Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Date
Author
Remarks
2008.5
Chines Version
2009.8
English Version
Constants
Section1 Introduction to WiMAX ................................................................................................................5
1.1 Wireless Introduction ...........................................................................................................................5
1.1.1 Wireless Network Topologies.....................................................................................................5
1.1.2 Wireless Technologies ................................................................................................................6
1.1.3 Kinds of Wireless Networks.......................................................................................................6
1.1.4 Wireless Broadband Access (WBA)...........................................................................................7
1.2 Related Organization ............................................................................................................................7
1.2.1 IEEE ...........................................................................................................................................7
1.2.2 WiMAX Forum ..........................................................................................................................7
1.3 What is WiMAX...................................................................................................................................8
1.3.1 WiMAX is: .................................................................................................................................8
1.3.2 What is 802.16d..........................................................................................................................9
1.3.3 What is 802.16e..........................................................................................................................9
1.3.4 WiMax Speed and Range .........................................................................................................10
1.3.5 Why WiMAX ...........................................................................................................................11
1.3.6 WiMAX Goals..........................................................................................................................11
1.4 Salient Features of WiMAX ...............................................................................................................12
1.4.1 OFDM-based physical layer.....................................................................................................12
1.4.2 Very High Peak Date Rate ........................................................................................................12
1.4.3 Scalable bandwidth and rate support ........................................................................................12
1.4.4 Adaptive modulation and coding (AMC) .................................................................................12
1.4.5 Link-layer retransmissions .......................................................................................................13
1.4.6 Support for TDD and FDD.......................................................................................................13
1.4.7 Orthogonal frequency division multiple access (OFDMA)......................................................13
1.4.8 Flexible and dynamic per user resource allocation ..................................................................13
1.4.9 Support for advanced antenna techniques ................................................................................14
1.4.10 Qulity of service support ........................................................................................................14
1.4.11 Robust security .......................................................................................................................14
1.4.12 Support for mobility ...............................................................................................................14
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point-to-point bridge interconnects two buildings having different networks. For example, a
wireless LAN bridge can interface with an Ethernet network directly to a particular access
point.
Point-to-multipoint bridge: This topology is used to connect three or more LANs that
may be located on different floors in a building or across buildings.
Mesh or ad hoc network: This network is an independent local area network that is not
connected to a wired infrastructure and in which all stations are connected directly to one
another.
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broad radio access system with an efficient, applicable, and interoperable access
means. Its protocol is focused on the contents on the MAC layer and physical layer.
IEEE 802.16e defines the physical layer and MAC layer of the air interface for
the radio broadband access system that supports mobility, and at the same time,
includes the definition of PKMv2 encryption.
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With increasing concern for the WiMAX technologies in this industry, WiMAX Forum has
more and more members, and has set up in succession Certification Work Group (CWG),
Technology Work Group (TWG), Regulatory Work Group (RWG), Market Work Group (MWG),
Service Provider Work Group (SPWG), Network Work Group (NWG), and Application Work
Group (AWG). Accordingly, this organization is extending its objectives gradually. Apart from
certification, it is devoted to requirement analysis, application scenario exploration, and WiMAX
network architecture research with regard to the operable broadband radio access system, thus
promoting powerfully the development of the broadband radio access technologies and market.
WiMAX has become an alias of compliance with the 802.16 specification system.
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A wireless technology optimized for the delivery of IP centric services over a wide
area.
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802.16d, variable FFT size and symbol time is provided which could be set depending
on the environment and allocated bandwidth.
Put together, the 802.16 technology would enable the SS to get broadband wireless
access (BWA) at all times in all locations, either when stationary, or at pedestrian speed
or when traveling at 125 KMPH.
Few of the difference between 802.16d and 802.16e are presented here. In OFDM,
SS uses all the available subcarriers for the allocated time, but in OFDMA, user is
allocated region having definition in both time and frequency. The subcarrier mapping is
different in both the standards, resulting in channel estimation done in 802.16d being
complex, but done less number of times. In 802.16e the channel estimation is simple, but
more frequently done (because data considered, per iteration is less Channel is flat only
over limited subcarriers). Another difference is use of CDMA codes for ranging in
802.16e, the receiver performs correlation to detect the user, and hence more processing
is involved.
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WiMAX can support very high bandwidth solutions where large spectrum
deployments (i.e. >10 MHz) are desired using existing infrastructure keeping
costs down while delivering the bandwidth needed to support a full range of
high-value, multimedia services.
WiMAX can help service providers meet many of the challenges they face due to
increasing customer demands without discarding their existing infrastructure
investments because it has the ability to seamlessly interoperate across various
network types.
WiMAX can provide wide area coverage and quality of service capabilities for
applications ranging from real-time delay-sensitive voice-over-IP (VoIP) to
real-time streaming video and non-real-time downloads, ensuring that subscribers
obtain the performance they expect for all types of communications.
mobile phones, via a potential combination of WiMAX and CDMA standards called
4G.
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ratio at the receiver such that each user is provided with the highest data rate that can be
suppotted in their respective links.
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with other networks, and exploit the rich ecosystem for application development that exsits for
IP.
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Section2 OFDM
& Knowledge
l OFDM System Basics-------------------------------------------------------------Level 1 2
l OFDM Orthogonality -------------------------------------------------------------Level 1 2
l Overcome ISI-----------------------------------------------------------------------Level 1 2
l Overcome ICI----------------------------------------------------------------------Level 1 2
OFDM converts a high rate broadband signal into many parallel low rate
narrowband signals.
Low rate signals have large symbol periods, which make OFDM signal
resistant to multipath delay spread.
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data rate carrier (Figure 3.2) and moreover, the subcarriers are orthogonal to
each other, leading to saving of bandwidth (Figure 3.3).
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the receiver. The overall complexity and its increase with data rate in OFDM
systems is far less than the single carrier systems, hence OFDM is becoming a
widely accepted technology and more prominent to be used in future mobile
wireless communication standards.
= 0 where T =
1
f
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time. When designing an OFDM system proper values are selected depending
on the environment so as to satisfy the above condition.
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Section3 OFDMA
& Knowledge
l
Scalable OFDMA---------------------------------------------------------------Level 1 2
The number of subchannels scales with FFT size rather than with the
capacity of subchannels
OFDM exploits the frequency diversity of the multipath channel by coding
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Null sub-carriers for no transmission; used for guard bands and DC carriers
Active (data and pilot) sub-carriers are grouped into subsets of sub-carriers
called subchannels.The WiMAX OFDMA PHY supports sub-channelization in both
DL and UL. The minimum frequency-time resource unit of sub-channelization is
one slot, which is equal to 48 data tones (sub-carriers).
There are two types of sub-carrier permutations for sub-channelization;
diversity and contiguous. The diversity permutation draws sub-carriers
pseudo-randomly to form a sub-channel. It provides frequency diversity and
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data and one assigned for a pilot. A slot in AMC is defined as a collection of bins of the type
(N x M = 6), where N is the number of contiguous bins and M is the number of contiguous
symbols. Thus the allowed combinations are [(6 bins, 1 symbol), (3 bins, 2 symbols), (2 bins,
3 symbols), (1 bin, 6 symbols)]. AMC permutation enables multi-user diversity by choosing
the sub-channel with the best frequency response.
In general, diversity sub-carrier permutations perform well in mobile applications
while contiguous sub-carrier permutations are well suited for fixed, portable, or low
mobility environments. These options enable the system designer to trade-off mobility for
throughput.
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Unlike FDD, which requires a pair of channels, TDD only requires a single
channel for both downlink and uplink providing greater flexibility for
adaptation to varied global spectrum allocations.
Figure 4.5 illustrates the OFDM frame structure for a Time Division Duplex
(TDD) implementation. Each frame is divided into DL and UL sub-frames separated
by Transmit/Receive and Receive/Transmit Transition Gaps (TTG and RTG,
respectively) to prevent DL and UL transmission collisions. In a frame, the following
control information is used to ensure optimal system operation:
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schemes supported in the Mobile WiMAX profile the optional UL codes and
modulation are shown in italics.
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Relevant channel-state information can be fed back by the CQICH including: Physical
CINR, effective CINR, MIMO mode selection and frequency selective sub-channel
selection. With TDD implementations, link adaptation can also take advantage of
channel reciprocity to provide a more accurate measure of the channel condition (such
as sounding). Hybrid Auto Repeat Request (HARQ) is supported by Mobile WiMAX.
HARQ is enabled using N channel Stop and Wait protocol which provides fast
response to packet errors and improves cell edge coverage. Chase Combining and
optionally, Incremental Redundancy are supported to further improve the reliability of
the retransmission. A dedicated ACK channel is also provided in the uplink for HARQ
ACK/NACK signaling. Multi-channel HARQ operation is supported. Multi-channel
stop-and-wait ARQ with a small number of channels is an efficient, simple protocol
that minimizes the memory required for HARQ and stalling [8]. WiMAX provides
signaling to allow fully asynchronous operation. The asynchronous operation allows
variable delay between retransmissions which gives more flexibility to the scheduler at
the cost of additional overhead for each retransmission allocation. HARQ combined
together with CQICH and AMC provides robust link adaptation in mobile
environments at vehicular speeds in excess of 120 km/hr.
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OFDM allows only one user on the channel at any given time. To
accommodate multiple users, a strictly OFDM system must employ Time Division
Multiple Access (TDMA) (separate time frames) or Frequency Division Multiple
Access (FDMA) (separate channels). Neither of these techniques is time or
frequency efficient: TDMA is a time hog and FDMA is a bandwidth hog.
OFDMA is a multi-user OFDM that allows multiple access on the same
channel (a channel being a group of evenly spaced subcarriers, as discussed
above). WiMAX uses OFDMA, extended OFDM, to accommodate many users in
the same channel at the same time.
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Mobility Management------------------------------------------------------Level 1 2
Security-----------------------------------------------------------------------Level 1 2
The 802.16 standard was developed from the outset for the delivery of broadband
services including voice, data, and video. The MAC layer is based on the time-proven
DOCSIS standard and can support bursty data traffic with high peak rate demand while
simultaneously supporting streaming video and latency-sensitive voice traffic over the same
channel. The resource allocated to one terminal by the MAC scheduler can vary from a
single time slot to the entire frame, thus providing a very large dynamic range of throughput
to a specific user terminal at any given time. Furthermore, since the resource allocation
information is conveyed in the MAP messages at the beginning of each frame, the scheduler
can effectively change the resource allocation on a frame-by-frame basis to adapt to the
bursty nature of the traffic.
4.1.1 CS Sublayer
CS is a transition sublayer, on which the SAP is used to receive data from external
networks, and then transfer or map the data. This operation involves classifying of
external network SDUs, and assignment of an appropriate MAC-layer SFID and CID
to each classification. It also includes the PSH function.
The CS is used to process the objects of upper-layer data packets (core network PDU)
and upper and lower-layer QoS features.
The CS is used to implement the classifier and PHS functions.
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MAC-layer management messages are listed in the table below. The applications of
MAC messages are detailed in each optimization topic.
Table 5-1 MAC management messages
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4.1.2.3
Burst
MAC Msg 1
MAC PDU 1
MAC Header
MAC Msg n
MAC PDU n
Pad
CRC
(optional)
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QoS parameters. Before providing a certain type of data service, the base station and
user-terminal first establish a unidirectional logical link between the peer MACs called a
connection. The outbound MAC then associates packets traversing the MAC interface into a
service flow to be delivered over the connection. The QoS parameters associated with the
service flow define the transmission ordering and scheduling on the air interface.
The connection-oriented QoS therefore, can provide accurate control over the air
interface. Since the air interface is usually the bottleneck, the connection-oriented QoS can
effectively enable the end-to-end QoS control. The service flow parameters can be
dynamically managed through MAC messages to accommodate the dynamic service
demand. The service flow based QoS mechanism applies to both DL and UL to provide
improved QoS in both directions. Mobile WiMAX supports a wide range of data services
and applications with varied QoS requirements. These are summarized (Table 5.2).
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Scheduling for both DL and UL: The scheduling service is provided for
both DL and UL traffic. In order for the MAC scheduler to make an efficient
resource allocation and provide the desired QoS in the UL, the UL must
feedback accurate and timely information as to the traffic conditions and QoS
requirements. Multiple uplink bandwidth request mechanisms, such as
bandwidth request through ranging channel, piggyback request and polling
are designed to support UL bandwidth requests. The UL service flow defines
the feedback mechanism for each uplink connection to ensure predictable UL
scheduler behavior. Furthermore, with orthogonal UL sub-channels, there is
no intra-cell interference. UL scheduling can allocate resource more
efficiently and better enforce QoS.
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4.4.2 Handoff
There are three handoff methods supported within the 802.16e standard Hard
Handoff (HHO), Fast Base Station Switching (FBSS) and Macro Diversity Handover
(MDHO). Of these, the HHO is mandatory while FBSS and MDHO are two optional
modes. The WiMAX Forum has developed several techniques for optimizing hard
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handoff within the framework of the 802.16e standard. These improvements have been
developed with the goal of keeping Layer 2 handoff delays to less than 50 milliseconds.
When FBSS is supported, the MS and BS maintain a list of BSs that are involved
in FBSS with the MS. This set is called an Active Set. In FBSS, the MS continuously
monitors the base stations in the Active Set. Among the BSs in the Active Set, an
Anchor BS is defined. When operating in FBSS, the MS only communicates with the
Anchor BS for uplink and downlink messages including management and traffic
connections.
Transition from one Anchor BS to another (i.e. BS switching) is performed
without invocation of explicit HO signaling messages. Anchor update procedures are
enabled by communicating signal strength of the serving BS via the CQI channel. A
FBSS handover begins with a decision by an MS to receive or transmit data from the
Anchor BS that may change within the active set. The MS scans the neighbor BSs and
selects those that are suitable to be included in the active set. The MS reports the
selected BSs and the active set update procedure is performed by the BS and MS. The
MS continuously monitors the signal strength of the BSs that are in the active set and
selects one BS from the set to be the Anchor BS. The MS reports the selected Anchor
BS on CQICH or MS initiated HO request message. An important requirement of
FBSS is that the data is simultaneously transmitted to all members of an active set of
BSs that are able to serve the MS.
For MSs and BSs that support MDHO, the MS and BS maintain an active set of
BSs that are involved in MDHO with the MS. Among the BSs in the active set, an
Anchor BS is defined. The regular mode of operation refers to a particular case of
MDHO with the active set consisting of a single BS. When operating in MDHO, the
MS communicates with all BSs in the active set of uplink and downlink unicast
messages and traffic. A MDHO begins when a MS decides to transmit or receive
unicast messages and traffic from multiple BSs in the same time interval. For downlink
MDHO, two or more BSs provide synchronized transmission of MS downlink data
such that diversity combining is performed at the MS. For uplink MDHO, the
transmission from a MS is received by multiple BSs where selection diversity of the
information received is performed.
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4.5 Security
Mobile WiMAX supports best in class security features by adopting the best
technologies available today. Support exists for mutual device/user authentication,
flexible key management protocol, strong traffic encryption, control and management
plane message protection and security protocol optimizations for fast handovers.The
usage aspects of the security features are:
l
Traffic Encryption: AES-CCM is the cipher used for protecting all the user
data over the Mobile WiMAX MAC interface. The keys used for driving the
cipher are generated from the EAP authentication. A Traffic Encryption State
machine that has a periodic key (TEK) refresh mechanism enables sustained
transition of keys to further improve protection.
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AntennaTechnolegies Basics-------------------------------------------------Level 1 2
FFR-------------------------------------------------------------------------------Level 1 2
MBS------------------------------------------------------------------------------Level 1 2
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The supported features in the Mobile WiMAX performance profile are listed in
the following table 6.1.
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High data rate and coverage using a Single Frequency Network (SFN)
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subsequently read the MBS MAPs without reference to DL MAP unless synchronization to
MBS MAP is lost. The MBS MAP IE specifies MBS zone PHY configuration and defines
the location of each MBS zone via the OFDMA Symbol Offset parameter. The MBS MAP is
located at the 1st sub-channel of the 1st OFDM symbol of the associated MBS zone. The
multi-BS MBS does not require the MS be registered to any base station. MBS can be
accessed when MS in Idle mode to allow low MS power consumption. The flexibility of
Mobile WiMAX to support integrated MBS and uni-cast services enables a broader range of
applications.
Figure 6.4 Embedded MBS Support with Mobile WiMAX MBS Zones
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Base station (BS): The BS is responsible for providing the air interface to the MS.
Additional functions that may be part of the BS are micromobility management
functions, such as handoff triggering and tunnel establishment, radio resource
management, QoS policy enforcement, traffic classification, DHCP (Dynamic
Host Control Protocol) proxy, key management, session management, and
multicast group management.
Access service network gateway (ASN-GW): The ASN gateway typically acts
as a layer 2 traffic aggregation point within an ASN. Additional functions that may
be part of the ASN gateway include intra-ASN location management and paging,
radio resource management and admission control, caching of subscriber profiles
and encryption keys, AAA client functionality, establishment and management of
mobility tunnel with base stations, QoS and policy enforcement, foreign agent
functionality for mobile IP, and routing to the selected CSN.
combination of functional entities when building the physical entities. For example, the
ASN may be decomposed into base station transceivers (BST), base station controllers
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(BSC), and an ASNGW analogous to the GSM model of BTS, BSC, and Serving
GPRS Support Node (SGSN).
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7.1 Introduction
A general communication system consists of two blocks, a transmitter and
receiver, connected by a channel. The information transmitted by the transmitter passes
through the channel and then reaches the receiver. If the channel does not distort the
transmitted signal, then the receiver can retrieve the transmitted information
successfully, but in practice the channel alters the transmitted information making the
task difficult for the receiver. The main aim of the designer is to reduce the number of
errors made at the receiver. To achieve this, information is required at the receiver, as
to how the channel alters the information, so that the channel impairments can be
mitigated.
When the user is mobile, the channel characteristics do not remain constant for a
very long time. Hence the channel parameters need to be tracked, so that the effect can
be mitigated and reconstruct the transmitted data. This part deals with the requirements
of Channel estimation at the Base station (BS) for an 802.16e uplink. Symbol time has
an effect on system performance depending on the channel conditions. Different
symbol times are proposed in and each one has been simulated and compared for
various channel condition. In addition a solution proposed by Intel coop. has also been
analyzed. It is concluded that the performance of the system, for few proposed symbol
times, is relatively good in all conditions.
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7.2.1 Transmitter
Data Generation: The data is generated from a random source, consists of a
series of ones and zeros. Since the transmission is done block wise, when forward error
correction (FEC) is used, the size of the data generated depends on the block size used,
modulation scheme used to map the bits to symbols (QPSK, 16QAM), and whether
FEC is used or not [1]. The generated data is passed on to the next stage, either to the
FEC block or directly to the symbol mapping if FEC is not used.
Forward error correction: In case error correcting codes are used, the data
generated is randomized so as to avoid long run of zeros or ones, the result is ease in
carrier recovery at the receiver. The randomized data is encoded using tail biting
convolutional codes (CC) with a coding rate of (puncturing of codes is provided in
the standard, but not simulated here). Finally interleaving is done by two stage
permutation, first to avoid mapping of adjacent coded bits on adjacent subcarriers and
the second permutation insures that adjacent coded bits are mapped alternately onto
less or more significant bits of the constellation, thus avoiding long runs of lowly
reliable bits.
Symbol mapping: The coded bits (uncoded, if FEC not used) are then mapped to
form symbols. Modulation scheme used is QPSK or 16QAM (QPSK unless otherwise
specified) with gray coding in the constellation map. In any case the symbol is
normalized so that the average power is unity, irrespective of the modulation scheme
used.
Subcarrier allocation: The subcarrier allocation is mentioned in the section 1.2
(Uplink transmission). This separates data into set of 4 subcarriers for 3 time symbols,
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named as the tile structure. Symbols are allocated indices representing the subcarriers
and OFDM time symbol, and then passed onto the next stage, the IFFT, to convert into
time domain.
IFFT and cyclic prefix: An N point inverse discrete fourier transform (IDFT)
of X(k)is defined as
1
X(n) =
N
N -1
X (k )e
2pn
N
n= 0
From the equation we can infer that this is equivalent to generation of OFDM
symbol. An efficient way of implementing IDFT is by inverse fast fourier transform
(IFFT). Hence IFFT is used in generation of OFDM symbol. The addition of cyclic
prefix is done on the time domain symbol obtained after IFFT. The IFFT size (N
value) is considered as 2048 in simulations. This data is fed to the channel which
represents Rayleigh fading channel model and also implements multipath as shown in
block diagram.
7.2.2 Channel
In NLOS wireless communication, the received signal is a combination of many
multipath signals, which are result of reflections from surrounding objects. These
multipaths have different amplitude and phase and may add either constructively or
destructively leading to a complex envelope, i.e. fading. Fading characteristics depend
on the channel parameters (rms delay spread and Doppler spread) and signal
parameters (symbol period and bandwidth). Multipath delay spread leads to time
dispersion and frequency selective fading and Doppler spread leads to frequency
dispersion and time selective fading. Any mobile channel is one of the four mentioned
below.
Based on multipath time delay spread
Flat fading
BW of Signal < BW of channel [Bs <<Bc]
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[Ts<< G ]
Slow fading
low Doppler speed
1
1 - (f/f m ) 2
where k is a constant.
Two independent Gaussian random sources (a & b) are used to generate the
complex Gaussian random variable (G = a+jb). A filter generated by eq. 7.2 is used
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Figure 7.2 shows simulated Rayleigh fading channel for the speed of 125
KMPH, and frequency of 5.9GHz.
Output = fading * input
r(t) = a(t)e
jf ( t )
s(t)
a(t)
velocy(m / s ) * frequency( Hz )
--- (eq. 7.4)
speed _ of _ light (m / s )
7.2.3 Reciever
The first thing done at receiver (in simulation) is removal of cyclic prefix, thus
eliminating the inter symbol interference (ISI). Data is then passed through the serial to
parallel converter of size 2048 and then fed to the FFT for frequency domain
transformation. The signal was distorted by the channel, to reconstruct the original
signal we need information as to how the channel acted on the transmitted signal so
that we can mitigate its effect. This is called equalization. In an OFDM system, this is
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done by channel estimation and interpolation. As we need at least one tile structure (3
OFDM symbols) to detect the data, storage of 3 OFDM symbols is provided followed
by the subcarrier de mapping. The pilot subcarriers are used for channel estimation and
synchronization at the receiver. In the simulation least squares (LS) estimate has been
used for channel estimation at the pilot subcarriers. If D(t) is the transmitted data
(known if pilot), Y(t) is the received data, and C(t) is the unknown channel response,
then
Y(t) = D(t) * C(t) + N(t)-------------------------------------------------------- (eq. 7.6)
where N(t) represents the AWGN noise.
The channel can be estimated for known data symbols, i.e. pilot subcarriers as,
C(t ) =
Y (t )
-- ------------------------------------------------------------------(eq. 7.7)
D(t )
The estimate is simple but is highly affected by SNR or the noise power, as the
assumption made is absence of noise from the receiver power.
This information about channel at pilot subcarriers is interpolated over the whole
tile structure, to recover the data on each data subcarrier (Figure 7.1). Separate one
dimensional linear interpolation has been done for values between two subcarriers (the
result: straight line), hence the performance is not effected much for various one
dimensional interpolation algorithms.
Since we do linear interpolation the channel is assumed to be changing linearly
with in the tile, this assumption might not be true depending on the symbol time. This
generates a noise floor at the receiver (Errors are generated due to addition of AWGN
noise and due to this approximation of fading channel as a linearly varying channel.
Beyond a certain value of SNR, the BER is nearly constant for any further increase in
SNR.). For larger symbol time, as will be seen in simulations, this noise floor is
reached at lower SNR, hence results in poor performance.
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