Chapter 2

Elements of
Seismology and Seismicity

CIE 619
Chapter 2 Seismology and Seismicity

CONTENT
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.

Introduction
Causes of Earthquakes
Theory of Plate Tectonics
Reids Elastic Rebound Theory
Fault Mechanisms
Definition of Seismic Waves
Location of an Earthquake
Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale
Richter Magnitude Scale
Evolution of Magnitude Scales
Relationships Between Magnitude Scales
Seismic Parameters Influencing Structural Response
Att
Attenuation
ti Relationships
R l ti hi
Elastic Seismic Wave Model
Eastern and Western North America Earthquakes
Directivity Pulse Phenomenon and Near-Field Ground Motions
References
CIE 619
Chapter 2 Seismology and Seismicity

1. Introduction
Earthquake design of a structure always depends on degree of regional
seismic activity
Many seismological factors directly influence work of a structural
engineer:

distribution of earthquake sources affecting the construction site

fault mechanisms of various sources
seismic activity of various sources in terms of recurrence of magnitudes
ground motion intensity;
attenuation of the ground motion with distance

Ch
Chapter
t provides
id overview
i off fundamental
f d
t l properties
ti off various
i
seismological aspects
Acquaint the structural engineer with language of seismologists.

CIE 619
Chapter 2 Seismology and Seismicity

2. Causes of Earthquakes
Natural Earthquakes
most natural earthquakes occur in the earth
earthss crust
crust measures between 60 and 100 km in depth
crust made of different segments that are continuously in motion

CIE 619
Chapter 2 Seismology and Seismicity

2. Causes of Earthquakes
Natural Earthquakes
deformations occur in the rock, which cause a build up
of elastic energy
rupture or slip along fault line causes a sudden release
of energy into a seismic shock (an earthquake) which,
in turn, causes propagation of seismic waves and
ground shaking
Most earthquakes occur in two specific zones on the
planet:
Circum Pacific Belt: South America, the California coast,
Alaska, Japan, Formosa, Philippines, New Zealand;
Alpine Belt: the Mediterranean, North India, Indonesia.
CIE 619
Chapter 2 Seismology and Seismicity

2. Causes of Earthquakes

CIE 619
Chapter 2 Seismology and Seismicity

2. Causes of Earthquakes
Earthquakes can damage the built
environment a number of ways, including:

Ground shaking
Fault rupture
Liquefaction or soil failure
Tsunami (sea) or seiche (lake)
Flooding
Fire
CIE 619
Chapter 2 Seismology and Seismicity

2. Causes of Earthquakes
Damage by Fault Rupture
1-dimensional

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Chapter 2 Seismology and Seismicity

2. Causes of Earthquakes
Damage by Liquefaction or Soil Failure

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Chapter 2 Seismology and Seismicity

2. Causes of Earthquakes
Damage by Tsunami

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2. Causes of Earthquakes
Damage by Flooding

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2. Causes of Earthquakes
Damage by Fire

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2. Causes of Earthquakes

1995 Kobe Earthquake

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2. Causes of Earthquakes
Induced Earthquakes
some human interventions influence amplitude and distribution of strains
in earths crust
interventions such as filling of a water reservoir, mining, excavation of
huge quarries, high pressure injection of fluids to generate geothermic
energy, oil wells and underground nuclear explosions, may cause major
induced earthquakes.
filling of water reservoirs usually causes most severe induced earthquakes
may reach magnitude 6 on the Richter scale
More than 70 earthquakes of this type have been recorded world wide
H.K.
HK G
Gupta
pta (1992)* is an eexcellent
cellent reference on earthquakes
earthq akes induced
ind ced by
b the
filling of water reservoirs.

Course limited to naturally occurring earthquakes.

*Gupta, H.K. 1992. Reservoir-Induced Earthquake. Developments in
Geotechnical Engineering, 64. Amsterdam, Elsevier.
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3. Theory of Plate Tectonics

The Earth is characterized by a small number of lithospheric plates that
float on a viscous underlayer called the asthenosphere.
Geological evidence shows that plates undergo constant, gradual
change. Magma is continually upwelling at the mid-oceanic ridges and rises
as the seafloor spreads apart.
apart
In some areas, large sections of plates are forced to move beneath other
plates (surface layers of rocks are absorbed into the earths interior). These
areas are called subduction zones.

A plate being subducted beneath another

CIE 619
Chapter 2 Seismology and Seismicity

3. Theory of Plate Tectonics

Generally accepted as explanation for occurrence of most earthquakes
Proposed in the 1960's
Earths crust composed of several large plates that float on a viscous
medium
Continents and oceans are supported by those plates
Continents originally all linked together, but started drifting apart 200
million years ago
Plates move from 1 to 15 cm every year.

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3. Theory of Plate Tectonics

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3. Theory of Plate Tectonics

95% of earthquakes occur along the edges of the interacting plates

CIE 619
Chapter 2 Seismology and Seismicity
Source: Earthquakes by Bruce A. Bolt

Worlds Largest Magnitude Earthquakes

Earthquake

Magnitude

Year

Approx. casualties

1. Chile

9.5

1960

>2000

2. Prince William
Sound, Alaska

9.2

1964

125

3. Andreanof
Islands, Alaska

9.1

1957

Not reported

4. Kamchatka
Peninsula

9.0

1952

Not reported

5. Sumatra

9.0

2004

>283,100
(>173,000 in Indonesia)

CIE 619
Chapter 2 Seismology and Seismicity

Source: United States Geological Survey (USGS)

3. Theory of Plate Tectonics

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3. Theory of Plate Tectonics

Three types of plate motion can be
distinguished:
transform motion : the plates slide past each
other
diverge motion : the plates diverge from each
other
h fforming
i ocean ridges
id
subducted motion : the plates converge on each
other causing the subduction of one plate under
an other.
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3. Theory of Plate Tectonics

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3. Theory of Plate Tectonics

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3. Theory of Plate Tectonics

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3. Theory of Plate Tectonics

According to theory of plate tectonics, earthquakes arise at the
boundaries of adjacent plates
Earthquakes occur when resistance of rock is exceeded
Conditions create a fracture
Energy build up between two plates (a fault) can be estimated but still
unable to predict when energy will be released
Science of earthquake prediction still in infancy
Besides movement of faults on surface, other factors investigated to
predict seismic events

variations of water levels in wells

change of wave propagation velocities
change of electric resistivity and magnetic distortion
gas emission
abnormal animal behaviour, etc.
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3. Theory of Plate Tectonics

For than 10 years, Japanese researchers studied catfish
behaviour in relation to occurrence of earthquakes
Research concluded that catfish had quaint ability to
predict occurrence of earthquakes
Unfortunately, their behaviour remained the same
regardless of earthquake intensity
Example illustrates great complexity of earthquake
prediction
Scientists not only faced with prediction of time of
occurrence, but also with prediction of intensity of ground
motion
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3. Theory of Plate Tectonics

In 1975,, Chinese ggovernment evacuated close to three
million people in many cities of Manchuria
Decision came after elaborated study undertaken and an
actual earthquake of magnitude 4.8 had occurred
Several days after evacuation, a 7.3 magnitude earthquake
destroyed 90% of the cities, but only several hundred
people lost their lives
p from the cityy of
However,, in 1976,, evacuated ppeople
Kuantung, close to Canton, waited two months, but the
predicted earthquake never came
Same year, Tangshan earthquake was never predicted but
an estimated 250 000 people died
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4. Reids Elastic Rebound Theory

Following 1906 San Francisco

earthquake, Prof. H.F. Reid from John
Hopkins University proposed an
explanation for immediate cause of an
earthquake
According to Reids elastic rebound
theory, a fault is incapable of movement
until strain has built up in the rock on
either side
Strain is accumulated by gradual
shifting of earths crust
Rock becomes distorted but holds its
original position
When accumulated stress finally
overcome resistance of rock,
rock earth
snaps back into an unstrained position
releasing a large quantity of energy
Energy release produces waves which
travel through the earth in every
directions causing what is known as
earthquakes.
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5. Fault Mechanisms
There are three types of fault mechanisms
Strike-slip fault
Normal fault
Underthrust fault

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5. Fault Mechanisms
Strike-slip
Strike slip fault
Caused by transform motion (lateral motion) of plates

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5. Fault Mechanisms

Best-known strike-slip fault in the US:

S A
San
Andreas
d
F
Fault
lt iin C
California.
lif i
Information on the fault and others in the
United States is available at a number of
web sites including:

North American
Plate

Southern California Earthquake Center

(SCEC) www.scec.org ,
California Geological Survey
www.consrv.ca.gov
United States Geological Survey
(USGS) www.usgs.gov .

San A
S
Andreas
d
Fault
l composed
d off many
segments or combinations of segments:
14 by the count of USGS, with various
slip rates, maximum magnitudes and
return periods.

Pacific
Plate

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5. Fault Mechanisms
Normal fault
Caused by diverge motion of plates
Top wall of fault plane slides downward
Fault plane generally inclined, slides on an inclination
angle

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5. Fault Mechanisms
Underthrust fault
Caused by subducted motion of plates
Top wall of fault plane is pushed upward
Particular type of underthrust fault is called thrust fault
characterized by a small inclination (< 45o) of fault
plane

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6. Definition of Seismic Waves

Focal point (focus) or
hypocentre
where earthquake occurs
where fault line originates
located at depth varying from a
few kilometres to 100 km

Epicentre
Vertical projection of focal
point on ground surface

Focal depth
Vertical distance between focal
point and epicentre.
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6. Definition of Seismic Waves

Distance from the site of a
building or recording station
to the fault or fault projection
is described by a number of
terms:

SA = epicentral distance;
SB = distance to fault rupture;
SD = hypocentral distance;
SC = shortest distance to fault
rupture.

Plan View

Elevation View
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6. Definition of Seismic Waves

Various kinds of waves produced during an
earthquake
Waves travelling within solid earth called
body waves
Waves travelling near ground surface are
called surface waves

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6. Definition of Seismic Waves

Two kinds of body waves
Primary waves (P-waves)
Horizontal tension and
compression waves, which travel
in direction of wave front
High frequency
First waves to reach a structure

Secondary waves (S-waves)

Shear waves
waves, which travel
perpendicularly to wave front
Lower frequency
Greater amplitude
Most destructive vibrations.

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6. Definition of Seismic Waves

Two kinds of surface waves
Love waves

Rayleigh waves
Vertical waves travelling on the
ground surface

Horizontal waves travelling on

the ground

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6. Definition of Seismic Waves

First arrival of seismic waves can be
id ifi d ffrom seismograph
identified
i
h (x)
( )

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7. Location of an Earthquake
At least three geological stations
required to find location of epicentre
For each station i, apply differential
equations between distance, velocity
and time, to primary and secondary
waves

Ri =

t s - t p

R1

R2

1 1
-
vs v p

ts tp = time difference, taken from the

earthquake record at the station,
station
between the arrival of the P and Swaves
vp = velocity of the primary waves
vs = velocity of the secondary waves
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7. Location of an Earthquake
From theory of propagation of elastic
seismic waves (sect. 14), velocities of
propagation of P and S-waves given by:
vp =

t s - t p
1 1
-
vs v p

( + 2G )

vs =

where:

Ri =

E
= Lame's constant
(1 + ) (1 - 2 )
G = shear modulus
E = Young' s modulus

= Poisson' s ratio
= rock density (mass/volume)
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