Lecture 23jan15

Course: ECE 230L Intro to Microelectronic Devices and Circuits
Location: Teer 203

Instructor: Dr. Stiff-Roberts
Office: FCIEMAS 3511
Office Hours: Tu 1-4pm
E-mail: adrienne.stiffroberts@duke.edu
Phone: 660-5560
Last Class
This Class
Kronig-Penney Model
Density of States Function
k-Space Diagram
Statistical Mechanics
Electrical Conduction in Solids
Charge Carriers in Semiconductors
Extension to Three Dimensions
Dopant Atoms and Energy Levels
Density of States Function
The Extrinsic Semiconductor
January 23, 2015
ECE 230L, Spring 15, Stiff-Roberts
Page 1
Quantum Theory of Solids

Density of States Function:
Three-dimensional infinite potential well
0 x a
V x, y, z 0 for 0 y a
0 z a
V x, y, z elsewhere
Crystal is a cube with length a
January 21, 2015
Electrons are
allowed to move
relatively freely in
the conduction band
of a semiconductor,
but are confined to
the crystal.
Consider a free
electron confined to
a three-dimensional
infinite potential well,
where the potential
well represents the
crystal.
Page 2

2mE
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
n
x
y
z
x
y
z
2
2
a
where nx, ny, and nz are positive integers (negative values would not yield different
energy states)
January 21, 2015
Page 3

4 2m
g (E)
3
h
32
N ( E ) g ( E )dE
E
Density of quantum states as a function of energy total number of

quantum states between the energy E and E + dE per unit volume of
the crystal.
Units are given as number of states per unit energy per unit volume (#
states/eV cm3)
To determine the total number of quantum states per unit volume, must
integrate the density of states over a given energy range.
January 21, 2015
Page 4

* 32
n
* 32
p
4 2m
gc (E)
3
h
gv (E)
4 2m
3
E Ec , for E Ec
Ev E , for E E v
h
g ( E ) 0, for Ev E Ec
We can extend this model to a semiconductor in order to determine the

density of quantum states in the conduction band and in the valence
band.
Electrons and holes are confined within the semiconductor, so the
infinite square well potential is still relevant.
January 21, 2015
Page 5

January 21, 2015
Page 6

Statistical Mechanics:
There are three distribution laws
describing the distribution of
particles among available energy
states (in each case the particles
are assumed to be noninteracting):
Maxwell-Boltzmann probability
function: Particles are
distinguishable, no limit to the
number of particles allowed in
each energy state (gas molecules
in a container at low pressure)
Bose-Einstein probability
function: Particles are
indistinguishable, no limit to the
number of particles allowed in
each energy state (photons)
Fermi-Dirac probability function:
Particles are indistinguishable,
only one particle is permitted in
each quantum state (electrons)
January 23, 2015
Page 7

Fermi-Dirac probability function probability that a quantum state at the
energy E will be occupied by an electron.
1
f F (E)
E EF
1 exp
k BT
N (E)
g (E)
fF(E) Fermi-Dirac probability function

N(E) number density, number of particles per unit volume per unit energy
g(E) density of states (DOS), number of quantum states per unit volume
per unit energy
EF Fermi energy
January 23, 2015
Page 8

This result shows that,

for T = 0K, the
electrons are in their
lowest possible energy
states.
All states below EF are
filled and all states
above EF are empty.
January 23, 2015
Page 9

The Fermi energy
determines the
statistical distribution of
electrons and does not
have to correspond to
an allowed energy level.
The value of the Fermi

energy EF is critically
dependent on the
density of states
function of the system.
If g(E) and N0 are
known for a given
system, then the Fermi
energy can be
determined.
January 23, 2015
Page 10

The probability of
a state being
occupied at E = EF
is for T > 0K.
At these
temperatures,
there is a nonzero
probability that
some energy
states above EF
will be occupied
by electrons and
some energy
levels below EF
will be empty.
January 23, 2015
Page 11

1
1 f F (E) 1
E EF
1 exp
k BT
January 23, 2015
Probability that a quantum

state is empty with no
electrons:
Page 12

Consider E - E F k BT
1
f F (E)
E EF
1 exp
k BT
E E F
f F ( E ) exp
k
T
B
The Fermi-Dirac distribution and the Maxwell-Boltzmann approximation

are within 5% of each other when the E-EF ~ 3kBT.
1
1 f F (E) 1
E EF
1 exp
k BT
January 23, 2015
E F E
1
exp
k
T
EF E
B
1 exp
k BT
Page 13
The Semiconductor in Equilibrium

Charge Carriers in Semiconductors:
n( E ) g c ( E ) f F ( E )
The distribution of electrons among energy levels within the conduction band
is given by the density of allowed quantum states times the probability that a
state is occupied by an electron.
The total electron concentration per unit volume in the conduction band is found
by integrating the expression over the entire conduction band energy range.
p( E ) g v ( E )1 f F ( E )
The distribution of holes among energy levels within the valence band is given
by the density of allowed quantum states times the probability that a state is not
occupied by an electron.
The total hole concentration per unit volume in the valence band is found by
integrating the expression over the entire valence band energy range.
January 23, 2015
Page 14

intrinsic semiconductor
pure semiconductor with no
impurity atoms and no lattice
defects
For an intrinsic
semiconductor*:
density of states functions

for electrons and holes
are symmetrical
Fermi energy is at the

midgap energy level
electron and hole

concentrations are equal
*assume electron and hole

effective masses are equal
January 23, 2015
Page 15

For the condition of thermal equilibrium (no external forces), the corresponding
electron and hole concentrations, in an intrinsic semiconductor, are:
n0 thermal-equilibrium electron concentration
p0 thermal-equilibrium hole concentration
n0 g c ( E ) f F ( E )dE
1
f F (E)
E EF
1 exp
k BT
4 2m
n0
3
h
Ec
* 32
n
E E F
exp
k BT
E E F
E Ec exp
dE
k BT
E Ec
Let
k BT
January 23, 2015
Page 16

4 2m k T
n0
h
*
n B
3
32
Ec E F 1 2
exp
exp d
k BT
Gamma function, :
0
2m k T
n0 2
h
*
n B
2
January 23, 2015
32
12
1
exp d
Ec E F
exp
k BT
Page 17

32
2m k T
effective density of states

Define : N c 2
function in the conduction
h
band
Ec E F
n0 N c exp
k BT
*
n B
2
January 23, 2015
Page 18

2m k T
Define : N v 2
E F Ev
p0 N v exp
k BT
*
p B
2
32
A similar derivation yields the thermal-equilibrium hole concentration in

terms of the effective density of states function in the valence band, Nv.
January 23, 2015
Page 19

For an intrinsic semiconductor, the corresponding electron

and hole concentrations are:
ni intrinsic electron concentration
pi intrinsic hole concentration
ni pi
EFi intrinsic Fermi energy (for intrinsic semiconductor)

Eg bandgap energy
January 23, 2015
Page 20

Ec EFi
n0 ni N c exp
k BT
EFi Ev
p0 pi ni N v exp
k BT
Ec EFi
EFi Ev
n ni pi N c N v exp
exp
k BT
k BT
Ec Ev
Eg
2
ni N c N v exp
N c N v exp
k BT
k BT
2
i
January 23, 2015
Page 21

January 23, 2015
Page 22

We can now calculate the intrinsic Fermi energy position, EFi
Ec EFi
EFi Ev
N c exp
N v exp
k
T
k
T
B
B
Nv
1
1
EFi Ec Ev k BT ln
2
2
Nc
*
m
1
3
p
EFi Ec Ev k BT ln *
m
2
4
n
1
Ec Ev Emidgap
2
m*p
3
EFi Emidgap k BT ln *
m
4
n
January 23, 2015
Page 23

Dopant Atoms and Energy Levels:
Add a group V element, like
phosphorus, as a substitutional
impurity atom in silicon.
Group V element has five
valence electrons.
The fifth valence electron is more
loosely bound to the phosphorus
atom because not participating in
covalent bondingcalled the
donor electron.
As temperature increases, the
donor electron can break away
from the donor impurity atom and
enter the conduction band,
leaving behind a positively
charged donor ion.
January 23, 2015
Page 24

Ed energy state of the donor electron

n-type semiconductor donor atoms contribute electrons to the
conduction band without contributing holes to the valence band
January 23, 2015
Page 25

Add a group III element, like boron, as a substitutional impurity atom in silicon.
Group III element has three valence electrons.
One covalent bonding position is empty.
As temperature increases, valence electrons can break away from silicon atoms and occupy
the empty state of the acceptor impurity atom, creating a negatively charged acceptor ion.
The empty state left behind for the silicon atom now behaves as an additional hole in the
semiconductor.
January 23, 2015
Page 26

Ea energy state of the acceptor

p-type semiconductor acceptor atoms contribute holes to the
valence band without contributing electrons to the conduction band
January 23, 2015
Page 27

Ionization energy approximate energy

required to elevate the donor electron into the
conduction band, or to elevate a valence electron
into a discrete acceptor energy state.
Extrinsic semiconductor has controlled amount of dopant atoms, either donors
or acceptors, so that the thermal-equilibrium electron and hole concentrations are
different from the intrinsic carrier concentration. One type of charge carrier is
dominant in an extrinsic semiconductor.
January 23, 2015
Page 28

The Extrinsic Semiconductor:
Ec E F
Ec EFi EF EFi
n0 N c exp
N c exp
k BT
k BT
Ec EFi
EF EFi
n0 N c exp
exp
k
T
k
T
B
B
EF EFi
n0 ni exp
k
T
B
EF EFi
p0 ni exp
k
T
B
January 23, 2015
Page 29

The Extrinsic Semiconductor:
Ec E F
E F Ev
n0 p0 N c N v exp
exp
k BT
k BT
Eg
n0 p0 N c N v exp
k BT
n0 p0 n
2
i
January 23, 2015
Page 30

Lecture 23jan15

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Lecture 23jan15

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Course: ECE 230L Intro to Microelectronic Devices and Circuits

Location: Teer 203

Density of States Function

Electrical Conduction in Solids

Charge Carriers in Semiconductors

Extension to Three Dimensions

Dopant Atoms and Energy Levels

Density of States Function

The Extrinsic Semiconductor

January 23, 2015

ECE 230L, Spring 15, Stiff-Roberts

Quantum Theory of Solids

January 21, 2015

ECE 230L, Spring 15, Stiff-Roberts

Quantum Theory of Solids

ECE 230L, Spring 15, Stiff-Roberts

Quantum Theory of Solids

Density of quantum states as a function of energy total number of

ECE 230L, Spring 15, Stiff-Roberts

Quantum Theory of Solids

We can extend this model to a semiconductor in order to determine the

ECE 230L, Spring 15, Stiff-Roberts

Quantum Theory of Solids

January 21, 2015

ECE 230L, Spring 15, Stiff-Roberts

Quantum Theory of Solids

ECE 230L, Spring 15, Stiff-Roberts

Quantum Theory of Solids

fF(E) Fermi-Dirac probability function

ECE 230L, Spring 15, Stiff-Roberts

Quantum Theory of Solids

This result shows that,

January 23, 2015

ECE 230L, Spring 15, Stiff-Roberts

Quantum Theory of Solids

The value of the Fermi

ECE 230L, Spring 15, Stiff-Roberts

Quantum Theory of Solids

ECE 230L, Spring 15, Stiff-Roberts

Quantum Theory of Solids

ECE 230L, Spring 15, Stiff-Roberts

Probability that a quantum

Quantum Theory of Solids

The Fermi-Dirac distribution and the Maxwell-Boltzmann approximation

ECE 230L, Spring 15, Stiff-Roberts

The Semiconductor in Equilibrium

ECE 230L, Spring 15, Stiff-Roberts

The Semiconductor in Equilibrium

density of states functions

Fermi energy is at the

electron and hole

*assume electron and hole

ECE 230L, Spring 15, Stiff-Roberts

The Semiconductor in Equilibrium

ECE 230L, Spring 15, Stiff-Roberts

The Semiconductor in Equilibrium

January 23, 2015

ECE 230L, Spring 15, Stiff-Roberts

The Semiconductor in Equilibrium

January 23, 2015

ECE 230L, Spring 15, Stiff-Roberts

The Semiconductor in Equilibrium

A similar derivation yields the thermal-equilibrium hole concentration in