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Geoscience Frontiers 4 (2013) 199e212

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Research paper

Evolution of the Paleogene succession of the western Himalayan foreland basin

B.P. Singh*
CAS in Geology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, India

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 19 July 2012
Received in revised form
31 August 2012
Accepted 24 September 2012
Available online 2 November 2012

The Paleogene succession of the Himalayan foreland basin is immensely important as it preserves
evidence of India-Asia collision and related records of the Himalayan orogenesis. In this paper, the
depositional regime of the Paleogene succession of the Himalayan foreland basin and variations in
composition of the hinterland at different stages of the basin developments are presented. The
Paleogene succession of the western Himalayan foreland basin developed in two stages, i.e. syncollisional stage and post-collisional stage. At the onset, chert breccia containing fragments derived
from the hanging walls of faults and reworked bauxite developed as a result of erosion of the forebulge.
The overlying early Eocene succession possibly deposited in a coastal system, where carbonates represent barriers and shales represent lagoons. Up-section, the middle Eocene marl beds likely deposited on
a tidal at. The late Eocene/Oligocene basal Murree beds, containing tidal bundles, indicate that a mixed
or semi-diurnal tidal system deposited the sediments and the sedimentation took place in a tidedominated estuary. In the higher-up, the succession likely deposited in a river-dominated estuary or
in meandering rivers. In the beginning of the basin evolution, the sediments were derived from the
Precambrian basement or from the metasediments/volcanic rocks possessing terrains of the south. The
early and middle Eocene (54.7e41.3 Ma) succession of the embryonic foreland possibly developed from
the sediments derived from the Trans-Himalayan schists and phyllites and Indus ophiolite of the north
during syn-collisional stage. The detrital minerals especially the lithic fragments and the heavy minerals
suggest the provenance for the late Eocene/Oligocene sequences to be from the recycled orogenic belt of
the Higher Himalaya, Tethyan Himalaya and the Indus-suture zone from the north during post-collisional
stage. This is also supported by the paleocurrent measurements those suggest main ows directed
towards southeast, south and east with minor variations. This implies that the river system stabilized
later than 41 Ma and the Higher Himalaya attained sufcient height around this time. The chemical
composition of the sandstones and mudstones occurring in the early foreland basin sequences are
intermediate between the active and passive continental margins and/or same as the passive continental
margins. The sedimentary succession of this basin has sustained a temperature of about 200
C and
undergone a burial depth of about 6 km.
2012, China University of Geosciences (Beijing) and Peking University. Production and hosting by
Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Facies architecture
Provenance
Basin evolution
Paleogene
Himalayan foreland
Tectonics

1. Introduction

* Tel.: 91 542 6701355; fax: 91 542 2369239.

E-mail address: drbpsingh1960@gmail.com.
Peer-review under responsibility of China University of Geosciences (Beijing).

Production and hosting by Elsevier

Paleogene period has been a turning point in the history of the

Indian Subcontinent with the suturing of the Indian plate with the
Asian plate, commencement of mountain-building events and
evolution of Himalayan foreland basin. Before the India-Asia collision, the Indian Subcontinent moved about 2500 km northward
starting from early Cretaceous (Gaetani and Garzanti, 1991;
Chatterjee et al., 2012). Geophysical and geological observations
suggest that, the collision occurred near the equator and foreland
basin evolved in the Paleogene (Kent and Muttoni, 2008; Singh
et al., 2009). In recent years, the timing of India-Asia collision and
related orogenesis has become a controversial issue (e.g. Aitchison

1674-9871/$ e see front matter 2012, China University of Geosciences (Beijing) and Peking University. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2012.09.002

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B.P. Singh / Geoscience Frontiers 4 (2013) 199e212

et al., 2007, 2011; Zhang et al., 2012). The start of the collision has
been inferred at w54 Ma based on sedimentary sequences in the
Zanskar area, close to the Indus-suture zone by Gaetani and
Garzanti (1991). However, Beck et al. (1995) inferred the initial
timing of collision between 66.0 and 55.5 Ma based on the stratigraphic evidence around the suture zone in Pakistan. The concept
of progressive suturing (diachroneity) between Indian and Asian
plates was proposed by Klootwijk et al. (1992) with its start from
the western part at w55 Ma and end in the eastern part w40 Ma.
Later, DeCelles et al. (2004) recorded that the time lag between the
diachroneity in the orogenesis from western part, which began
w52 Ma, to the central part of the Himalaya is only 2 Ma supported
by geological data from Paleogene sequences of the central Himalaya (Nepal). The time of the collision in the western Himalaya is
also inferred as 57  1 Ma based on radiometric dating of rocks
from the collision zone (Leech et al., 2005) and the initiation of the
western Himalayan foreland is interpreted in late Paleocene
(57.9e54.7 Ma) as a result of the India-Asia collision based on
stratigraphic sequences of the Jammu area, North India (Singh,
2003). The occurrence of Cr-spinel at zone P-8 foraminifera
assemblage in the southern Tibet indicates the onset of India-Asia
collision and the initiation of the foreland basin immediately south
of the India-Asia suture zone at w50 Ma (Zhu et al., 2005). Further,
Najman et al. (2010) interpreted the timing of the India-Asia collision w50 Ma based on geological, biostratigraphic and paleomagnetic evidences from a part of Tibet. Additionally, Wang et al. (2011)
also considered the timing of India-Asia collision before w50 Ma
inferred on the basis of Cr-spinel and zircon ages of sediments from
the southern Tibet those show a change of provenance from south
to north at around this time.
The Paleogene sequences in the Outer northwestern Himalaya
form a broad rim in lateral continuity from Pakistan (Fig. 1) consisting of early Paleogene shale and limestone-dominated and late
Paleogene mudstone-sandstone-containing succession. The
geological set-up of the Paleogene sequences of the western
Himalayan foreland including Potwar plateau and Hazara area
(Pakistan) is shown in the Table 1. The established foraminiferal
stratigraphy (e.g. Singh, 1970; Bhatia, 1985b; Bhatia and
Bhargava, 2006) for Paleogene sequences of the western Himalaya suggest that late Paleoceneemiddle Eocene Subathu Formation is overlain by the late middle Eoceneeearly Miocene Murree/
Dharamsala Group or Dagshai-Kasauli formations (Table 1) in
lateral continuity. This age bracket is also supported by the palaeomagnetic data from the Jammu area and Shimla hills (e.g.
Klootwijk et al., 1986; Najman et al., 1994). However, a gap of about
10 Ma is inferred based on radiometric dating of detrital mica and
ssion-track dating of zircon by Najman et al. (1997, 2004) and Jain
et al. (2009). In recent years, Najman et al. (1993), Critelli and
Garzanti (1994), Singh and Singh (1995a, 1995b), Garzanti et al.
(1996), Pivnik and Wells (1996), Najman et al. (1997, 2004),
Najman and Garzanti (2000), Singh and Andotra (2000), Singh
et al. (2000, 2004, 2007, 2009, 2010), Bera et al. (2008, 2010),
Carter et al. (2010) and Ravikant et al. (2011) made signicant
contributions on the Paleogene geology of the western Himalayan
foreland basin.
In view of the fact that the Paleogene succession of the Himalayan foreland basin preserves records of the India-Asia collision
and related Himalayan orogenesis, study of these sequences is very
signicant. A good data base is now available on the provenance
and depositional environment of the Paleogene sequences of the
western sector of the Himalayan foreland basin, still many key
issues remains to be tackled. In this review, the Paleogene
sequences are used to interpret early evolution of the Himalayan
foreland basin with a focus on the Jammu area, which nds a broad
correlation with the Shimla hills and Dharamsala area. Here, data

on facies architecture are compiled and used for deciphering

depositional environments. The available data on paleocurrents,
detrital minerals, heavy minerals and geochemistry are further
used for interpreting composition of the hinterland and inuences
of tectonics and climate on the evolution of the foreland that also
interprets the Himalayan orogeny. Also, some geological challenges
are highlighted for future workers in the end of this review.
2. Facies architecture and depositional environments
The early Paleogene sequences form eight architectural
elements commencing with a silicied breccia facies (Fig. 2A)
containing angular clasts entirely composed of silicied limestone
fragments derived from the underlying basement. The chert breccia
has variable thicknesses along strike. Additionally, reworked
bauxite also occurs in some areas above the basement, which
contains elliptical and circular pisolites encased in ferruginous/
argillaceous matrix. The breccia is followed by a siltstone or siltyshale facies (Fig. 2A) that shows thin laminae and wavy bedding.
Also, angular quartz grains occur aligned along the lamina planes
and the thin lamina contains relatively ner grains than the thick
lamina. The siltstone/silty-shale is followed by the black shale,
which possesses two to three coal seams of about 1 m thickness.
The black shale is followed by the argillaceous limestone (Fig. 2A)
that is impure and contains variety of foraminifers and bivalves.
The overlying succession is composed of a cyclic packages of
green/greenish-yellow shales and argillaceous limestones (Fig. 2A).
The limestone contains elongated gravels of intraformational origin
and often there is internal organization within the gravels, i.e. ner
gravels followed by coarser and vice-versa. This intraformational
conglomerate limestone is capped by oyster-bearing limestone that
is full of oyster shells and the shells lie parallel to the bedding
planes. In the higher-up the limestone proportion increases and
a more regular shale-limestone intercalation occurs. In this part,
the oyster-bearing limestone also occurs independently (Fig. 2A).
The oxygenated facies with marl and purple shale also, possessing vertebrate fossils occur above the limestone that is followed
by sandstone (lithic arenite) with erosional base. Above this horizon,
the chocolate coloured/brown mudstone possessing pedogenic
calcrete horizons occur intercalated with the sandstones those are
cross-bedded, bedded and laminated (Fig. 2B). A thick sandstone
unit (about 50 m thick) is prominent in almost all the areas where
late Paleogene sequences are exposed (Fig. 2B). This sandstone unit
shows wavy bedding, lenticular bedding, thin mud asers, tidal
bundles with 12e28 dominant events and ripple cross-laminae. The
laminated and ripple cross-laminated sandstones are of lithicwacke variety and shows bimodal distribution of quartz grains.
Above this sandstone unit, 5e10 m thick sandstone is intercalated
with the brown mudstone of 12e30 m thickness intercalated with
the laminated siltstone (Fig. 2C). The top part of the Paleogene
sequence in the western Himalaya has more sandstone and a more
regular intercalation of the sandstone and mudstone (Fig. 2D). The
mudstone is often brownish yellow and yellow coloured and bioturbated, but the mature pedogenic features are not observed.
The chert breccia likely deposited by short-lived, small streams
and the clasts were derived from the hanging walls of the faults
locally developed in the basement. The variable thickness of the
chert breccia facies along strike suggests that it represents a growth
fault. The growth fault developed in the fold-thrust belt as a result
of compressional tectonics. The exural subsidence was slow as
a result of the hard and rigid nature of the Precambrian basement
(e.g. Flemings and Jordan, 1989) and thus, a shallow basin was
created above this basement. Singh (2003) has interpreted this
breccia facies as deposited in the fault depressions developed as
a result of India-Asia collision in the late Paleocene. The bauxites

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201

Figure 1. A: Map of Indian subcontinent showing tectonic subdivisions of the Himalaya (modied after Kumar and Tandon, 1985); B: Map shows distribution of the Paleogene
sequences and important locations in the western Himalayan foreland.

showing alignment of the pisolites along the lamina planes and

containing sedimentary structures, and the quartzose sandstone
and associated ferruginous silty-shale were possibly deposited in
ephemeral streams. The reworked bauxite formed from erosion of
a bauxite precursor from the cratonward side and it can be interpreted as a forebulge (Singh, 2003). The coal developed from a peat
swamp of high vegetative density under humid-marshy conditions
maintained by groundwater; the vegetation was only partially
decomposed in the reducing conditions. The nely laminated black
shale was deposited in calm water condition in a lake or inner part
of a lagoon where reducing conditions prevailed (Singh and
Andotra, 2000). Thin laminae in these shales, indicating a lack of

burrowing organisms, suggest a slow rate of sedimentation, and

reducing conditions are demonstrated by the occurrence of pyrite
nodules and the dinocyst assemblage such as Operculodinium and
Thalassiphora (e.g. Sarkar and Prasad, 1998).
The argillaceous limestone showing a micritic texture was
possibly deposited in the low-energy coastal environments. The
conglomeratic limestone above the argillaceous limestone possibly
formed due to landward migration of the barrier bar during
transgression (Singh and Andotra, 2000). The clasts for the
formation of the conglomeratic limestone were derived from the
lime hardgrounds, developed in the shoreface zone (Singh, 2012).
The graded unit in the limestones was deposited along the mid-

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B.P. Singh / Geoscience Frontiers 4 (2013) 199e212

Table 1
Correlation chart of Paleogene sequences of the western Himalayan foreland (modied after Singh and Andotra, 2000).

ramp zone and the alignment of the oyster shells along the bedding
planes, coupled with the preservation of hummocks at some
locations, is the result of storm activity during sedimentation
(Singh and Srivastava, 2011). The siltstones coeval with graded
limestone units that occur in a part of the Shimla hills containing
hummocky cross stratication (HCS) and symmetrical ripples,
suggest that they also were deposited above the wave-base inuenced by waves and storms. The overlying nely laminated and
clay-rich green/greenish-yellow shale was possibly deposited in
a lagoon. The microbiota occurring in this shale also suggests
shallow marine and coastal ecosystems. The majority of the benthic
foraminiferal assemblage present in the argillaceous limestone
indicates a sub-tidal bathymetry that falls in zone III of Boucot
(1981). Furthermore, experimental studies demonstrate that most
of the larger foraminifera are transported to the coastal areas by the
tides and waves from deeper parts of the sea depending upon their
shape and size (Yordanova and Hohenegger, 2007). Thus, the larger
foraminifera occurring in the limestones and shales were introduced in the sediments by the waves and tides in the coastal

regime. Trace fossils of the Scolithos assemblage were developed in

the littoral or sub-tidal zones (Singh, 2012). In combination, the
facies association containing limestone and green/greenish-yellow
shales represent a coastal barrier and lagoon system and the lagoon
was connected to the sea by storm cuts or tidal inlets. However,
Bera et al. (2008) considered Subathu Formation of Shimla hills to
have deposited as shelf turbidites.
The overlying marl facies containing thick and thin lamina
couplets (possible tidal bundles) were formed as a result of the tidal
activities over the tidal at. The desiccation cracks and the autobrecciation indicate sufcient exposure and pedogenesis in the
upper part of the marl facies. The purple shale, with high silt content
and fresh to brackish-water fauna, most likely has deposited in the
supratidal zone. The increase in the silt content and the presence of
hematite suggest additional river inux from adjoining land under
oxidizing conditions. Gypsum streaks in the purple shale suggest that
gypsum precipitated from the saline groundwater during an evaporative phase (Singh, 2010). Wells and Gingerich (1987) considered the
ossiferous shale facies as on-shore pedogenized clays representing

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slow sedimentation in the Kotli area (Pakistan) whereas Srivastava

and Kumar (1996) interpreted the ossiferous shale in the Jammu
area as silty-claystone deposited under uvio-deltaic conditions.
The lowermost part of the Murree sandstones exhibit welldeveloped tidal bundles associated with aser and wavy bedding
and ripple cross-laminated sandstones also possess tidal rhythmites. The sandstone beds exhibiting aser, wavy beddings and tidal
bundles deposited in sub-tidal zone, climbing ripple crosslaminated sandstone units showing tidal rhythmites deposited on
the levee crest of a tide-dominated estuary and siltstones deposited
in an inter-tidal area (Singh, 2000). The 12e28 tidal events suggest
that these strata possibly developed in a mixed or a semi-diurnal
tidal system and the tidal amplitude was too weak to reach the
depositional site at neap stage in the semi-diurnal system.
The upper surfaces of the sandstones preserve asymmetrical
(bifurcated), straight-crested, undulatory and cuspate ripples of low
ripple index (RI 4.0e8.0). The climbing ripples are covered by drape
laminae in the ripple cross-laminated sets. Climbing ripples originate
by a combination of vertical aggradation relative to ripple migration
and drape laminations result from continued fall out of sediments
from suspension after ripple migration ceases (Ashley et al., 1982).
The climbing ripple sets occurring in the late Paleogene sequences of
the Jammu area suggest high rate of net deposition and vertical
aggradation as well as horizontal migration of the ripple crest.
The mudstones of the Lower Murree and Dagshai formations
were deposited during the slackwater period in the supratidal zone
on estuarine ood-plains. Pedogenic calcretes have developed
either on the estuarine or uvial ood-plains (Singh et al., 2009).
The Upper Murree sequences either have deposited in the riverdominated estuaries or meandering rivers and similar is the case
for the Kasauli Formation (e.g. Najman et al., 1993; Singh and Singh,
1995a). The mudstones possibly have deposited during the slackwater period in the supratidal zone or on river ood-plains. Also,
basal part of the Dagshai Formation in the Shimla hills is thought to
have deposited under the marine inuence by Bera et al. (2008).
Additionally, the surfaces of ripple-laminated sandstones in the
Murree Group are weakly bioturbated and mark the presence of
small Thalassinoides trace fossils. These sandstones showing
bimodality of the grain size suggest a mixed environment where
river-derived sediments were redistributed and deposited under
tidal inuence in the estuary. The siltstone unit is moderately to
highly bioturbated at places and contains Chondrites, Planolites,
Imbrichnus and Scolithos as important trace fossils, and these trace
fossils developed in secondary channels in the inter-tidal area
(Sudan et al., 2002). Also, trace fossils of Scolithos assemblage
suggesting coastal sedimentation have been earlier reported by
Singh (1978) from the Paleogene sequences of the Shimla hills.
3. Paleocurrents
The Himalayan foreland basin developed on the Precambrian
basement in between the Himalayan orogen and the Indian craton,
and erosion of the Precambrian basement locally deposited chert
breccia entirely composed of the underlying basement fragments.
Black shale and limnic coal were deposited in swamps of a coastal
plain. The Subathu sediments deposited on a marine ramp created
due to the subsidence related changing littoral and sub-tidal
settings similar to the Persian Gulf. Miall (1995) has suggested
that oldest sediment of the peripheral foreland basins, indicating
sediment starvation, is deepwater. Although no evidence of the
deepwater sedimentation is present in the Paleogene sequences of
the northwestern Himalaya, the evidence of sediment starvation is
present that is represented by the reworked carbonates in the
lower part and more regular carbonate intercalations in the higherup of the Subathu Formation.

203

The basal Murree beds exhibit ESE ow direction (Fig. 3) that is

indicated by the cross-beds present in the medium-grained sandstones (lithic arenites). There are three bands of lithic sandstones in
association with intraformational conglomerates, mudstones and
many calcrete bands forming a total thickness of 35 m in the basal
part. Later on, the sand supply became more and sandstone of
about 50 m thickness deposited in the channel (medium-grained
sandstone) and on the levee (ne-grained sandstone) in a cyclic
pattern. In this sandstone member, the channel-deposited facies
are cross-bedded and planar-bedded containing oppositely
directed cosets (in few cases) varying in thickness from 0.2 to 0.5 m.
At some places in the Jammu area, these cross-beds show S20
E
and N10
E directed paleocurrents. The southeast directed low angle
(5
e7
) cross-beds, probably, formed from ebb-tide whereas
overlying cross-beds with higher inclinations (10
e15
) formed as
a result of ood-tide in a tide-dominated estuary.
The ne-grained sandstones containing ripple cross-laminae as
internal structure and cuspate ripples on surface exhibit reactivation surfaces and an NNE directed cross-laminae. The late
Paleogene sequences are comprised of several cycles consisting of
intraformational conglomerate, medium- and ne-grained sandstone, siltstone, and mudstone in the lower part above the basal
succession. The paleocurrent directions are mainly SSE in the crossbedded sandstones and SE-NE in the ripple cross-laminated sandstones those show ripple sheet migration.
Furthermore, the late Paleogene sequences show sets of troughshaped cross-beds in the middle part with cosets thickness varying
from 0.50 to 0.75 m, and ow directions S20
W and S15
W. Finegrained aggy sandstone (3.0 m thick) preserves starved and
cuspate ripples of 4e6 cm sizes. The ow direction varies from SSE
to SSW in these along this horizon. Up-section, the coset thickness
of the cross-beds varies from 0.5 to 1.0 m with sigmoidal tidal
bundles showing SE-SW directed foresets. The cross-bedded
sandstones mainly reveal southerly ow and ripple-laminated
sandstones demonstrate SSE ow directions towards top of the
sequence. The paleocurrent map (Fig. 3) indicates dominantly
southeast ow direction from the Rajouri Road section in the basal
late Paleogene sequences whereas SSE with some northerly modes
up-section. The SE and SW ow directions are prominent with
some northerly modes in the Murree sequences exposed along the
Kalakot-Jammu road section. Near Treyath village, the paleocurrent
directions are southwesterly and northeasterly in the basal part and
SW-SE up-section. North of Udhampur town, the late Paleogene
sequences show northerly and southerly ow directions with
easterly and westerly subordinate modes and southerly directions
dominate. Additionally, in the east of Dharamsala town, the basal
late Paleogene sequences show southerly and southeasterly paleocurrents (Fig. 3). In an earlier study, Raiverman et al. (1983) also
indicated southerly paleocurrents from the Dharamsala area. In
lateral continuity in the Shimla hills, southeasterly and easterly
ow directions are recorded. Although some deviation, but
southerly ow again conrms paleocurrents earlier shown by
Srivastava and Casshyap (1983). Therefore, paleocurrents from late
Paleogene sequences in different sub-basins indicate that the
channels owed towards southeast, south and southwest with
negative relief. Furthermore, the hinterland was towards north,
northwest and northeast with positive relief that supplied the
sediments in the foreland basin.
4. Detrital minerals and provenance
Provenance and sediments distribution paths are identied on
the basis of light and heavy minerals including rock fragments in
sedimentary rocks. In the Hazara Syntaxis (Pakistan), Bossart and
Ottiger (1989) included late Paleoceneemiddle Eocene Balakot

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Formation in their Murree Supergroup and (Critelli and Garzanti,

1994) performed detailed provenance study of them. According
to Critelli and Garzanti (1994), the quartzo-lithic composition of the
Murree redbeds testies to a collision orogen provenance.
According to them, volcanic and carbonate rock fragments are
abundant in the Lutetian sandstones. Minor quantities of chert and
serpentine schist, indicating contribution from uplifted subduction
complex sources, as well as siltstone, shale and limestone grains,
are invariably present (Critelli and Garzanti, 1994). Detrital modes
of sandstones and southwestward progradation of Tertiary clastic
wedges both testify to provenance from the proto-Himalayan chain
located to the north, and uplifted since the very rst stages of the
India/Asia continental collision at the end of the Paleocene (Critelli
and Garzanti, 1994).

The bauxite in the basal part of the Subathu Formation is of

reworked origin and formed from a bauxite precursor that originated when India was close to the equator. Singh (2003) considered
this bauxite precursor as a forebulge at the initiation of the
Himalayan foreland and the present reworked bauxite deposited by
the erosion of the forebulge. Presumably, the foredeep was NS
trending and the forebulge was in the south-southeast. The basal
Subathu sequences also contain siltstone/silty-shale possessing
wavy laminae and is very rich in angular to sub-angular quartz
grains followed by muscovite that occur with their longer axis
parallel to the laminae cemented with carbonate/ferruginous
cement. The heavy minerals present in the bauxite and the siltstone
are staurolite, sillimanite, rutile and ilmenite and partly altered
ilmenite and magnetite. The heavy minerals in the basal detrital

Figure 2. A: Lithocolumn showing stratigraphic architecture of the Subathu Formation; B: Lithocolumn presenting facies architecture of the lower part of the Murree Group;
C: Lithocolumn showing facies distribution and associated sedimentary structures of the middle part of the Murree Group; D: Lithocolumn showing architectural elements and
individual facies of the upper part of the Murree Group.

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205

Figure 2. (Continued).

bauxite and siltstone suggest a metasedimentary and volcanic

provenance from south and well-rounded rutile suggests its recycling from sediments/metasediments may be from the Aravalli
Mountains. The quartzose composition of the siltstone is indicative
of its maturity and recycling from a sedimentary/metasedimentary
source. The volcanic source for the precursor bauxite is conrmed
based on trace elements and REE concentrations in the Jammu
bauxite (Singh et al., 2005, 2009). In the overlying succession, Singh
et al. (2000) reported detrital illite, chlorite and sepiolite from the
Paleogene mudrocks of the Jammu area (Jammu and Kashmir
State). Earlier, Bhattacharya (1970) and Raiverman and Suresh
(1997) reported detrital illite and chlorite from the lower Tertiary
mudrocks of the Dharamsala area and the Shimla hills (Himachal
Pradesh) in the lateral continuity. Detrital illite and chlorite are
denudation product of metamorphic and magmatic rocks (Irion and
Zolmer, 1990). Therefore, the presence of detrital illite and chlorite
in the Paleogene mudrocks of the western Himalayan foreland,
India suggests their derivation either from the Trans-Himalayan
schists, phyllites and granites or from the Higher Himalayan Crystallines and the Indus-suture zone. However, Sm-Nd isotopic values
of the Paleogene sediments from the Himalayan foreland basin
suggest erosion of mixed sources including the suture zone during
late Paleocene and middle Oligocene and younger sediments were

derived from the Higher Himalaya after its exhumation (Najman

et al., 2000). Also, Bera et al. (2008) and Jain et al. (2009) suggested derivation of sediments during the sedimentation of the
Subathu Formation (late Paleoceneemiddle Eocene) from the
Himalaya based on Sm-Nd isotopic values and ssion-track zircon
ages respectively, while Ravikant et al. (2011) correlated the U-Pb
ages of the detrital zircon grains occurring in the Paleogene
sequences as derived from the Tethyan Himalaya. The Tethyan
sedimentary succession, the chief provenance for the early Paleogene sequences, ranging in age from Proterozoic to Eocene
deposited on the Tethyan margin of India (Fuchs, 1982; Gaetani
et al., 1985; Gaetani and Garzanti, 1991). It (Tethyan succession)
contains limestone, sandstone, shale and subordinate volcanic
rocks.
The late Paleogene sandstones are composed of monocrystalline
quartz, feldspar, muscovite, biotite, chlorite, iron minerals and lithic
fragments (Singh, 1996). In Q-F-L and Qm-F-Lt plots (after
Dickinson et al., 1983), the Murree sandstones occupy recycled and
quartzose recycled orogenic provenance, respectively (Figs. 4 and
5). This is mainly because of their quartzo-lithic composition. The
feldspars are orthoclase as well as plagioclases and rock fragments
are phyllite, quartzite, chert, siltstone, mudstone, lime-clasts and
volcanic-clasts. Signicantly, few Murree sandstones contain

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Figure 5. Qm-F-Lt diagram for the Murree Group of sandstones (after Dickinson et al.,
1983; Singh, 1996). Qm represents monocrystalline quartz, F represents feldspar and Lt
represents lithic fragments including polycrystalline quartz.
Figure 3. Outline map of the Paleogene sequences exhibits paleocurrent directions by
arrows. Note dominant southerly and southeasterly ow directions.

serpentinite rock fragments. The sedimentary rock fragments

constitute 28.5%e62.5%, metamorphic fragments 33.3%e71.4% and
igneous rock fragments less than 9.5% (Fig. 6). The signicant aspect
of the rock fragments distribution is the decreasing trend of
volcanic and metamorphic rock fragments towards the higher-up.
The mudstones are also composed of detrital clay minerals within
which scattered ne quartz grains occur. The metamorphic rock
fragments were derived from the metamorphic provenance such as
the Higher Himalaya and the serpentinite as well as volcanic rock
fragments either came from the Indus-suture-zone or from the
Tethyan Himalaya in the Murree sandstones. Furthermore, the
sedimentary rock fragments either were supplied by the provenance in the north or included in the sands during channel cutting
and their migration. The Higher Himalaya, the key source of the late

Paleogene sandstones, is characterized by a domal arrangement in

Zanskar with the highest-grade rocks in the core and the lowestgrade along the margin (Staubli, 1989; Vance and Harris, 1999). It
(Higher Himalaya) dominantly contains quartzite, carbonaceous
phyllite, crystalline limestone and felsic schist followed by porphyroblastic gneiss that shows alternating bands of quartz-feldspar
and biotite. Also, psammitic gneiss with quartzite, garnetiferous
mica schist, porphyroblastic gneiss and greyish brown gneiss
intercalated with kyanite bands occur associated with tourmalinebearing granite and biotite granite (Thakur et al., 1990; Singh et al.,
2004).
The abundance of volcanic rock fragments, chrome spinels, and
serpentine schist grains has been recorded in the upper Subathu
stratigraphic unit in the Shimla hills. Both rock fragment types and
Cr-spinel composition attest to a northern ophiolitic source and do
not favour any contribution from the Deccan Traps (Najman and
Garzanti, 2000). In contrast to the Murree sandstones, the

Figure 4. Q-F-L diagram for the Murree Group of sandstones (after Dickinson et al.,
1983; Singh, 1996). Q represents quartz, F represents feldspar and L represents lithic
fragments.

Figure 6. Triangular plot shows composition of the Murree sandstones in terms of

lithic fragments. Lv represents volcanic rock fragments, Lm represents metamorphic
rock fragments and Ls represents sedimentary rock fragments. Note the richness of
these sandstones in metamorphic and sedimentary rock fragments.

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B.P. Singh / Geoscience Frontiers 4 (2013) 199e212

Dharamsala and Dagshai sandstones rarely contain volcanic rock

fragments. However, they are dominated by the mica-schist fragments over the sedimentary rock fragments. Further, they are
richer in quartz than the Murree sandstones and monocrystalline
quartz dominates over the other constituents in them. Detrital
modes show that the Dagshai Formation was dominantly derived
from very low grade metamorphic rocks, with predominant metapelitic lithic grains, a signicant component of sedimentary
material, and rare volcanic and ophiolitic detritus (Najman and
Garzanti, 2000). The Kasauli Formation was dominantly derived
from low grade metamorphic detritus with the dominance of
phyllite, quartz-mica grains and garnets (Najman and Garzanti,
2000). Thus, the main Dagshai and Kasauli Formations were
derived from the proto-Himalayan chain similar to the present day
Higher Himalaya.
Heavy minerals, zircon, tourmaline, garnet, epidote and staurolite dominate in the late Paleogene sandstones. The rod-shaped
zircon grains in a ne-size range are rounded to subrounded. The
tourmaline grains are mostly blue and pink having sub-angular to
subrounded shapes. Brownish-red garnet with subrounded shape
occurs along with epidote. The staurolite is a marker mineral in the
late Paleogene sequences of the Himalayan foreland from Pakistan
to Nepal and this was supplied from the staurolite-grade metamorphic rocks of the Higher Himalaya. In the heavy mineral plot of
Nechaev and Isphording (1993), the heavy minerals of the Himalayan foreland basin occupy the same eld as mature passive
margin (Singh et al., 2004) (Fig. 7). This means that the heavy
mineral suits of the mature passive margins and foreland basins are
the same.
Thick (0.3e0.5 cm) silt/very ne sand laminae are intercalated
with thin (0.05e0.2 cm) mud laminae in the ripple crosslaminated siltstone also. The siltstones have a particle size range
of 0.2e0.02 mm. Angular to sub-angular quartz grains of the siltsize range are interspersed within ferruginous matrix/cement in

Figure 7. Triangular plot showing distribution of heavy minerals in the Himalayan

foreland basin (after Nechaev and Isphording, 1993; Singh et al., 2004). Note that heavy
minerals of mature passive margins and foreland basins occupy the same eld.
MT Total content of epidote and garnet. GM Total content of tourmaline, staurolite,
zircon, kyanite, sillimanite and zoisite. MF Total content of hornblende, pyroxene and
olivine.

207

the mudstone. Similar to the Murree sandstones of the Hazara area

(e.g. Critelli and Garzanti, 1994; Garzanti et al., 1996) and the
Jammu area, the lithic particles and heavy minerals of the late
Paleogene sandstones in Himachal Pradesh, India (e.g. Chaudhri,
1975) indicate their derivation from northerly low- and mediumgrade metamorphic provenance. The poor presence of volcanic
rock fragments in the Dharamsala and Dagshai sandstones is either
due to their absence in the source terrain or due to absence of the
detritus from the Indus-suture zone in those sub-basins or their
decomposition during transportation. Detritus composition of early
Himalayan Foreland basin sediments from Pakistan to Nepal and
Bangladesh is consistent with progressively later closer of Neotethys along the suture, from latest Paleocene time in the west to
Eocene time or even later in the east (Najman and Garzanti, 2000).
This suggests that the general paleoslope was southerly and
southeasterly when the late Paleogene sediments accumulated in
the Himalayan Foreland, and the sediments were mainly derived
from the rising Himalaya in the north.
5. Geochemistry and provenance
Major and trace elements provide insight into broader composition of the rock types and they help in determining provenance,
weathering, tectonic setting and diagenesis (Bhatia, 1983, 1985a,b;
Bhatia and Crook, 1986; Whitmore et al., 2004).
The Paleogene sandstones and mudrocks have been studied for
major and trace elements both in the Jammu area and the Shimla
hills. The Murree sandstones are rich in SiO2 and Al2O3, where
w(SiO2) ranges from 78.34% to 82.71% and w(Al2O3) ranges from
4.01% to 10.18%. The w(Fe2O3) ranges from 1.74% to 3.42% and
w(TiO2) ranges from 0.07% to 0.50%. w(CaO) constituting the
carbonate cement occurs between 2.0% and 4.13% and w(MgO)
ranging from 0.22% to 0.99% is less than CaO (Singh, 1996). Occurring within the range of 0.92%e4.10%, w(K2O) is more than w(Na2O)
with few exceptions. In w(Fe2O3 MgO) vs. w(TiO2) and
w(Fe2O3 MgO) vs. w(Al2O3)/w(SiO2) plots (after Bhatia, 1983), the
Murree sandstones occupy passive margin eld with some deviation (Fig. 8). Further, they occupy an area between the active margin
and the passive margin in the w(Fe2O3 MgO) vs. w(K2O)/w(Na2O)
and the w(Fe2O3 MgO) vs. w(Al2O3)/w(CaO Na2O) (Singh, 1996)
(Fig. 8). Titanium is resistant to weathering and is regarded as an
oxide that suggests about the source of the sediments and parent
material of the soils (Young and Nesbitt, 1998). The low concentration of w(TiO2) (0.07%e0.50%) in the Murree sandstones
suggests that the source of the sandstones has been poor in Tibearing rocks such as basic and ultrabasic rocks.
Similar to sandstones, the Paleogene mudrocks of the Jammu
area are also rich in SiO2 and Al2O3, where w(SiO2) ranges from
56.24% to 70.19% and w(Al2O3) ranges from 9.37% to 14.28%. w(TiO2)
is within the range of 0.10%e0.72%. w(Fe2O3) ranging from 0.67% to
5.90% is more than w(FeO) except black and greenish yellow shales
of the Subathu Formation. Further, w(CaO) is more than w(MgO),
and w(K2O) is more than w(Na2O) with few exceptions (e.g. Singh
et al., 2000). Trace element Zr occurs in a range of 35 to 107 ppm,
Rb ranges from 126 to 142 ppm, Ba ranges from 72 to 112 ppm
and Sr ranges from 17 to 45 ppm. The other trace elements such
as V, Cr, Co and Ni show their concentrations less than 30 ppm in
the mudrocks of the Jammu area. In the Maturity Index (phyllosilicates vs. quartz feldspars) vs. lg(K2O/Na2O), Paleogene
mudrocks of the Jammu area occupy a eld between the phyllotectic and phyllic of Bhatia (1985a) (Fig. 9). The position of the
Paleogene mudrocks in between the phyllotectic (containing both
feldspars and clays in subequal percentages) and phyllic eld
(containing large amount of clays) is mainly because they are
intermediate in terms of the presence of clays. The intermediate

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B.P. Singh / Geoscience Frontiers 4 (2013) 199e212

Figure 8. Bivariate plots based on major oxides for the sandstones of the Murree Group (after Bhatia, 1983; Singh, 1996). Aeoceanic island arc, Becontinental island arc, CeActive
continental margin, DePassive continental margin, FeForeland basin.

percentage of clays suggests that the mudrocks are derived from

metamorphic and sedimentary sources (Bhatia, 1985a; Singh et al.,
2000). Also, the low contents of Cr, Co and Ni suggest that the
provenance has been dominated by the felsic rocks. Thus, it is
concluded that the foreland basin sediments are mainly derived
from felsic igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks and show

a chemical composition that is intermediate between the active and

passive margin sediments.
Najman and Garzanti (2000) found high values of Ni and Cr in
the Subathu shales in comparison to Dagshai and Kasauli
mudstones and attributed this difference as the change in sources
of them. According to them (Najman and Garzanti, 2000) higher
nickel and chrome content in the Subathu Formation compared to
the Dagshai and Kasauli Formations conrm that the mac to
ultramac input to the basin during Subathu sedimentation was
reduced by Dagshai deposition. The abundance of Ni and Cr varies
erratically within sediments suites derived from recent magmatic
arc and recycled orogen rocks, but they show increasing trend with
decreasing grain size in Tertiary rocks. This increase in abundance
probably reects adsorption of Ni and Cr by phyllosilicates such as
chlorite (Whitmore et al., 2004; Garzanti et al., 2011). As the Subathu shales are rich in clays with ner particle sizes, abundance of
Ni and Cr in them seems more likely as compared to Dagshai and
Kasauli mudstones. It is immensely important to carry out
geochemistry of the mudrocks of the Paleogene sequences of the
Himalayan foreland basin in a systematic way in view of the erratic
behaviour of the elements in a modern foreland basin (e.g.
Whitmore et al., 2004) and their felsic-dominated provenance in
the modern Himalayan foreland basins (e.g. Verma et al., 2012).
6. Basin evolution

Figure 9. Maturity index vs. lg(K2O/Na2O) plot for the Paleogene mudrocks (after
Bhatia, 1985a; Singh et al., 2000). AeTectic eld, BePhyllotectic eld, CePhyllic eld,
DeForeland basin.

Late Paleocene witnessed a major transgression on the Indian

subcontinent (Mathur, 1983). The driving force for this transgression appears related to tectonics rather than the climate as late
Paleocene was cooler than Eocene. At the initial stage of the foreland basin development the basinal subsidence was shallow

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B.P. Singh / Geoscience Frontiers 4 (2013) 199e212

coupled with slow rate of sedimentation and sediment starvation.

This may be related to hard and rigid rheology of the Precambrian
basement occurring below the Subathu Formation (Singh, 2003).
The alignment of the pisolites in the bauxite suggests their deposition under the inuence of unidirectional current, may be in
ephemeral streams. The occurrence of small intensity wavy
bedding in the siltstone beds suggests that these deposited on
a wave-dominated coast. The overlying shales are thought to be
deposited in coastal lagoons and the limestone packages deposited
on barriers by storm reworking of the earlier formed barriers (Singh
and Andotra, 2000). The limestones containing intraclasts from
precursor limestone hardgrounds also suggest sediment starvation
and shallow subsidence of the basin (Singh, 2012). The purple
calcareous shale containing fresh-water and brackish-water
vertebrates was deposited in an oxygenated environment with
more inuence of the river system at this stage (Wells and
Gingerich, 1987; Srivastava and Kumar, 1996; Bhatia, 2000;
Kumar, 2000; Blas et al., 2004). This implies that the progradation
began in the basin during latest middle Eocene (w41 Ma). Latest
middle Eocene is also considered as the marine to continental
transition and sequence boundary in the western Himalayan foreland basin (Kumar et al., 2008; Singh et al., 2010). The latest middle
Eocene regression might be either forced by the tectonics and/or
climate because this was the beginning of cooling and start of the
nucleation of Antarctica ice sheet. The overlying arenaceous siliciclastic deposits younger than latest middle Eocene (later than
41 Ma) suggests that the sediment supply increased from the
hinterland coupled with more exural subsidence and higher rate
of sedimentation in the depositional basin. The sandstone deposition event coincides with proto-MCT formation at about 35 Ma (e.g.
Le Fort, 1996) or initial exhumation of the Higher Himalayan rocks
w40  2 Ma in the western Himalaya (e.g. Thni et al., 2012)
(Fig. 10).
However, Bera et al. (2008) suggest derivation of sediments
from the nascent Himalaya based on Sm-Nd isotopic values during
the sedimentation of the late Paleoceneemiddle Eocene Subathu
Formation in India and Jain et al. (2009) argue that the initial
foreland basin sediments were derived both from the Asian plate
and the Indian plate along the suture zone. Sediment petrography,

Figure 10. Hypothetical cartoon exhibiting positions of various tectonic units and the
foreland during the Paleogene. A: Early Paleogene situation without much uplift in the
hinterland; B: Late Paleogene situation with added uplift in the hinterland due to rising
of the Higher Himalaya.

209

detrital zircon U-Pb, and ssion-track dating show that provenance

of the Paleogene sedimentary rocks exposed in the Makran region
of southern Iran and the Katawaz basin of Pakistan is consistent
with a source from the nascent western Himalaya and associated
magmatic arc (Carter et al., 2010). Further the U-Pb ages of the
detrital zircon grains occurring in the Paleogene sequences of the
western Himalayan foreland basin, India are suggested to have
derived from the Tethyan Himalaya (Ravikant et al., 2011). The U-Pb
zircon ages of the CretaceousePaleocene sedimentary rocks of
Nepal suggests their derivation from the Archeaneearly Proterozoic terrain and an abrupt inux of CambrianeOrdovician and
middle to late Proterozoic zircons during Eocene indicates the
onset of erosion of Tethyan rocks in the nascent Himalayan thrust
belt. An increase in the late Proterozoic zircons in uvial litharenites of the lower Miocene Dumri Formation of Nepal signals
initial erosion of Higher Himalayan protoliths (DeCelles et al.,
2004). Further in central Himalaya (Nepal), denite evidence of
derivation of sediments from the Asian plate is recorded before
50 Ma (Zhu et al., 2005; Wang et al., 2011) and in eastern Himalayan
foreland sequences (Bengal basin, Bangladesh), the detrital sediments derived from the Himalayan orogen were recorded to be of
younger than 38 Ma (Najman et al., 2008). These imply that the
India-Asia collision took place before 50 Ma, subsequently protoHimalaya took its shape during early Eocene and the main Himalayan chain was evolved during late Eocene/Oligocene supplying
considerable amount of arenaceous sediments to the foreland
basin, and there appears some time lag between the initial Himalayan-derived sediments to the western Himalayan foreland basin
and the eastern Himalayan foreland basin (Fig. 10).
Peripheral foreland basins are characterized by basin-wide
unconformities at the sites of forebulges (Miall, 1995). If one
considers the radiometric age data suggesting 10 Ma gap between
the Subathu Formation and the Dagshai Formation by Najman et al.
(1997, 2004) and Jain et al. (2009), then the site of unconformity can
be considered as a forebulge. This also suggests that the Subathu
sequences must have experienced up warping before the Dagshai
sedimentation began. Also, the new basin must have developed in
the north slightly away from the Subathu basin. But in most of the
areas, Subathu succession is directly overlain by the Dagshai or
Murree sequences with or without erosional contacts. It is utmost
important to date the Paleogene sequences of the Jammu area,
which looks more continuous with less tectonic complications
before arriving at denite conclusion on this regional
unconformity.
The late EoceneeOligocene succession with the presence of
tidal bundles in the basal parts shows that they deposited in the
tide-dominated estuaries followed by river-dominated estuaries.
This implies that the coastal system became stable with the
occurrence of perennial rivers during late Eocene and the hinterland got sufcient relief at this stage. Ren (1981) has inferred that
the Tibetan Plateau was about 1.0 km high around 40 Ma and the
uplift of the Tibetan Plateau to its present elevation is suggested to
have taken place around 15 Ma (Spicer et al., 2003). Similarly,
Raiverman (2006) has argued that central Himalayan chain started
gaining gentle uplift after 50 Ma. The stabilization of the river
system depositing arenaceous sediments around 35 Ma in the
Himalayan foreland basin shows that the hinterland (Himalaya)
started attaining height during this period and even Tibetan plateau
was sufciently high during this period of time (Fig. 10). The
northern tip of India was in the subtropical climatic belt when the
calcrete bearing sequences of the Lower Murree and Dagshai
Formation formed (Singh et al., 2009). The brown mudstones, with
moderate chemical index of alteration (CIA 70e82 in Singh and
Lee, 2007), in the Murree and Dagshai sequences most likely
developed under the inuence of moderate weathering governed

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by subtropical climatic conditions. The wet subtropical climatic

condition was intervened by the dry subtropical climatic conditions
reected by the occurrence of moderately mature pedogenic calcretes developed in the semiarid to arid climates. The individual
calcrete proles might have developed within a time span of
10e130 kyr (e.g. Candy et al., 2004).
The general domination of the southerly ow in the late
Paleogene sequences is the result of the southerly owing river or
system of rivers and thus, indicating a southerly paleoslope. The
subordinate northerly and northeasterly modes associated with
the tidal bundles demonstrate their generation through tides from
the sea that was south and southeast of the Himalayan chain.
Chappell and Woodroffe (1997) have suggested that morphodynamics of macrotidal estuaries in northern Australia are forced
by strong tidal ows through out the year and a uvial ood water
ow for a relatively shorter period during monsoon. Thus, the
sedimentation in the late Paleogene foreland basin was strongly
governed by the tides annually before the monsoon period. In view
of the assertion that the Himalaya and the Tibetan plateau were
high during Eocene, one can assume that the monsoon began
during Eocene on the Indian subcontinent even if that was weak.
Paleogene coals of the Jammu area are dominated by the vitrinite maceral and the average vitrinite reectance (R0max ) comes to
w1.7% (Singh and Singh, 1995b). Further, Illite Crystallinity Index of
the Paleogene mudrocks shows the range of values those are in
transition between the highest-grade diagenetic and anchimetamorphic zones (Najman et al., 2004). These values of the vitrinite
reectance and illite crystallinity index suggest that the basin has
undergone a burial depth of about 6 km and sustained a diagenetic
temperature of about 200
C.
The evidence of sedimentation during Paleogene period is also
present in the Ganga Plain in northern India. Drilling data produced
by the Oil and Natural Gas Commission suggests presence of the
late PaleoceneeEocene and younger succession below the recent
Ganga alluvium (Raiverman et al., 1996). Paleogene terrigenous
sediment accumulation was generally low in the Indian Ocean, with
signicant accumulation in only limited areas such as Madagascar
rise and southwest Indian continental margin, and turbidite sedimentation in the Bengal Fan started at around 12 Ma where siliciclastic sediments derived from the Himalaya progressively
accumulated (Davis et al., 1995). Also, seismic mapping, thermochronological analyses of detrital mineral grains, heavy mineral and
petrographic studies, and isotopic analyses of bulk rocks show that
the Neogene rocks of the northern Bangladesh are predominantly
Himalayan-derived, with a subordinate arc-derived input possibly
from the Paleogene Indo-Burman Ranges as well as the TransHimalaya (Najman et al., 2012). Before Miocene and start of the
foreland basin in the late Paleocene, the Himalayan-derived sediments began depositing at least from early Eocene (w54 Ma) in the
Subathu basin, as coastal off-lap in the Murree/Dharamsala/Dagshai-Kasauli basin, and Ganga plain with southerly shifting sediment accumulation depocentre.
Chemical behaviour of the elements in a modern foreland basin
of Australia is largely erratic and sediments are commonly derived
from a felsic-dominated provenance in the modern Himalayan
foreland basins (Whitmore et al., 2004; Verma et al., 2012).
Therefore, geochemical characterisation of the Paleogene sediments of the Himalayan foreland basin should be a point of focus in
future studies. Himalayan foreland basin sequences are marked by
unconformities of shorter or longer durations (Pivnik and Wells,
1996). Thus, dating of the well-studied and undisturbed successions of the Himalayan foreland basin in a systematic manner can
be done for acquiring information about the timings and durations
of the regional unconformities. Furthermore, a systematic study
including stable oxygen, carbon and strontium isotopes for the

entire extent (in space and time) of the Paleogene succession of the
Himalayan foreland basin can provide us geological evidences for
Eocene global warming and Oligocene cooling. Additionally, paleosols occurring in the Paleogene sequences of a part of the western
Himalayan foreland basin have been correlated with the northward
drift of India and related long-term climatic changes (Singh et al.,
2007, 2009). On analogy, paleosols from other areas of the
Himalayan foreland basin can be investigated in detail and correlated for long-term climatic shifts.
7. Conclusions
The Paleogene succession of the Himalayan foreland basin is
signicant because it preserves the early history of the Himalayan
orogenesis besides, containing evidences for long-term climatic
changes and hinterland/foreland tectonics. In the western Himalayan foreland basin, the early Paleogene chert breccia and bauxite
formed at the onset of the basin formation and the sediments were
derived either from the basement or from the metasediments/
weathered basalt occurring cratonward. The overlying early Eocene
packages of shales and carbonates deposited on wave- and stormdominated coasts and the siliciclastic detritus was supplied either
from the Trans-Himalayan metasediments or from the magmatic
rocks present in the orogenic belt. At this stage, the source terrain
was low-lying that was responsible for low and ne-grained (clay)
supply of the sediments and also, marked by the quiescence periods
in siliciclastics supply enabling the carbonates precipitation. The
carbonates containing larger foraminifera and trace fossils of the
Skolithos assemblage developed during transgression on barrier
bars and shales deposited in inner part of lagoons. These sequences
also show sediment starvation and reworking. The middle Eocene
strata developed in a mixed or a semi-diurnal tidal system. In the
late Paleogene sequences of the western Himalayan foreland, the
paleocurrent directions were southerly and southeasterly in an
overall estuarine/riverine environment. Paleoslope reconstruction
indicates the presence of continent in the north and ocean in the
south-southern part during the development of the western
Himalayan foreland. The occurrence of Cr-spinel in the sandstones
suggests that they have been derived from the Indus-suture zone
and their quartzo-lithic nature suggests that they have been
derived from the recycled orogenic provenance of the Himalaya.
This is also reected by the presence of staurolite and other heavy
minerals, the U-Pb zircon ages and Sm-Nd isotopes. The chemical
compositions of foreland sandstones and mudstones are intermediate between the active and passive continental margins and/or
analogous to passive continental margins. The main Himalayan
chain was uplifted at least w41 Ma ago that acted as a hinterland
and supplied the detritus to the foreland basin from the north.
Since then the Himalayan chain is continuously supplying the
sediments to the foreland basin which progressively shifted its
depocentre towards south with the progressively lling of the
basin.
Acknowledgements
My involvement in the study of the Paleogene sequences of the
western Himalayan foreland basin is for nearly two decades and
during this period, I got support from many of my students and
friends. I also acknowledge the help rendered by various organizations, especially Department of Science and Technology, New
Delhi for funding at least three research projects to me. Dr. B. Tessier
is thanked for reading earlier version of a part of this manuscript
and suggesting modications that improved it many-fold. I am
thankful to Prof. M. Santosh for inviting me to submit this paper and
anonymous reviewers for suggesting fruitful modications.

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