of electricity systems,
faulty electrical equipment, carelessness etc. It is therefore always important to consider the issue
of fire by bringing in the element of preparedness. In this regard, the design should provide and
recommend implementation of fundamental fire fighting measures and control facilities. These
should include the following:
Mitigation Measures
Fire fighting equipment:
Install an automatic fire alarm system for the entire project mostly on operation.
All fire control and fighting facilities to be installed following town councils Fire
Masters requirements approval.
In addition to the above, the project management should consider the following: Conduct regular fire fighting drills/simulations to sensitize workers.
Adapt an emergency response plan for the entire project during occupational phase.
Ensure that all fire fighting equipment are strategically positioned, regularly maintained
and serviced.
Provide fire hazard signs such as No Smoking signs, Direction to exit incase of any fire
incidence and emergence contact numbers should be provided.
Provision of sand buckets
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH: THE WORKPLACE
In favorable circumstances, work contributes to good health and economic achievements.
However, the work environment exposes many workers to health hazards that contribute to
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Injuries,
Respiratory diseases,
Cancer,
Musculoskeletal disorders,
Reproductive disorders,
Cardiovascular diseases,
Mental and neurological illnesses,
Eye damage and
Hearing loss, as well as to communicable diseases.
The current global labor force stands at about 2600 million and is growing continuously.
Approximately 75% of these working people are in developing countries.
The officially registered working population constitutes 6070% of the world's adult male and
3060% of the world's adult female population.
Each year, another 40 million people join the labor force, most of them in developing countries.
Workplace environmental hazards are therefore a threat to a large proportion of the world
population.
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THE WORKPLACE ENVIRONMENT AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

In some of the least developed countries up to 80% of the workforce is employed in agriculture,
mining and other types of primary production.
The main causes of occupational morbidity and mortality in these countries
o Heavy physical work, often combined with
o Heat stress,
o Occupational accidents,
o Pesticide poisonings,
o Organic dusts and
o Biological hazards
Additionally, numerous non-occupational factors such as parasitic and infectious

diseases, poor hygiene and sanitation, poor nutrition, general poverty and illiteracy
aggravate these occupational health effects.
The informal sector and small-scale industries (SSIs), in particular, are subject to
numerous workplace hazards.
Many migrants find work in the informal sector and SSIs since these offer easy entry for
newcomers, and often do not require formal trade skills, or large amounts of capital or
machinery.
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Estimates suggest over 1000 million people worldwide are employed by small-scale
industries.
In rapidly industrializing countries occupational health problems often arise due to use of
technologies that are less advanced and more hazardous than those favored by developed
countries.
Moreover, managing all aspects of production for example, health and safety at work
and the health of the work environment, as well as the external environment can be
difficult when technical and financial resources are limited, as is often the case.
In such circumstances, occupational accidents, traditional physical and ergonomic

hazards, and occupational injuries diseases become major problems.
WORKPLACE EXPOSURES
Workplace health hazards generally differ from those found in the general environment.
Furthermore, because workers are often exposed in confined spaces, exposure levels to
workplace hazards are often much higher than exposures to hazards in the general environment.
MECHANICAL HAZARDS
Unshielded machinery, unsafe structures in the workplace and dangerous tools are some
of the most prevalent workplace hazards in developed and developing countries.
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In Europe, about 10 million occupational accidents happen every year (some of them
commuting accidents).
Adoption of safer working practices, improvement of safety systems and changes in

behavioural and management practices could reduce accident rates, even in high-risk
industries, by 50% or more within a relatively short time.
Approximately 30% of the workforce in developed countries and between 50% and 70%
in developing countries may be exposed to a heavy physical workload or ergonomically
poor working conditions, involving much lifting and moving of heavy items, or
repetitive manual tasks.
Workers most heavily exposed to heavy physical workloads include miners, farmers,
lumberjacks, fishermen, construction workers, storage workers and healthcare personnel.
Repetitive tasks and static muscular load are also common among many industrial and
service occupations and can lead to injuries and musculoskeletal disorders.
In many developed countries such disorders are the main cause of both short-term and
permanent work disability and lead to economic losses amounting to as much as 5% of
GNP.
EXPOSURE TO BIOLOGICAL AGENTS
Exposure to some 200 biological agents, viruses, bacteria, parasites, fungi, moulds and
organic dusts occurs in selected occupational environments.
The hepatitis B and hepatitis viruses and tuberculosis infections (particularly among
healthcare workers),
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Asthma (among persons exposed to organic dust) and chronic parasitic diseases
(particularly among agricultural and forestry workers) are the most common occupational
diseases resulting from such exposures.
Blood-borne diseases such as HIV/AIDS and hepatitis B are now major occupational
hazards for healthcare workers.
PHYSICAL FACTORS
Noise
Vibration,
Ionizing and no ionizing radiation and
Microclimatic conditions can all affect health adversely.
Between 10 and 30% of the workforce in developed countries, and up to 80% of the
workforce in developing and newly-industrializing countries, are exposed to such physical
factors.
In some high-risk sectors such as mining, manufacturing and construction, all

workers may be affected.
Noise-induced hearing loss is one of the most prevalent occupational health

effects in both developing and developed countries.
CHEMICAL HAZARDS
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About 100 000 different chemical products are in use in modern work
environments and the number is growing. High exposures to chemical hazards are most
prevalent in industries that process chemicals and metals, in the manufacture of certain
consumer goods, in the production of textiles and artificial fibres, and in the construction
industry.
Chemicals are also increasingly used in virtually all types of work, including nonindustrial activities such as hospital and office work, cleaning, and provision of cosmetic
and beauty services. Exposure varies widely.
Health effects include:
Metal poisoning,
Damage to the central nervous system and liver (caused by exposure to solvents),
Pesticide poisoning,
Dermal and respiratory allergies,
Dermatoses, cancers and
Reproductive disorders.
Reproductive hazards in the workplace include around 200300 chemicals known to be

mutagenic or carcinogenic.
The reported adverse effects include infertility in both sexes, spontaneous

abortion, fetal death, teratogenesis, fetal cancer, fetotoxicity and retarded development of the
fetus or newborn.
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Numerous organic solvents and toxic metals, many biological agents, such as certain
bacteria, viruses and zoonoses, as well as heavy physical work, are also associated with an
increased risk of reproductive disorders.
The reproductive hazards of ionizing radiation are now well-established, while hazards from
non-ionizing radiation are under intensive study. Both male and female workers may be
affected by these hazards, but protection of women of fertile age and pregnant women is of
particular concern.
About 300350 substances have been identified as occupational

carcinogens. They include chemical substances, eg benzene, chromium, nitrosamines and
asbestos, physical hazards such as ultraviolet radiation (UVR) ionizing radiation, and
biological hazards such as viruses.
ALLERGENIC AGENTS
Exposure to the estimated 3000 allergenic agents in the environment is mainly

occupational. In the work environment, such hazardous agents enter the body via the
respiratory tract or the skin.
Allergic skin diseases are some of the most prevalent occupational diseases. Occupational
respiratory diseases should therefore be the focus of any occupational health programme.
PSYCHOLOGICAL STRESS
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Psychological stress caused by time and work pressures has become more prevalent
during the past decade. Monotonous work, work that requires constant concentration,
irregular working hours, shift-work, work carried out at risk of violence (for example,
police or prison work), isolated work or excessive responsibility for human or economic
concerns, can also have adverse psychological effects.
Psychological stress and overload have been associated with sleep disturbances, burnout
syndromes and depression.
Epidemiological evidence exists of an elevated risk of cardiovascular disorders,

particularly coronary heart disease and hypertension in association with work stress.
Severe psychological conditions (psychotraumas) have been observed among workers

involved in serious catastrophes or major accidents during which human lives have been
threatened or lost.
SOCIAL CONDITIONS
Social conditions of work such as gender distribution and segregation of jobs and
equality (or lack of) in the workplace, and relationships between managers and
employees, raise concerns about stress in the workplace.
Many service and public employees experience social pressure from customers, clients or
the public, which can increase the psychological workload. Measures for improving the
social aspects of work mainly involve promotion of open and positive contacts in the
workplace, support of the individual's role and identity at work, and encouragement of
teamwork.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH IMPACTS
The great variety of occupational health hazards makes quantification of their associated
health risks and impacts at the global level very difficult.
94
Some estimates have been based on the occupational injuries and diseases reported in
official statistics. But a large number of injuries and diseases caused by workplace
hazards are not reported.
Adjustment is therefore necessary. Making such adjustment, ILO and WHO estimate that
there may be as many as 250 million occupational injuries each year, resulting in 330 000
fatalities.
Due to the changes in occupational distribution with development, many countries have
experienced a shift from the hazards that characterize work in agriculture, mining and
other primary industries, to those of manufacturing industries or service industries.
Following such a shift, occupational injuries and diseases could be expected to fall in
number and the severity of those that do occur to be less.
But, in fact, new occupational disease problems have emerged, leading to an increased
incidence of reported occupational disease in certain developed countries.
In addition to the specific workplace hazards discussed above, work and health are
associated in other ways, creating possibly even greater impacts on health.
Working conditions, type of work, vocational and professional status, and geographical
location of the workplace and employment also have a profound impact on the social
status and social well-being of workers.
95
Ref: www.sekuonlinenutritionlibrary.ac.ke
Moses Ekuwam
X
Moses Ekuwam
SOUTH EASTERN KENYA UNIVERSITY ONLINE ...
96

AFN 305 Environmental Health

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ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH

In adequate or lack of housing.

OSHA 2007 HIGHLIGHTS

Provide instruction and training to employees on health and safety

Provide protective clothing and equipment to employees

Appointing a competent person as the organisations Safety Officer

Employees' health and safety responsibilities

to take reasonable care of your own health and safety

if possible avoid wearing jewellery or loose clothing if operating machinery

Personal protective equipment

management leadership and commitment

safety programs, policies, and plans

safety processes, procedures, and practices

safety goals and objectives

safety inspections for workplace hazards

safety program audits

safety tracking & metrics

hazard identification and control

safety committees to promote employee involvement

safety education and training

safety communications to maintain a high level of awareness on safety

Personal protective equipment

Falls into dangerous substances

Interpretation of terms used

The Construction (Design and Management) Regulations

RISK ASSESSMENT AND SAFETY STATEMENT

Your rights in work and training

Your Employment Rights

What you can do

Hazards, risks, outcomes

A hazard is something that can cause harm if not controlled.

The outcome is the harm that results from an uncontrolled hazard.

Identify the hazards

Identify all affected by the hazard and how

Evaluate the risk

Identify and prioritize appropriate control measures

Mechanical hazards include:

Falls from height

Slips and trips

Harry McShane, age 16, 1908. Pulled into

Chemical hazards include:

Falling on a pointed object

Compressed air/high pressure

Asbestos and other fine

Fumes (noxious gases/vapors)

Friction and abrasion

Fire, conflagration and explosion

Stabbing and puncture

Other physical hazards:

Psychosocial issues include:

Work-related stress, whose causal

Cold stress (hypothermia)

Heat stress (hyperthermia)

Biological hazards include:

Bullying, which may include

Exposure to unhealthy elements

Musculoskeletal disorders, avoided by

Adoption of safer working practices, improvement of safety systems and changes in

2. Exposure to biological agents

Ionizing and no ionizing radiation and

Microclimatic conditions can all affect health adversely.

In some high-risk sectors such as mining, manufacturing and construction, all