Raj K.

S i n g h a l
Canada C e n t r e f o r M i n e r a l and Energy Technology
Sydney, Nova S c o t i a , Canada

Dave G . Osborne
Kilborn Engineering (B.C.) Ltd.
Vancouver, B r i t i s h Columbia,
Canada

For p r e s e n t a t i o n a t t h e SME-AIME Annual Meeting

F e b r u a r y 26-March 1, 1984
Los Angeles, C a l i f o r n i a

Permission is hereby given to publish with appropriate acknowledgments,

excerpts or summaries not to exceed one-fourth of the entire text of the paper.
Permission to print in more extended form subsequent to publication by the Institute
must be obtained from the Executive Director of the Society of Mining Engineers
of AIME.
If and when this paper is published by the Society ~f Mining Engineers of AIME, it
may embody certain changes made by agreement between the Technical Publications
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that in which it may be published later.
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PREPRtNT AVAILABILITY LlST IS PUBLISHED PERIODICALLY tN
MINING ENGINEERING

A b s t r a c t . Canada produces c l o s e t o 42 m i l l i o n
tonnes of c o a l p e r annun of which some 38 m i l l i o n
tonnes i s produced by s u r f a c e mining methods.
The two k'estern Canadian p r o v i n c e s , A l b e r t a and
B r i t i s h Columbia, produce 3 1 m i l l i o n tonnes of
c o a l by s u r f a c e mining. These two provinces
provide t h e bulk of t h e m e t a l l u r g i c a l c o a l f o r
export.
The g e o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e Western
provinces p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e mountain r e g i o n
a r e complex. The c o a l s a r e f r i a b l e and t h e seams
a r e steeply inclined, sheared, intensely folded
and f a u l t e d . There may be a s many as 15 t o 20
c o a l seams p r e s e n t with t r u e t h i c k n e s s ranging
from 2.5 m t o over 8 m.
This paper reviews t h e s u r f a c e mining methods
used t o e x t r a c t such seams. The d i f f i c u l t i e s
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s t e e p seam and m u l t i p l e seam
mining of f r i a b l e c o a l r e s u l t i n g i n lower c o a l
recovery, h i g h d i l u t i o n and t h e problem of
c l e a n i n g f i n e c o a l i n t h e wash p l a n t have been
highlighted.
Geological S t r u c t u r e
F i g u r e (1) shows t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of Canadian
C o a l f i e l d s whereas F i g u r e ( 2 ) shows t h e c o a l
d e p o s i t s of A l b e r t a and B r i t i s h Columbia. Several
Canadian provinces have c o a l r e s o u r c e s b u t Alberta
i s e s t i m a t e d t o have t h e l a r g e s t r e s e r v e s of
bituminous and sub-bituminous c o a l .
The p r o v i n c e of A l b e r t a i s divided i n t o t h r e e
r e g i o n s each c o n t a i n i n g d e p o s i t s of s i m i l a r age
and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . These a r e t h e Mountain,
F o o t h i l l s and P l a i n s r e g i o n s .
The Xountain Region extends a l o n g t h e e a s t e r n
f l a n k of theRocky Mountains; i t c o n t a i n s n o s t l y
medium and low v o l a t i l e bituminous c o a l d e p o s i t s
mainly of Upper J u r a s s i c and Lower Cretaceous a g e
The c o a l s a r e commonly f r i a b l e . The c o a l b e a r i n g
s t r a t a a r e h i g h l y f o l d e d and f a u l t e d which has
cuased c o n s i d e r a b l e t e c t o n i c t h i c k e n i n g and
t h i n n i n g of c o a l seams i n c e r t a i n l o c a t i o n s .
The F o o t h i l l s Region a d j o i n s t h e e a s t e r n edge
of t h e Mountain Region and c o n t a i n s mainly h i g h l y
v o l a t i l e bituminous c o a l s of Upper Cretaceous and
Lower T e r t i a r y ages. Like t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t s i n
t h e Mountain Region t h e s e c o a l f i e l d s have been
s h e a r e d , f a u l t e d and f o l d e d , and i n c e r t a i n locat i o n s show c o n s i d e r a b l e t h i c k e n i n g and t h i n n i n g
of c o a l seams.
The P l a i n s Region c o a l i s mostly sub-bituminous
i n r a n k mainly of Upper Cretaceous and Lower
T e r t i a r y age. Most of t h e seams of t h i s r e g i o n
a r e flat-lying exceptthoseclose t o the surface
t h a t have been g l a c i a l l y d i s t u r b e d .
A s can be s e e n i n F i g u r e (2) c o a l d e p o s i t s of
t h e p r o v i n c e of B r i t i s h Columbia a r e widely
scattered.
The c o a l d e p o s i t s of s o u t h e a s t e r n B r i t i s h
Columbia (Crowsnest C o a l f i e l d ) a r e Upper J u r a s s i c
i n age and a r e p a r t of t h e s o u t h e r n e n d of t h e
Mountain Region a s d e s c r i b e d f o r A l b e r t a , w i t h
t h e n o t a b l e d i f f e r e n c e t h a t they c o n t a i n consid e r a b l y more seams t h a t a r e of g r e a t e r t h i c k n e s s
t h a n i n a d j o i n i n g a r e a s of A l b e r t a . The c o a l
d e p o s i t s of n o r t h e a s t e r n B r i t i s h Columbia a r e
however Cretaceous i n age and a r e t h e n o r t h e r n
e x t e n s i o n of t h e c o a l s t h a t o c c u r i n t h e Xountain
Region of A l b e r t a . S e v e r a l s m a l l b a s i n s of
T e r t i a r y c o a l occur i n t h e s o u t h - c e n t r a l p a r t of
t h e province i n c l u d i n g Tulaneen P r i n c e t o n , X e r r i t t

and Hat Creek. Most of t h e s e b a s i n s c o n t a i n c o a l

seams which a r e i n t e n s e l y f o l d e d , f a u l t e d , and
i r r e g u l a r i n thickness.
The Energy, Xines and Resources Canada Report
ER-79-9 by BIELXHSTEIK e t 21. provides f u r t h e r
d e t a i l s on t h e g e o l o g i c a l environment of
Canadian c o a l d e p o s i t s .
Coal Reserves, Recovery and Mining Losses
The e s t i m a t i o n of mineable c o a l r e s e r v e s ,
mining r e c o v e r i e s and d i l u t i o n i s a f a i r l y complex
process p a r t i c u l a r l y where t h e r e a r e a number of
seams s e p a r a t e d by i n t e r b u r d e n of v a r i o u s t h i c k n e s s e s and l i t h o l o g i e s . It i s even more d i f f i c u l t
f o r t h e s t e e p d i p p i n g seams surrounded by d i s t o r t ed mountainous s t r a t a . The i n i t i a l e s t i m a t e s of
mineable r e s e r v e s , r e c o v e r i e s and d i l u t i o n a r e
based on experience t o be v e r i f i e d l a t e r by
a c t u a l f i e l d experience and back a n a l y s i s
but
i t i s not an easy t a s k .
Even t h e e s t i m a t i o n
method v a r i e s from mine t o mine depending on t h e
c o m p l e x i t i e s of t h e g e o l o g i c a l environment.
Some t y p i c a l g u i d e l i n e s used f o r mineable c o a l
r e s e r v e e s t i m a t e s , by way of example, a r e :
a ) A l l seams g r e a t e r than 1.5 m i n t h i c k n e s s
a r e mineable;
b) p a r t i n g s g r e a t e r t h a n 1 . 5 n i n t h i c k n e s s
can be s e l e c t i v e l y mined and r e j e c t e d ;
C) mining l o s s f o r each seam: 10 cm from t h e
top of t h e seam and 10 cm from t h e bottom.
A t a n o t h e r p r o j e c t i n B r i t i s h Columbia where
t h e c o a l b e a r i n g s t r a t a contained approximately
20 c o a l seams o r s p l i t group w i t h an aggregate
c o a l t h i c k n e s s of about 90 m, t h e following
c r i t e r i a were a p p l i e d i n r e s e r v e e s t i m a t i o n :
a . Coal Mining Member = one o r more c o a l
s p l i t s o r seams of
more than 60 cm t r u e
thicicness each
s e p a r a t e d by one o r
more rock p a r t i n g s of
l e s s than 90 cm t r u e
t h i c k n e s s each
b. Coal i n P l a c e
= t h e sum of a l l Coal
?lining Yembers
c . Mining Loss
= 30 cm of c o a l a t t h e
hanging w a l l of each
Coal Mining Member
d. Raw Coal
= Coal i n P l a c e minus
Eiining Loss (b-c)
e. D i l u t i o n
= 15 cm of rock from
the footwall
One of t h e most c r i t i c a l f a c t o r s i n s t e e p seam
mining i n t h e mountains i s t h e mining l o s s .
Mining l o s s e s occur when top c o a l is removed w i t h
overburden o r bottom c o a l l e f t i n p l a c e . Some
f a c t o r s which a f f e c t mining l o s s e s a r e t h e c o a l
t h i c k n e s s , i n t e r b u r d e n , d i p of t h e seams, mining
of m u l t i p l e seams, proximity of seams, s p i l l a g e ,
s i z e and type of mining equipment used and t h e
geological complexities.
As a g e n e r a l r u l e 80 t o 90 p e r c e n t of c o a l
recovered from major seams dipping t o up t o 30
and not unduly d i s t u r b e d by geology. From seams
sandwiched between t h e d i s t o r t e d and broken
s t r a t a , depending on t h e seam t h i c k n e s s , recoveri e s o f 4 0 t o 50 p e r c e n t a r e obtained.
I n such
c a s e s d i l u t i o n i s v e r y high. I n c a s e of t h i n n e r
seams which a r e i n c l o s e p r o x i m i t y t o major seams,
r e c o v e r i e s (from t h e t h i n seams) can be a s low a s
20 p e r c e n t t o n o t h i n g .

--

6s

'r plncec vhcre s t r u c t u r a l d c f o m n t i o n hno rcs u l t e d Ln thickening of c o n l seams [up t o 15 t o

20 n t h i c k ) i n p r o v m e n t i n c o a l rccovcry and c o a l
rcocrvc c s t i n a c c c a r c ofecn noted.
Con1 Q u a l i t y
The f o m c i o n process of Canadian c o a l s under
s c v c r e g c o l o g i c n l d i s t u r b n n c e a s d e s c r i b e d has
rcsulccd i n a scam s t r u c t u r e t h a t i s vcry
d i f f c r c n t from cokxng c o n l d e p o s i t s elsewhere.
?luch of t h e c o a l i s s e v e r c l y sheared and t h e
r e s u l t a n t c o n l s a r e porous, prone t o o x i d a t i o n
There
and massively f r a c t u r e d on a micro-scnle.
i s , t h e r e f o r e , a wide range of m e t a l l u r g i c a l
coking c o a l i n terms of i n d i v i d u a l p r o p e r t i e s
comparable i n some r e s p e c t s with t h e C.S. high
and low v o l a t i l e c o a l s and A u s t r a l i a n medium and
low v o l a t i l e c o a l s . This range i s of p a r t i c u l a r
i n t e r e s t t o c o a l purchasers s e e k i n g optimum
blends f o r m e t a l l u r g i c a l coke manufacture. The
s t r u c t u r e of t h e s e c o a l s g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e s t h e
p h y s i c a l , mechanical and chemical p r o p e r t i e s such
a s f r ~ a b i l i t y ,m o i s t u r e c a p a c i t y , degree of
oxldacion and coking p r o p e r t i e s . A l l of t h e s e
may i n t u r n i n f l u e n c e important product c o a l
p r o p e r t i e s i n subsequent mining, h a n d l i n g ,
b e n e f i c l a t i o n and p r o c e s s i n g .
The e f f e c t s of handling and c l e a n i n g f r i a b l e
Rocky Xountain bituminous c o a l s on s i z e d i s t r i b u t l o n can be seen i n Table 1. The amount of f i n e
c o a l r e s u l t i n g from mining and t r a n s p o r t i n g raw
c o a l t o t h e c o a l p r e p a r a t i o n p l a n t can be seen i n
Table 2.
I n terms of coking p r o p e r t i e s , Rocky Xountain
c o a l s (being t y p i c a l of non-marine c o a l s ) a r e
c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t o t a l s u l p h u r c o n t e n t of l e s s
than one p e r c e n t and raw c o a l a s h c o n t e n t of
10 t o 30 p e r c e n t by weight.
This m i n e r a l m a t t e r i s composed p r i m a r i l y of
k a o l i n i t e and q u a r t z . The p e t r o g r a p h i c composit i o n s of most of t h e coking c o a l s show them t o be
r i c h i n i n e r c i n i t e macerals, macrinite, f u s i n i t e
and s e m i f u s i n i t e , which a r e p r o p e r t i e s r e s u l t i n g
i n s t r o n g coke. When t h e mean maximum r e f l e c t a n c e of v i t r i n i t e i n o i l Ro m a i s used a s t h e
c o a l rank parameter, t h i s high i n e r t i n i t e c o n t e n t
i s f u r t h e r c h a r a c t e r i z e d by correspondingly low
v o l a t i l e m a t t e r c o n t e n t s , lower f r e e s w e l l i n g
i n d i c e s ( F . S . I . ) , lower maxintum d i l a t a t i o n and
f l u i d i t i e s than o t h e r U.S. and A u s t r a l i a n c o a l
of t h e same rank. The Canadian c o a l s a r e however
richer i n the reactive macerals, v i t r i n i t e ,
e x i n i t e and s e m i f u s i n i t e . These combined propert i e s of Rocky Xountain coking c o a l s have been a
major reason why such c o a l s have been i n demand
by t h e Japanese s t e e l i n d u s t r y a s a major coke
blend component.
Table 3 shows a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of m k i n g c o a l
q u a l i t y by group.
Mining Methods
I n t h e provinces of B r i t i s h Columbia and
A l b e r t a most s u r f a c e c o a l mines a r e open p i t
t e r r a c e o p e r a t i o n s . The o p e r a t i o n s u s e t y p i c a l
truck-shovel methods e x t r a c t i n g m u l t i p l e c o a l
seams from s e v e r a l multi-bench work f a c e s . Only
one o p e r a t i o n u s e s a d r a g l i n e a s t h e prime e a r t h
mover.
For t h e top s o i l removal s c r a p e r s a r e preferred.

In sozc nrcna where p i o n c e r i n g work ouch as

c l e a r i n g r r c c s and brush i s i n v o l v e d , frone-end
londero, h y d r n u l i c ohoveln and dozcrs a r e uecd.
Top s o i l i s s t o c k p i l e d f o r l a t c r use i n rcc l m n t i o n . Unconsolidated overburden Is r m o v c d
by s i m i l a r type of cquipmcnt.
Hard c o n s o l i d a t e d ovcrburdcn is d r i l l c d nnd
b l a s t e d . B l a s t h o l e s a r e d r i l l e d with r o t a r y
cravlcr
mounted r i g s using b i t s i n t h e 22 cn
t o 3 1 cn diameter range. T y p i c a l h o l e dcprhs a r c
i n t h e range of 12 t o 18 m t o ncconnodnte t h e p i t
For a 11 a high
bench h e i g h t s of 12 t o 15 m.
bench a t y p i c a l h o l e w i l l be 16.6 m i n depth
i n c l u d i n g t h e subgrade d r i l l i n g of 2.6 n.
T y p i c a l l y , h a l f of t h i s h o l e w i l l be powder
column and h a l f w i l l be s t e m e d . For a 15.2 m
bench a t y p i c a l h o l e w i l l be up t o 18.3 n i n
depth i n c l u d i n g t h e subgrade d r i l l i n g .
T y p i c a l d r i l l i n g p a t t e r n s a r e 9 m s p a c i n g and
9 in burden. Depending on l o c a l g e o l o g i c a l
c o n d i t i o n s and h o l e diameter s e l e c t e d d r i l l i n g
p a t t e r n s of 8 m r, 8 m, 8.5 n x 7.3 m and
s t a g g e r e d p a t t e r n s of 11 m x 5.5 m and 7.3 m x
3.7 m e t c . a r e being used.
The primary e x p l o s i v e used f o r b l a s t i n g is
ANFO. I n wet h o l e s which can be dewatered t h e
h o l e s a r e l i n e d w i t h a p l a s t i c l i n e r and then
loaded w i t h ANFO. Wet h o l e s which cannot be
dewatered a r e loaded w i t h a water g e l s l u r r y . I n
h a r d e r rock, e.g. s a n d s t o n e , aluminized ANFO
( c o n t a i n i n g 3 t o 7 p e r c e n t of Al) o r s t r a i g h t
s l u r r y i s used. ANFO and s l u r r y e x p l o s i v e s a r e
d e l i v e r e d i n bulk l o a d i n g t r u c k s .
T y p i c a l powder f a c t o r s (kilogram of ~ u p l o s ie
p e r BQl broke ) a r e i n t h e range of 0.36 kg/bm
t o 0.70 kg/bm
Overburden i s excavated mostly by c o n v e n t i o n a l
s h o v e l s and front-end l o a d e r s ; r e c e n t l y t h e
h y d r a u l i c s h o v e l has gained c o n s i d e r a b l e acceptancej. Z l e c t r i c c a b l e s h o v e l s w i t h 11, 19 and
23 m rock d i p p e r s form t h e n a j o r e x c a v a t i o n u n i t .
However on a d i p p i n g seam a wedge of waste i s n o t
a c c e s s i b l e t o a s h o v e l . T h i s wedge i s dozed down
and loaded i n t o t r u c k s byfront-end l o a d e r s and
hydraulic shovels.
Often more t h a n one f a c e i s a c t i v e on any one
bench and sometimes work i s i n p r o g r e s s on
s e v e r a l benches s i m u l t a n e o u s l y u s i n g a combination
of equipment d e s c r i b e d .
Overburden i s hauled t o waste d i s p o s a l s i t e s
e i t h e r i n t h e p i t o r o u t s i d e of i t i n rock-body
t r u c k s . The most p o p u l a r s i z e i s 154 tonne b u t
t r u c k s of 90 tonne, 110 tonne, 180 tonne and i n
one c a s e even 315 tonne a r e being used.
As h a s been noted Western Canadian c o s l s a r e
f r i a b l e and do n o t r e q u i r e d r i l l i n g and b l a s t i n g .
Coal i s u s u a l l y loaded by t h e front-end l o a d e r s
a n d / o r h y d r a u l i c s h o v e l s i n t o c o a l body t r u c k s .
Fronfj-end l o a d e r s and h y d r a u l i c s h o v e l s of up t o
19 m bucket c a p a c i t y a r e being used.
An e a r l i e r p r a c t i c e of dozing c o a l down t h e
f o o t w a l l on moderately p i t c h i n g seams (up t o 30'
i n c l i n a t i o n ) i s being g r a d u a l l y d i s c a r d e d .
T r a v e l of dozer on t h e c o a l bed r e s u l t s i n exc e s s i v e g e n e r a t i o n of f i n e s c a u s i n g s e v e r e
problems i n t h e c o a l wash p l a n t . For t h i s reason
h y d r a u l i c shovel/backfioe is being used on an
i n c r e a s i n g s c a l e f o r mining of moderately
d i p p i n g c o a l seams.
I n seams of v a r y i n g q u a l i t y where blending i s
n e c e s s a r y t o meet t h e c o n t r a c t s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , a
dozer w i l l normally push c o a l o b l i q u e l y a c r o s s

9.

t h e seam t o achieve blending of t h e f o o t w a l l and

hangingwall c o a l . The d i g g i n g a c t i o n of a
h y d r a u l i c s h o v e l p r o v i d e s t h e same end r e s u l t .
I n moderately dipping seams o f t e n f o o t w a l l i s
followed. I n s t e e p e r c o a l seams (30 t o 90)
benching of t h e f o o t w a l l i s o f t e n necessary.
Even i n such s i t u a t i o n s a h y d r a u l i c shovel/backhoe i s p r e f e r r e d . I n n u l t i p l e seam mining,
particularly i n tectonically disturbed s t r a t a ,
a h y d r a u l i c s h o v e l p e r m i t s g r e a t e r degree of
s e l e c t i v e mining. I n a couple of i n s t a n c e s of
s t e e p seam c o a l mining s m a l l e r crawler d r a g l i n e s
have been used t o remove p i t bottom c o a l .
T y p i c a l l y bench h e i g h t s i n Western Canadian
p i t s a r e 1 2 t o 1 5 m, o v e r a l l p i t s l o p e s 4 j 0 t o
50 with some l o c a l i z e d s t e e p e r s l o p e s . I n seams
d i p p i n g g r e a t e r than 30' f o o t w a l l i s o f t e n
benched t o c r e a t e s a f e t y berms.
I n some c a s e s
dewatering has been n e c e s s a r y t o r e l i e v e
a r t e s i a n p r e s s u r e and s t a b i l i z e t h e p i t w a l l s ;
i n o t h e r s rock b o l t i n g of t h e f o o t w a l l has been
considered.
Haulage road widths determined by t h e s i z e of
t h e equipment i n u s e a r e 25
30 m wide and grade
between 6 t o 1 0 p e r c e n t . Because of t h e
mountainous topography, s w i t c h back haulage r o a d s
a r e used i n some p i t s .
S a f e t y ramps f o r s t o p p i n g
run-away t r u c k s a r e provided.
Depending upon t h e topography a t t h e mine s i t e
end t i p p i n g and a r e a dumping (dumping i n l a y e r s )
of t h e overburden i s c a r r i e d o u t . I n t h e
mountainous r e g i o n more o f t e n i t i s end t i p p i n g .
End t i p p i n g normally does n o t permit compaction
of t h e disposed m a t e r i a l and t h i s r e s u l t s i n
o c c a s i o n a l dump f a i l u r e s . Waste dumps a r e
u s u a l l y t e r r a c e d and s e t t l e t o t h e a n g l e of
repose of t h e waste m a t e r i a l between 35 t o 37O.
Guidelines and government r e g u l a t i o n s e x i s t
r e l a t i n g t o t h e r e c l a m a t i o n of mined o u t p i t s ,
w a s t e a r e a s and o t h e r a r e a s d i s t u r b e d by t h e
mining a c t i v i t y . Waste dumps a r e r e q u i r e d t o be
s l o p e d t o an o v e r a l l maximum of 27' f o r reclamat i o n . B a c k f i l l i n g of t h e p i t i s u s u a l l y c a r r i e d
o u t a s soon as space i s a v a i l a b l e . I n almost a l l
c a s e s overburden i s d e p o s i t e d e x t e r n a l l y t o t h e
p i t f o r t h e f i r s t few y e a r s .

Coal P r e p a r a t i o n and Handling

The f i r s t wave of l a r g e c o a l p r e p a r a t i o n
p l a n t s i n Western Canada were b u i l t i n t h e e a r l y
1970s. B a s i c a l l y they used t h e s t a n d a r d B r i t i s h
and U.S. technology.
It q u i c k l y became e v i d e n t t h a t t h e s e flow
s h e e t s were not s u i t a b l e f o r t h e Western
Canadian c o a l s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by h i g h f i n e s cont e n t and i n c o n s i s t e n t f r o t h f l o t a t i o n p r o p e r t i e s .
These f a c t o r s combined w i t h t h e s e v e r i t y of t h e
Canadian w i n t e r caused many s e r i o u s and c o s t l y
problems.
Major d e s i g n changes i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n p l a n t s
and thermal d r y e r s were made. The r e s u l t h a s
been t h e development of a flow s h e e t t h a t h a s
almost become a s t a n d a r d f o r t r e a t i n g t h e s e
coals.
Using many of t h e l e s s o n s l e a r n e d , t h e second
g e n e r a t i o n p l a n t s of t h e earl:? 1980s have been
a b l e t o avoid many problems and p i t f a l l s . A
f u r t h e r change h a s been t h e need f o r some of them
t o p r e p a r e a thermal c o a l f o r e x p o r t a s w e l l a s
t h e t r a d i t i o n a l coking ( m e t a l l u r g i c a l ) c o a l .
The new p l a n t s a r e i n t h e Crowsnest Pass a r e a of

B r i t i s h Columbia - G r e e n h i l l s (Westar), Line

Creek ( S h e l l ) and Byron Creek (Esso) and i n t h e
Peace River Area - Q u i n t e t t e (Denison) and
Bullmoose (Teck)
The e f f e c t s of multiseam mixing r e s u l t i n g i n
v a r i a b l e product c o a l y i e l d s and f l u c t u a t i o n i n
t h e amount of out-of-seam d i l u t i o n a r e e f f e c t i v e
overcome by some form of homogenization of t h e
raw c o a l . The e x t e n t t o which t h i s i s a p p l i e d ,
being c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e v a r i a b i l i t y of t h e
raw c o a l , i s u s u a l l y g r e a t l y a s s i s t e d by
scheduling and handling of c o a l from t h e open
p i t t o t h e p l a n t s i t e . No c u r r e n t l y o p e r a t i o n a l
mine employs blending bed methods w i t h complex
s t a c k e r / r e c l a i m e r equipment l a r g e l y because of
t h e f a v o r a b l e w a s h a b i l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e
c o a l . Each of t h e c o n t r i b u t i n g c o a l seams,
whether considered i n d i v i d u a l l y o r mixed, c r e a t e
few c l e a n i n g problems and t h i s o b v i a t e s t h e need
f o r a s o p h i s t i c a t e d blending approach.
Accordingly, homogenization i s l a r g e l y accompli*
ed by means of n a t u r a l mixing c r e a t e d by a comb i n a t i o n of raw c o a l handling and s i l o s t o r a g e
and r e c l a m a t i o n .
I n g e n e r a l t h e c o a l s a r e r e a d i l y cleaned
without t e c h n i c a l d i f f i c u l t y , providing t h a t t h e
i n d i v i d u a l raw c o a l f e e d s t o each of t h e c o a l
c l e a n i n g streams a r e adequately s i z e d a n d l o r
c l a s s i f i e d p r i o r t o cleaning.
.
Table 4 shows t h e w a s h a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s f o r a
38 mm by 0.5 mm raw c o a l t y p i c a l of Rocky
Mountain c o a l , r e a d i l y cleaned by dense medium
cyclone.
F i g u r e 11 shows a s i m p l i f i e d flow s h e e t f o r
one of t h e newly c o n s t r u c t e d p l a n t s which may be
regarded a s being t y p i c a l of most p l a n t s
producing m e t a l l u r g i c a l coking c o a l . I i e t a l l u r g i c a l c o a l product ash c o n t e n t i s u s u a l l y 7 t o
9.5 p e r c e n t .
The c l e a n i n g of thermal c o a l i s c a r r i e d out
by a p a r t i a l c l e a n i n g approach i n t h e c a s e of
Line Creek and Byron Creek p l a n t s ( c o a l p l u s 6
t o 8 mm i s washed; c o a l minus 6 t o 8 mm i s
blended w i t h wash c o a l without c l e a n i n g ) . A t
Q u i n t e t t e t h e thermal c o a l is cleaned i n a Baum
j i g and a t G r e e n h i l l s a c i r c u i t s i m i l a r t o
F i g u r e 11 i s used excluding t h e dense medium
b a t h . Thermal c o a l product a s h c o n t e n t i s
u s u a l l y 12 t o 16 p e r c e n t .
Fine c o a l c l e a n i n g of m e t a l l u r g i c a l c o a l i s
c a r r i e d out u s i n g one of two, more o r l e s s ,
s t a n d a r d c i r c u i t s . For c o a l s encountering l i t t l e
o r no o x i d a t i o n o r weathering c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ,
t h e minus 0.5 mm c o a l p a s s e s from f l o t a t i o n with
t h e c o n c e n t r a t e s being subsequently dewatered by
e i t h e r vacuum d i s c f i l t e r s o r s c r e e n bowl
c e n t r i f u g e s . For c o a l s w i t h t h e s e problems, t h e
f i n e s a r e c l a s s i f i e d a t 0.15 mm and t h e 0.5 mm
by 0.15 mm f r a c t i o n i s cleaned by two-stage
water-only cyclone w h i l e t h e minus 0.15 mm
f r a c t i o n i s e i t h e r cleaned by f r o t h f l o t a t i o n o r
e l s e d i s c a r d e d . The reason f o r t h i s i s t h a t t h e
c o a r s e f r a c t i o n has been shown t o be poorly
r e s p o n s i v e t o f l o t a t i o n and y e t r e a d i l y cleaned
by cyclones. The converse i s t r u e f o r t h e
0.15 mm f r a c t i o n . The two c l e a n c o a l f u n c t i o n s
a r e then combined f o r f i l t r a t i o n o r c e n t r i f u g a l
dewatering.

Conclusions

The major problems faced by t h e o p e r a t o r s i n

t h e Westcrn Cnnndian c o n l f i e l d s a r e r e l n t c d t o
t h c recovery of i n s i c u c o n l . P r o p e r mining and
q u a l i t y c o n t r o l procedures a r e e s r a b l i s h c d i n t h e
p i t t o n m i n i z c c o a l r e c o v e r y from che senm nnd
minimize d i l u t i o n . There i s no one method o f e s t i m a t i n s m i n e a b l e p i t r e s e r v e s , r e c o v e r i e s , &g
l o s s e s and d i l u t i o n . T h i s i s t o be e x p e c t e d a s
g e o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s a r e v e r y v n r i e d from one
mine s i t e t o n n o t h e r . Even w i t h i n t h e same p i t
a v n r i e t y of seam(s) c o n f i g u r a t i o n s cnn be s e e n .
The open p i t s of Western Canada a r e h i g h l y
mechnnized and u s e t h e most modern of mining
equipment. H y d r a u l i c s h o v e l s and b e l t conveyors
f o r l o n g d i s t a n c e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a r e two i t e m s
which have g a i n e d r e m a r k a b l e a c c e p t a n c e w i t h i n a
v e r y s h o r t time. High break-out f o r c e and capaci t y f o r s e l e c t i v e mining h a s c o n t r i b u t e d l a r g e l y
t o t h e s u c c e s s of t h e h y d r a u l i c s h o v e l . T h e r e
a r e some 20 s u c h machines i n o p e r a t i o n i n Western
Canada.
Only one c o a l o p e r a t o r i n t h e mountains u s e s a
d r a g l i n e . D r a g l i n e s have n o t found t h a t much of
acceptance although s e v e r a l a r e being operated i n
t h e s u r f a c e c o a l mines i n t h e P l a i n s Region.
The g r e a t e s t c o n s t r a i n t t o o v e r a l l mining i n
t h e p r o v i n c e s of B r i t i s h Columbia and A l b e r t a i s
t h e topography. The rugged mountain t e r r a i n
p l a c e s numerous c o n s t r a i n t s on mine p l a n n i n g ,
m a t e r i a l s h a n d l i n g and i n f r a s t r u c t u r e development
The mines a r e l o c a t e d a t e l e v a t i o n s o f up t o
2400 m above t h e s e a l e v e l . T e m p e r a t u r e s d u r i n g
t h e w i n t e r d i p as low a s -450C.
T h i s t y p e o f c l i m a t e r e q u i r e s t h a t some s p e c i a l
s p e c i f i c f e a t u r e s be incorporated i n t h e b a s i c
machines. For example, most l o a d b e a r i n g compon e n t s a r e made from c o l d w e a t h e r s t e e l . P r o v i s i o n i s made f o r h e a t i n g of t h e e n g i n e c o o l a n t
Heating elements
when t h e machine i s o f f - d u t y .
f o r h e a t i n g t h e h y d r a u l i c o i l a f t e r machine s t o p pages and p r e - h e a t i n g of b a t t e r i e s by means of
h o t p l a t e s a r e a l s o r e q u i r e d , The f u e l o i l
warmerfwater s e p a r a t o r s and a i r - s y s t e m d e i c e r
s y s t e m s a r e a l s o e s s e n t i a l f o r c o l d w e a t h e r operation.
The Western Canadian mines have l e a r n t t o d e a l
w i t h t h e problem of f r i a b l e c o a l . I n p i t mining
t e c h n i q u e s have been d e v e l o p e d t o minimize t h e
production of f i n e s . T r i a l s with v a r i o u s s e t s of
f i n e c o a l c l e a n i n g c i r c u i t s have l e d t o t h e a d o p
t i o n o f f r o t h f l o t a t i o n and w a t e r o n l y c y c l o n e s .
The p r o c e s s p l a n t s i n c o r p o r a t i n g t h e t h r e e
c l e a n i n g c i r c u i t s , e . g . d e n s e medium, hydrocyc l o n e s and f r o t h flotation t e n d t o b e r e l a t i v e l y
complex w i t h a h i g h c a p i t a l c o s t b u t o f f e r a
g r e a t d e a l of f l e x i b i l i t y i n terns of f e e d v a r i a b i l i t y and p r o d u c t q u a l i t y .
On any c o a l mining p r o j e c t i n t h e m o u n t a i n s
t h e c h a l l e n g e s f a c i n g t h e mine p l a n n e r s a r e enormous. The c o n c u r r e n t mining o f s e v e r a l seams
o f t e n p r o v i d e s a b a t c h of raw c o a l of h i g h l y mria b l e q u a l i t y . The raw c o a l from t h e s e b a t c h e s
must b e b l e n d e d t o p r o v i d e a u n i f o r m f e e d f o r t h e
c o a l processing p l a n t with t h e a i m of achieving
a washed c o a l of a s p e c i f i c q u a l i t y f o r t h e
export market.
S e v e r a l m i n i n g a l t e r n a t i v e s must b e e v a l u a t e d
i n o r d e r t o f i n d a n o p t i m a l t r a d e - o f f between
production c o s t , s e l l i n g p r i c e , resource conserv a t i o n , p r o d u c t q u a l i t y and e n v i r o n m e n r a l p r o t e c tion.

Rcfcrences

1. B n l l , C.W., "Er.?lorntion and G e o l o g i c a l Scruct u r e of Coal Nensures i n Western ~ n n o d a " , Coal

E x a l o r n t i o n , P r o c e e d i n g s of t h e F i r s t I n t e r n a t i o n n l Con1 E x p l o r a t i o n Symposiurc, 2 l i l l e r
Freeman P u b l i c a t i o n s I n c . , 1976.
2 . B i e l e n s t e i n , H.U. e t a l . , Coal Resources and
R e s e r v e s of Canada, P.eport ER 79-9, Energy,
M n e s and R e s o u r c e s Canada, December 1979.

3 . B u t c h e r , S.G., Osborne, D.G. and k ' a l t e r s , A.D.,

" D e s i m . C o d s s i o n i n ~and O p e r a t i o n of P l a n t s
~ r e a t ? n gHighly ~ r i a b i ec a n a d i o n Coals'', Pnper
G3. V I I I I n t e r n a t i o n a l Coal P r e ~ a r a t i o nCong r e s s , USSR D o n e t s k , May 1979.
4. M i k h a i l , M.X. and P a t c h i n g , T . , " S i z e Degradat i o n o f Bituminous C o a l from Western Canada",
CL"I B u l l e t i n , Flay 1980.

5. P e a r s o n , D.E., "The Q u a l i t y o f Western Canadian

Coking Coals", CEI B u l l e t i n , J a n u a r y 1980.
6. Rance, D.C., "The Q u i n t e t t e Coal P r o j e c t " ,
B u l l e t i n , Vol. 76, No. 853, llay 1983.

CM

7 . S c m , EA. a al., "The C o a l f i e l d s o f S m h e a s t e r n

B r i t i s h Columbia", > l i n i n g Magazine, &ust 1983.
8 . S i n g h a l , R.K., Course n o t e s : Mine P l a n n i n g and
M a t e r i a l s H a n d l i n g i n S u r f a c e ? l i n i n g , Univers i t y o f A l b e r t a , Edmonton, November 1980.
9. S i n g h a l , R.K., G r a s s y blountain Coal P r o j e c t ,
Unpublished R e p o r t s , Home O i l Co. L t d . ,
C a l g a r y , 1982.
XI. Walters, A.D., "Coal P r e p a r a t i o n Technology i n
B r i t i s h Columbia", P r o c e e d i n g s of 8 t h Annual
CLhi D i s t r i c t 6 Meeting, S m i t h e r s , B r i t i s h
Columbia, O c t o b e r 1983.

Table 1.

S i z e D i s t r i b u t i o n s of Rocky Xountain Coking Coal

Raw Coal
A s Hined

Size Fraction

m
Plus
-50

+13

- 6

+ 3

+
+

Hinus
-

Ash Content
%

6
0.5
0.15
0.15

(Reference 3.

---

Butcher e t a l . , 1979)

Table 2.

P r o p o r t i o n of Fines i n Rocky Mountain Coals

Hardgrove
Grindability

Mine
A

?lass

%
-

+25

-13

0.5

Ash Content
%

50

-25

Mass

%
-

Clean Coal
A f t e r Drying

Raw Coal
Into Plant

(Semi-Anthracite)

79

89

96

89

82
91

105

(Reference 4 ,

H i k h a i l and Patching, 1980)

Volatile
Matter
(&mf

Average
Ash
Content
I

Cines
Content
% -28 Yesh

Table 3.

Nippon S t e e l
Keystone

1.50

Maximum
Fluidity
d dpm

8 t o 30

0 t o 70

5-100
1500-30000

8 t o 30

80 t o 260

1.2

25 t o 45

-10 t o +lo0

3-2500

1 2 - 1 5

25to45

-lOto+lOO

3-1500

1.0

Moura

0.9

Maximum
Dilatation

1.4

Pittston

Inert
Content

Rank
Ro max

group in^

Balmer

Coking P r o p e r t i e s of Rocky Mountain Coals

Volatile
~Natter
FSI
-

Predominantly Canadian Rocky Mountain Coals

(Reference 5.

Pearson, 1980)

Table 4.

Example:

W a s h a b i l i t y of Rocky >fountain Coking Coal

Fractional

R e l a t i v e Density
Floats

% Y i e l d%Ash
-

1.30

36.14

2.28

Cumularive
% Yield i Ash
-

36.14

3.28

-1.30

1.35

9.89

7.80

46.03

3.47

-1.35

1.40

9.03

11.34

55.06

4.76

-1.40

1.45

5.72

15.45

60,28

5.69

-1.45

1,50

3.20

19.66

63.48

6.39

-1.50

+
+

1.55

3.11

23.17

66.59

7.17

-1.55

1.60

2.05

27.75

68.64

7.79

-1.60

1.65

1.54

31.91

70.18

8.32

-1.65

1.70

1.50

35.80

71.68

8.89

-1.70

+
+

1.75

1.29

40.37

72.97

9.45

1.80

1.24

44.24

74.21

10.03

-1.80 + 1.85

-1.75
-1.85
Sinks

1.37

48.64

75.58

10.73

1.90

1.33

52.27

76.91

11.45

1.90

23.09

79.25

100.00

27-10

(Reference 10. W a l t e r s , 1983)

(dmmf)

F i g u r e 1.

Coal i n Canada (from Ref. 2 ) .

Upper Cretaceous

Eigures 3 and 4.

Typical geological sections showing coal seam

structure in the Western Canadian Mountainous
Region.

Figure 7 .

F i g u r e 8.

F i g u r e 10.

The f o o t w a l l of a m o d e r a t e l y d i p p i n g seam i s
b e i n g c l e a n e d by t h e d o z e r .

The c o a l dozed down i s b e i n g l o a d e d i n t o

t r u c k s by a front-end l o a d e r .

The mountainous t o p o g r a p h y o f t e n n e c e s s i t a t e s
o v e r b u r d e n d i s p o s a l by e n d - t i p p i n g .

rnl z2s2;

u
e'

PK1 MhRC

UWBHEK
155-..-

_n
R4W COAL

iAlLl~G5

D15P054L

-0
CLEAN COAL

CONVEYCR

c.J

f'

7 Dl5CARD

CONVEr'i'aK

LaJ%
LOADOUT

DISCARD

F i g u r e 11.

Example:

Coal P r e p a r a t i o n P l a n t flow s h e e t f o r Western Canadian coal.

Figure 12.

Belt conveyors are gaining rapid acceptance. This 5 km long

svstem snown is at the Greenhills mine in aritish Columbia.