http1 2

http://www.docbrown.info/ks3chemistry/ks3chemistry.
htm
http://www.docbrown.info/page03/nanochem01.htm
Part 1. General introduction to nanoscience and commonly used terms explained
The prefix 'nano' in the context of the definitions-descriptions given below, and used on this
webpage, usually refers to dimensions-size of 1 - 100 nm. i.e. of nanoscale.
nm is the accepted abbreviation for nanometre (nanometer) - more on the relative

size of molecules and bigger particles is given further down in a size comparison
data table to put the nanoscale 'scene' in perspective.
What is Nanoscience? Nanoscience is the branch of science concerned with the

development and production and uses of materials whose basic components are of
nanoscale size, i.e. ~1 - 100 nm in size. Other more specific terms which come under the
general term 'nanoscience' are described in more detail, particularly the term nanochemistry.
What is Nanotechnology? Nanotechnology involves methods for transforming matter,

energy and information based on nanometer scale (nanosized) components with particular
defined molecular features and prescribed physical and chemical properties.
It involves techniques that produces materials with characteristic features with particle
sizes of ~1 - 100 nm and involves advanced microfabrication techniques.
Nanotechnology is still based on manufacturing processes that use typical chemical

and mechanical principles BUT in novel and unfamiliar situations (at least to those of
us who were graduate students in the late 60s!).
Nanotechnology creates and uses structures that have novel properties because of
their nanoscale small size.
Nanotechnology is developing from the ability to control and manipulate at the atomic
scale, which essentially means controlling situations at the atomic and molecular
level, far removed from normal processing of bulk materials in a typical laboratory or
industrial process.
The use of the scanning tunnelling microscope allows us to 'see' individual atoms in
an atomic or molecular lattice in a way that was inconceivable a 100 years ago when
the principles of atomic and molecular structure were being discovered.
So, it is now possible to see and investigate nanoscale structures at the

atomic-molecular level and this 'feedback' enables you to compare the actual
structure with the desired designed structure which eventually you would
hope to have the prescribed desirable properties.
Does this advanced technology blur the distinction between computer

simulation and reality?
We are now well into CAD (computer aided design) at the molecular level and
there doesn't seem to any limit (within the laws and principles of chemistry)
as to what structures we can build.
The many applications of nanotechnology include the use of semi-conductors that

only conduct electricity in specific conditions and allows the design of much very tiny
'devices' normal scale conductors, so the final product can be much smaller, enabling
the design and use of faster smaller computers working at the molecular level. It will
be/is? possible to make very tiny mechanical devices to perform some task in
otherwise inaccessible situations.
What are Nanostructures? Nanostructures are material structures assembled from layers or
clusters of atoms of nanoscale size i.e. ~1-100 nanometre. By controlling the size and
assembling of nanoscale constituents it is possible to alter and control the structure and
properties of the final nanostructure. The advantage of these new materials is that they can
be designed and built from the atomic level upwards to have specific properties of great use
to material scientists, a good example is the ongoing development in the design and
use carbon nanotubes.
Nanocrystals may consist of over 1000 atoms but it can be quite variable within the 1100 nm range.
The wide applications of such nanostructures includes semi-conductor devices,

strained-layer lattices, magnetic multilayers.
Nanostructures are built up from atomic or molecular precursors and processed via
chemical deposition or physical vapour deposition, gas condensation, chemical
precipitation, aerosol reactions and biological templating - a wide range of methods of
assembling arrays of atoms.
What are Nanomaterials? Nanomaterials is a general word for any material that has a
composition based on nanoparticle units e.g. nanoparticles of silver, nanotubes etc.more
examples
As already mentioned nanoparticles are usually in the size range of 1 to 100

nm, described as being of nanoscale
Nanoparticles can be made of elements, organic molecules, inorganic compounds,

inorganic cluster compounds or metallic/semi-conductor (maybe ~'semi-metal')
particles.
Nanoparticles have a high surface to volume ratio which has a dramatic effect on
their properties compared to non-nanoscale forms of the same material.
As a point of comparison, since nanoparticles are in the size range 1 - 100 nm, a
human hair is 0.05 to 0.1 mm (50000 -100000 nm), in other words nanoparticles are
usually 500 - 100000 times 'thinner' than a human hair!
More 'chemical structure' points of comparison are given in the table below.
To put nanoparticles in 'size' or 'dimension' perspective, consider the table of

'materials' - elements or compounds etc.
1 nanometre (US nanometer), 1 nm = 10-9 of a metre.
Compared to other units:
1 cm = 10-2 m (1 cm = 10000000 nm)
1 mm = 10-3 m (1 millimetre = 1000000 nm)
1 m = 10-6 m (1 micrometre = 1000 nm)
1 nm = 10-9 m
1 pm = 10-12 m (1 picometre = 0.001 nm)
So, when talking nanoscale science, we are talking about pretty small
structures! add DNA
To put nanoparticles in 'perspective' i.e. what 'scale' are we talking about, I've put
together a size comparison table of various 'particles' in its broadest sense.
Data table of particles sizes - 10 examples of atoms, molecules, nanoparticles and other
things
1
Bucksilv gluco
carb sulp water
minst
materi
er
se
on hur molec
eral
ato molec
atom atom ule
fuller
m
ule
ene
Symb
olformu
la
Size
in nm
0.16
diame
ter or
length
0.2
C6H12
O6
H2O
Ag
0.2
0.2 ~0.3 x
8
0.6
C60
10
11
12
13
14
typic
al
smal
l
prot
ein
silver
or
TiO2
nanopartic
les
na
Agn
na
5-10
35120
5000
30- 100 x 40005000 50000
50
6
700
1000
00
typi
wav
cal
typical etypica widt
viru
typic
carbo leng
l
h
s
al
n
th of
eukar hum
e.g.
bacte
nanot visi
ytic
an
cold
ria
ube ble
cell hair
viru
light
s
Cn
na
na
na
na
2.8
longe 1.6
2
5-10 3.5- 3 - 5
4-7
0.5 2
6
1
1
5
5
st
12
1.0
length
x
x 10- x 10x
10
x
10
x
10
or
x 10-10 10- x 10-10 x 10-9
x 10-7
x 10-6 x 10-5
10
10
9
8
7
x 10-8
x 10-4
10
diame
ter m
****
**
Notes on the table
na = not applicable i.e. no simple formula or representation possible
n = a large number of atoms
Need diameter x length if possible and revision of some of the data in the table above
(microns?)
1.
Carbon is the basic atom or unit of carbon nanotubes.
2.
Sulfur is a typical non-metal atom.
3.
Water is a relatively small molecule, one of the smallest in fact.
4.
Silver is typical metallic lattice or huge array of atoms.
5.
Glucose is a molecule of 24 combined atoms of carbon, hydrogen and

oxygen atoms.
6.
Fullerene-60, a 'bucky ball', is the precursor structure on which carbon

nanotubes are based.
7.
A simple protein is a polymer of alpha-amino acids [H2HCH(R)COOH]n where

R is of variable structure, n is a large number of peptide units-residues.
8.
Assume silver or titanium dioxide nanoparticles are ~spherical
9.
A virus is a very simple organism, the simplest of which consists of a strand

of RNA in a protein sheath.
10. A typical carbon nanotube might have a radius of 3 nm and up to 100 nm

long.
11. The wavelengths of visible light are typically 4 to 700 times bigger than most
nanoparticles!
12. A bacterium is a usually a single celled cellular micro-organism and can

contain over 5000 different molecules and ions.
13. A eukarytic cell is what all multi-celled higher organisms are made up of.
14. The human hair is easily recognised as strands of a pretty thin material.
Part-2: NANOCHEMISTRY - Introduction
What is NANOCHEMISTRY? Nanochemistry is a branch of nanoscience, deals with the

chemical applications of nanomaterials in nanotechnology.
Nanochemistry involves the study of the synthesis and characterisation of materials of

nanoscale size.
Nanochemistry is a relatively new branch of chemistry concerned with the unique

properties associated with assemblies of atoms or molecules of nanoscale (~1-100 nm), so
the size of nanoparticles lies somewhere between individual atoms or molecules (the 'building
blocks') and larger assemblies of bulk material which we are more familiar with.
There are physical and chemical techniques in manipulating atoms to form molecules and
nanoscale assemblies.
Physical techniques allow atoms to be manipulated and positioned to specific

requirements for a prescribed use.
Traditional chemical techniques arrange atoms in molecules using well characterised

chemical reactions.
Nanochemistry is the science of tools, technologies, and methodologies for novel chemical
synthesis e.g. employing synthetic chemistry to make nanoscale building blocks of desired
(prescribed) shape, size, composition and surface structure and possibly the potential to
control the actual self-assembly of these building blocks to various desirable size.
At this extremely small scale level, quantum effects can be significant, fascinating and
potentially scientifically very rewarding innovative ways of carrying out chemical reactions are
possible.
The small size of nanoparticles gives these particles 'unusual' structural and optical properties
with applications in catalysis, electrooptical devices etc.
As well as the huge numbers of man-made nanoparticles structures being synthesised, there
are naturally occurring nanoparticle assemblies e.g. phospholipid vesicles, polypeptide
micelle of the iron storage protein, ferritin.
Nanoparticles are VERY tiny aggregations of atoms BUT bigger than most molecules.
There is no strict dividing line between nanoparticles and 'ordinary bulk' particles of a material
such as baking powder or grains of sand, BUT particle size matters! ...
... BECAUSE nanoparticles can display properties significantly different from the bulk material
and these properties can be exploited for many different uses. If you compare the size of
nanoparticles to that of conventional industrially produced materials you find they have novel
uses such as sunscreens and many present future applications e.g.
Nanoparticles have a high surface to volume ratio which has a dramatic effect on
their properties compared to non-nanoscale forms of the same material.
Pieces of gold are, fairly obviously, gold-coloured, but gold nanoparticles are deep
red or even black when mixed with water. use?
Titanium dioxide is a white solid used in house paint where plainly it reflects visible
light. However, titanium dioxide nanoparticles are so small that they do not reflect
visible light, so they cannot be seen and are used in sunblock creams because they
block harmful ultraviolet light from the Sun without appearing white on the skin (as in
TiO2 in paint).
Silver foil shows virtually no reaction with dilute hydrochloric acid but nanoparticles of
silver rapidly react with hydrochloric acid because of the very large surface are to
volume ration (think of limestone lumps and very fine powder illustrates this effect at
the much larger non-nanoparticle level.
Nanotubes (more details of specific examples on other pages), one of the most widespread
studied and used nanomaterials, consist of tiny cylinders of carbon (and other materials
like boron nitride), no wider than a strand of DNA with a wide range of properties of great
use to materials scientists. Nanotubes can be stronger than steel with only 1/6th the weight.
Some nanotubes are excellent insulators, semiconductors or conduct electricity as well as
copper!
Incredibly, there are lots of varieties of nanotubes, even for the same element or compound,
differing in size and atomic arrangement, which can have very different properties! Therefore
a wide range of nanomaterials are being developed for an even wider range of applications
and technological uses. See carbon and boron nitride to illustrate this point.
Applications of Nanoscience - with an emphasis on NANOCHEMISTRY

Detailed examples of uses of nanomaterials-nanostructures-nanotechnology in CHEMISTRY
will be discussed in the following pages
We are talking about the manufacture of new catalysts, coatings, computer components,
highly selective sensors, lighter strong materials, more examples etc.
The work on nanochemistry can include colloid chemistry.
The increased reactivity and small size of nanoparticles compared to larger ones are two
important factors which frequently crop up when studying the function of nanomaterials.
Nanomaterials can even be used for such mundane-unexciting applications as in selfcleaning ovens and self-cleaning windows!, but not mundane to domestic work in the home,
but will it put window cleaners out of business!
WHERE NEXT?
INDEX NANOSCIENCE-NANOCHEMISTRY pages
Part 1. General introduction to nanoscience and commonly used terms explained
Part 2. NANOCHEMISTRY - an introduction and potential applications
Part 3. Uses of Nanoparticles of titanium(IV) oxide, fat and silver
Part 4. From fullerenes & bucky balls to carbon nanotubes
Part 5. Graphene and Fluorographene

Part 6. Cubic and hexagonal boron nitride BN
Part 7. Problems, issues and implications associated with using nanomaterials
see also INDEX SMART MATERIALS PAGES
Keywords: uses applications carbon nanotubes nanoparticles nanochemistry nanomaterials
nanoscale nanoscience nanosize-nanosized particles nanotubes Revising for KS4 Science IGCSE/O
level/GCSE Chemistry Information Study Notes for revising for AQA GCSE Science, Edexcel GCSE
Science Edexcel IGCSE Chemistry & OCR 21stC Science, OCR Gateway Science, CCEA/CEA
GCSE science, WJEC science (revise courses equal to US grades 9-10) Aid notes for GCE
Advanced Subsidiary Level AS Advanced Level A2 IB Revise AQA OCR Edexcel Salters CIE,
CCEA/CEA & WJEC advanced level courses for pre-university students (equal to US grade 11 and
grade 12 and Honours/honors level courses)
Part 4. Fullerenes and carbon nanotubes
What are fullerenes? What is the formula and structure of Buckminsterfullerene? What
are fullerenes used for? What is a 'bucky ball'? What is a nanotube?
Apart from the carbon allotropes of diamond and graphite, a 3rd form
of carbon exists as fullerenes or 'bucky balls'.
There is also amorphous carbon e.g. soot or charcoal, but this is

mainly chemically modified impure graphite.
Allotropes are different atomic, molecular arrangements of the same element in the
same physical state.
They consist of hexagonal rings like graphite and alternating pentagonal carbon rings to allow
curvature of the surface (see diagram further down). They are a sort of a hollow 'cage' shaped
pure carbon molecule.
The carbon-carbon bonds in Buckminster Fullerene C60 (shown on right) form a pattern like
a soccer ball and is a brownish-reddish-magenta colour in organic solvents. It is a black? solid
insoluble in water.
Fullerenes are NOT nanoparticles BUT they are smaller molecular versions equating
to sections of the tiny molecular carbon tubes called carbon nanotubes, AND they
are very interesting molecules in themselves and provide a way into studying carbon
nanotubes in terms of their molecular structure and applications in nanotechnology.
The name Buckminsterfullerene (fullerene-60), is derived from the American

architect R. Buckminster Fuller who invented the geodesic dome design in building
construction.
Other typical fullerenes have formulae such as ...
C28, C32, C50, C70 (red in solution, rugby ball shape - US American football shape)
In these fullerenes the carbon atoms lie at vertices of a polyhedron with 12

pentagonal faces with a minimum of two hexagonal faces.
They are NOT considered giant covalent structures and are classed as simple relatively
small molecules, even those above Cn!
They do dissolve in organic solvents giving coloured solutions.
The colour depends on the solvent ranging from red to deep purple and violet.
They are the only soluble allotrope of carbon.
Although solid, their melting points are not that high.
Uses of fullerenes
They have many chemical synthetic and pharmaceutical applications.
The may be use as vehicles to carry drugs into cells, the cage like fullerene
molecules could contain a drug, and the combination can pass easily through
the wall of a target cell.
Chemical derivatives of fullerenes have fascinating electrical and magnetic behaviour

including superconductivity and ferromagnetism (nano nature?, beyond the scope of
this page?)
C60 is an optical limiter. When light is shone on it, a solution of fullerene-60 turns
darker instantly and the more intense the light, the darker it gets, so the intensity of
transmitted light is limited to a maximum value. This limiting light transmittance
property can be used in the design of safety goggles in intense light situations e.g.
people working with laser beams.
Fullerenes are mentioned here to illustrate the different forms of carbon AND they can
be formed into continuous tubes to give very strong fibres of 'pipe like' molecules called
'nanotubes'. These nanotube molecules-particles behave differently compared to bulk carbon
materials like graphite and the much smaller fullerene molecules.
What are Nanotubes? - What is the molecular structure of carbon nanotubes? (sometimes
called 'buckytubes') and of what use are they in carbon nanotechnology?
Carbon nanotubes are one of the most intensively studied and characterised used
nanomaterials, consisting of tiny cylinders of carbon, no wider than a strand of DNA
with a wide range of properties of great use to materials scientists.
In other words, lots of varieties of carbon nanotubes, differing in size and atomic
arrangement can have very different properties.
You can also fabricate multiple layered carbon nanotubes like an elongated
'Russian doll'!
Uses of Carbon nanotubes
These presumably would make a stronger material?
Nanotubes can be stronger than steel with only 1/6th the weight.
Some nanotubes are excellent insulators, semiconductors or conduct electricity as

well as copper!
They can be used as semiconductors or 'miniature wires' in electrical

circuits and of great use in miniature electronic circuitry in computers and
other electronic devices.
They act as a component of industrial catalysts for certain reactions whose

economic efficiency is of great importance (time = money in business!).
The catalyst can be attached to the nanotubes which have a huge surface
are per mass of catalyst 'bed'.
They large surface combined with the catalyst ensure two rates of reaction
factors work in harmony to increase the speed of an industrial reaction so
making the process more efficient and more economic.
Nanotube fibres are very strong and so they are used in 'composite materials' e.g.
reinforcing graphite in carbon fibre tennis rackets.
Note that pure graphite is a soft slippery solid with low physical strength.
Bundles of the nanotubes, processed into fibres, have very high tensile
strength and can be much stronger than steel on a weight for weight basis.
Nanotubes can 'cage' other molecules and can be used as a means of delivering
drugs in controlled way to the body because the thin carbon nanotubes can penetrate
cell walls.
Carbon nanotubes could be used to make tiny mechanical devices, molecular

computers or extremely strong materials
The structure and properties of carbon nanotubes (see diagrams further down)
The main cylinder or tube is made only from carbon hexagons (essentially
graphite layers curved into a 'molecular pipe').
However pentagons are needed to close the structure at the ends or form
spherical or rugby football shaped molecules.
The nanotube molecule is held together by strong covalent carbon-carbon

bonds which extends all along the nanotube or all round the smaller 'bucky
ball' molecules as they are sometimes called.
Single or multiple-walled tubes, made from concentric nanotubes (i.e. one

tube inside a larger nanotube), can be formed.
Note that graphite is soft and malleable.
The behaviour of electrons depends on the length of the tube, so some forms
are excellent conductors and others
are semiconductors. This is a typical nanoscale (quantum) effect, i.e. there
are major differences between the properties of the bulk material the sizedependent properties on the nanoscale (silver is another good example).
Diagrams of the molecular structure of buckminster fullerenes ('fullerenes') and

nanotubes (graphite shown for comparison)
One of
A longer
A section
the buckminsterfulle
of multi- simples rene which is
layered
t
'rugby ball' or
graphite 'buckyb
'sausage'
alls' C60 shaped, C72 etc.
A section of a carbon nanotube e.g.

6 x 100 nm, the ends would be like
those of the 'sausage' above
right. All images doc brown
Some further discussion on molecular

structure
One possible skeletal formula representation of a layer of graphite or a molecule of

graphene (graphene described in next section) is shown above in Kekule style as in aromatic
compounds.
The C-C bond length in graphite or graphene is 0.142 nm, midway between a single
C-C carbon-carbon bond length of 0.154 nm and a double C=C carbon-carbon bond
of 0.134 nm.
The carbon-carbon bond order in graphite/graphene is 1.33, which follows from 4

valency electrons overlapping from each carbon atom BUT each carbon atom forms
three C-C bonds.
The bond order is 1.5 in benzene, the average of a carbon-carbon single

bond (bond order 1) and carbon=carbon double bond (bond order 2), but
there is a C-H bond too.
The C-C-C bond angle is exactly 120o, what you would expect for the planar carbon
hexagons.
In graphite the planar hexagonal ring layers of carbon atoms are 0.335 nm apart.
How you get the curvature in the

molecular shape of fullerenes and the ends of nanotubes. The C-C-C bond angles for a
planar carbon pentagon will be ~108o and for a planar carbon hexagon ~120o.
Note the analogous structure of carbon nanotubes and graphite layers or the graphene
molecule.
Nanotubes are essentially a single layer of graphite (or a molecule of graphene)

wrapped around to form an elongated tube-like molecule.
An example of the versatility of carbon nanotubes based on two possible fabrications, giving
subtle differences in molecular structure and properties is described below.
The two diagrams below illustrate a short section of long carbon nanotubes displaying
the two principal symmetries of hexagonal carbon ring orientation with respect to the
central axis of a carbon nanotube.
These two types of single walled nanotubes can be made by folding

graphenes/graphite sheets in different directions (but at 90o with respect to
each form).
etc.
and
etc.
In A the longest axis of the carbon hexagons is aligned at 90 o to the principal axis of
the carbon nanotube.
In B the longest axis of the carbon hexagons is aligned in the same direction as the
principal axis of the carbon nanotube.
A is sometimes referred to as the 'armchair' form and is

electrically semiconducting and can be used as a semi-conductor transistor
in microelectronic circuits.
B is sometimes called the zig-zag form and has metal like electrical
conductivity and can be used in micro-circuitry i.e. the tiniest possible?
electrical circuit dimensions.
Part 6. Cubic and hexagonal boron nitride
Boron Nitride
What is boron nitride? What is boron nitride's molecular structure? What might
we use boron nitride for?
Boron nitride has the formula (BN)n, (n is a very large number, but the empirical
formula is BN)
It forms cubic and hexagonal structures which correspond (analogous) to carbon in

the form of diamond and graphite respectively.
Cubic Boron Nitride
o
o
In the cubic form of boron nitride, alternately linked boron and nitrogen atoms form a
tetrahedral bond network, exactly like carbon atoms do in diamond. So it is a 3D giant
covalent lattice.
In fact it is isoelectronic with the giant covalent lattices of carbon.
The B-N-B or N-B-N bond angle is 109o i.e. that expected for tetrahedral bond
network e.g. as found in the 3D C-C bond network in diamond.
Nitrogen's lone pair of electrons can accepted by boron to give the tetrahedral bond
network shown in the diagram (sp3 hybridisation?).
A situation similar to adduct compounds formed e.g.
ammonia + boron trifluoride ==> F3B<=:NH3
This gives a tetrahedral arrangement of bounds around both the boron and
nitrogen atoms.
Cubic boron nitride is extremely hard and will even scratch diamond. It is the second
hardest material known, second only to diamond.
Cubic boron nitride has very high thermal conductivity, excellent wear resistance and
good chemical inertness, all very useful properties for a material subjected to extreme
conditions.
Because of its hardness, chemical inertness, high melting temperature (2973 oC)
cubic boron nitride is used as an abrasive and wear-resistant coating.
Cubic boron nitride (CBN) is used for cutting tools and abrasive components for
shaping/polishing with low carbon ferrous metals. BN based tools behave in a similar
way to diamond tools but can be used on iron and low carbon alloys without risk of
reaction because CBN is chemically inert. CBN doesn't lose its cutting properties until
1100-1200oC.
Boron nitride is stable in air, BUT is slowly hydrolysed by water ...
to give ammonia + boric acid ?
BN + 3H2O ==> H3BO3 + NH3 ?
Hexagonal Boron Nitride
Hexagonal boron nitride is a white slippery solid with a layered structure, physically
similar to graphite in this respect.
Like layers of graphite or graphene, it is a 2D planar giant covalent network.
Because of its colour, it sometimes, confusingly, called 'white graphite'!
It is a very good insulator (thermal and electrical?) and chemically very inert i.e. great
chemical stability - very unreactive!
It melts under pressure at ~3000oC testament to its great thermal stability.
In the hexagonal form of boron nitride, alternate boron and nitrogen atoms are linked
to form interlocking hexagonal rings, just like the carbon atoms in graphite do.
Therefore in each hexagonal ring there are 3 boron atoms and 3 nitrogen atoms and
all the bond lengths are 0.145 nm, so it isn't an alternate single-double bond system
but the above diagram is just a simple valence-bond representation.
The B-N-B or N-B-N bond angle is 120o, i.e. that expected for perfect hexagonal ring
bond network e.g. as found in graphite.
sp2 hybridisation is quoted for the boron atom bonds.
The B-N bonding in the 2D layers is very strong giving boron nitride great thermal
stability, i.e. very melting point.
However, the layers are held together by weak intermolecular forces (Van der Waal
forces, instantaneous dipole - induced dipole forces) and the layers are 0.334 nm
apart.
This distance is similar to the inter-layer gap in graphite, not surprising,

bearing in carbon lies between boron and nitrogen in period 2 of the periodic
table.
As in graphite and graphene, there is pi bonding BUT the energy levels are too high
to allow good electrical conduction you find in graphite.
Hexagonal boron nitride (HBN) is used as a lubricant (weakly held layers can slide
over each other), and can have semiconductor properties (after doping?).
Because of its 'soft' and 'slippery' crystalline nature, HBN is used in lubricants
and cosmetic preparations.
Hexagonal boron nitride can be made in single layers and can also be formed into
nanotubes.
Bundles of boron nanotubes are used for wire sleeving.
Boron nanotubes are used as a catalyst support, as in the case of carbon nanotubes.
Boron nitride is NOT an electron deficient compound like semi-conductors.
Hexagonal boron nitride can be incorporated in ceramics, alloys, resins, plastics,

rubbers to give them self-lubricating properties.
Plastics filled with HBN have decreased thermal expansion, increased

thermal conductivity, increased electrical insulation and cause reduced wear
to adjacent parts.
Because of their excellent thermal stabilty, thermal shock stability and chemical stability,
boron nitride ceramics are often used as parts of high-temperature equipment ( a typical
melting range is 2700-3000oC). They are stable in air to ~1000oC whereas carbon-graphite
based materials would have long since ignited!
Part 5. Graphene and Fluorographene
Graphene (smart material)
What is graphene? What is graphene's molecular structure? What might we use

graphene for?
It is possible to synthesise graphite in individual layers just one atom thick and the
product is known as graphene whose 'honeycombed' lattice is shown below.
Each graphene molecule is a fully planar shape.
The C-C bond length is 0.142 nm, as in graphite, its mid-way between 0.154
nm for C-C bond and 0.134 for a C=C bond.
The C-C-C bond angle is 120o, what you expect for the internal angle of a
perfectly symmetrical planar hexagon.
The C-C bonds are strong, giving a strong 2D lattice of carbon atoms.
Each layer consists of hexagonal rings of carbon atoms linked together in a planar
lattice, the formula is Cn where n is a very large number BUT a graphene layer is
just a single atom in thickness!
another version of the skeletal

formula representation of graphene.
This image shows how the structure of graphene relates to polyaromatic
hydrocarbons like naphthalene
C10H8 and anthracene
C14H10 consisting of 2 and 3 fused benzene rings

respectively. If you take this 'aromatic fusion' to its extreme in two
dimensions, the hydrogens go and the result is a graphene molecule.
Graphene is spatially considered a 2D material.
Note on 'dimension descriptions' at the atomic or molecular level
zero dimensional, 0D e.g. an individual atom, or 'quantum dot'
one dimensional, 1D e.g. nanowires, carbon nanotubes, long

polymer molecules like poly(ethene) - though not as neatly aligned as
nanotubes can be. Linear plastic molecules tend to be a bit jumbled
and branched in reality.
two dimensional, 2D e.g. the layers of graphite (previously described)

or hexagonal boron nitride (later section), the polymer Kevlar.
three dimensional, 3D e.g. the giant covalent lattices of diamond and

silica, cubic boron nitride (see further down), cross-linked polymers
like bakelite. Thermosetting resins that set hard due to cross-linking
e.g. those used in fibreglass constructions. In all these cases you are
dealing with a continuous covalent bond network in all directions.
In graphene each carbon atom forms three sigma bonds with other carbon atoms
(sp2 hybridisation) via three of its four valency electrons, but the 4th electron is
'delocalised' i.e. shared in common with other carbon atoms giving extra bonding (pi
electrons, pi bonding) ...
... AND because these pi or delocalised electrons are free to move through
the layer, electrical conduction readily occurs if a potential difference is
applied.
This delocalised system means that it is unsaturated and theoretically atoms can add
to it, BUT it is chemically relatively inert apart from combustion!
It is this 'large scale' delocalisation that gives graphene its chemical stability.
Graphene has a high thermal stability (like graphite, up to 3000 oC if no oxygen

present), high electrical conductivity, a high optical transparency and is chemically
relatively inert.
All four of these physical and chemical properties make it a potentially really
useful substance for materials scientists to use in a variety of quite different
applications e.g.
Graphene, this remarkable material made of sheets of carbon just one atom thick,
has been shown to undergoes a self-repairing process to correct holes when exposed
to loose carbon atoms.
It would appear that when holes were punched in it by a beam of atoms, if

carbon atoms where near the surface of the graphene sheets, complete
hexagonal rings would reform making the two-dimensional (2D) sheets
complete.
Graphene has outstanding mechanical strength with respect to its thinness

and combined with its electronic properties, it is a promising material for a
wide range of future applications.
However, graphene's very thinness makes it easily damaged when working

with it, so any 'self-healing' property is most welcome!
USES
Graphene can be used to manufacture excellent transistors for the

electronics industry.
Conduction can be made to depend on an ambient electric field, making it a

very sensitive surface and metal films cannot be made as thin, so less
sensitive.
Graphene could be used in highly sensitive gas sensors - molecules 'landing'

on the surface cause measurable electronic changes and perhaps even
individual molecules can generate a signal.
For the same reason, its applications may include use as a touch
screen surface.
Graphene is 100x stronger than steel in bulk so has the potential to be used
for small scale BUT strong components in devices.
Graphene fibres maybe stronger than the current carbon fibres, but
unlikely to replace them on production cost grounds.
Graphene is highly resistant to attack by strong acids (e.g. nitric,

hydrochloric, sulfuric, hydrofluoric acids) or strong alkalis (e.g. sodium
hydroxide, potassium hydroxide) and so can be used to give surfaces an
ultra-thin protective layer which is transparent.
It can be used as support membrane for transmission electron microscopy

used to study the molecular detail of materials such as fragile DNA molecules
and nanoparticles themselves!
A graphene support membrane can be made relatively strong but

very thin and so transparent that it does not interfere with the 'picture'
generated by the electron microscope.
NOT on any syllabus yet, but very interesting!
Technically graphene is an allotrope of carbon (like diamond and graphite)

though it is, in reality, a single layer of graphite.
Graphenes is a two-dimensional (2D) allotrope of carbon (diamond is 3D).
However, since carbon has a valency of four, there are other possible linear
one-dimensional (1D) forms based on single, double or triple carbon-carbon
covalent bonding systems.
So, again, technically, these are also allotropes of carbon.
So, research is going into trying to synthesise and investigating the properties
of linear structures based on:
(i) C=C=C=C=C=C=C= etc. i.e. consecutive carbon-carbon double

bonds
This is an example of a cumulene (3 or more consecutive

carbon-carbon double bonds), so it is effectively a
polycumulene.
(ii) CCCCCCC etc. i.e. alternating single and triple carboncarbon bonds.
This material is called 'linear acetylenic carbon', an example

of a polyyne (CC)n, or carbyne (though the name carbyne
is applied to other chemical species).
Carbyne is predicted to be an extraordinarily strong material,

stronger than diamond, but it is difficult to synthesise and is
very unstable.
Fluorographene (smart material?)
What is fluorographene? What is fluorographene's molecular structure? What

might we use fluorographene for?
In fluorographene, the fourth valency electron of carbon is paired with one from
fluorine to form a 4th carbon-fluorine bond.
Each carbon atoms forms four single bonds directed to the corners of a tetrahedron.
The C-C-F and C-C-C bond angles will al be around 109o (the symmetrical
tetrahedral angle, as in methane)
The three strong C-C carbon-carbon bonds from each carbon atom produce a strong
giant 2D network of links, but the fourth bond (carbon-fluorine C-F, also very strong)
'pokes' up and down from this 'rippled' 2D array of carbon atoms.
This means, unlike in graphene, there is no 'spare' 4th electron from carbon to form a
delocalised electron system that allows conduction of electricity, so it is an electrical
insulator.
Fluorographene is a saturated organic compound of (CF)n where n is a very large

number (empirical formula CF).
It is, in a simplified way, a 2D version of TEFLON/PTFE which consists of long 1D

poly(tetrafluoroethene) polymer molecules.
PTFE is -(C2F4)n-, empirical formula CF2, fluorographene's empirical formula

is CF.
Like PTFE, fluorographene has a very high thermal stability and excellent 'non-stick'
properties.
Also like PTFE, it is chemically very stable, i.e. very inert, so, combined with its great
thermal stability, it can be used as a very stable surfacing material over a wide
temperature range.
Uses of fluorographene
It is a high quality super-thin insulator.
Its electronic applications include use in LEDs (light emitting diodes)
Like TEFLON, it can used as an inert protective 'non-stick' surface, but I think
Teflon is lot cheaper to produce!
Self-cleaning windows.
Self-cleaning ovens.
What are smart materials? Why are they so useful? Applications - what are they used for?
ALPHABETICAL LIST of materials, effects etc. mentioned on these pages: Smart Materials
Science INDEX * CARBON FIBRES * CHROMOGENIC MATERIALS *ELECTROCHROMIC
MATERIALS * GORETEX * HALOCHROMIC MATERIALS * HIGH PERFORMANCE
POLYMERS * KEVLAR * LYCRA * MAGNETIC SHAPE MEMORY
ALLOYS * MAGNETOSTRICTIVE MATERIALS * NITINOL * pH SENSITIVE
POLYMERS * PHOTOCHROMIC MATERIALS * PHOTOMECHANICAL MATERIALS * PIEZO
ELECTRIC EFFECT-MATERIALS * PTFE * SELF-HEALING MATERIALS * SHAPE MEMORY
ALLOYS * SHAPE MEMORY POLYMERS * SPANDEX * TEFLON * TEMPERATURE-RESPONSIVE
POLYMERS * THERMOCHROMIC MATERIALS * THINSULATE *
INTRODUCTION TO SMART MATERIALS
Smart materials are materials that have a property that can be significantly changed in
a controlled way by an external stimuli, such as stress (i.e. bending or compression),
light, temperature, moisture, pH, electric potential difference (p.d./voltage) or a strong
magnetic field.
Smart materials are those that change in response to changing conditions in their
surroundings or by the application of other direct influences e.g. passing an electric
charge through the material, or changing the pH of a surrounding aqueous solution..
The induced change might be electrical, mechanical-structural, optical, magnetic etc.

to change the way the material functions in response to the stimulus).
In a 'nutshell' smart materials can change their state, and therefore their properties, in
response to an external stimulus.
There is now a huge variety of smart materials with different special properties that
make a particular material well suited to a particular use.
Other materials described on this page are not strictly speaking 'smart materials', but
they have been included under the more general heading' materials science'.
Examples of Smart Materials and 'smart effects' and other examples of 'Materials Science'
PART 1 CHROMOGENIC MATERIALS - Thermochromic, Photochromic & Electrochromic
Materials
PART 2 SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS e.g. Nitinol & Magnetic Shape Memory Alloys
PART 3 SHAPE MEMORY POLYMERS, pH and temperature sensitive-responsive polymers,
Self-healing materials
Part 4 LYCRA-SPANDEX
PART 5 High performance polymers like KEVLAR
PART 6 GORETEX, THINSULATE and TEFLON-PTFE

PART 7 PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT (PIEZOELECTRIC MATERIALS) and PHOTOMECHANICAL
MATERIALS
PART 8 CARBON FIBRES
What is formulation Chemistry?

Well, examples of the products of formulation chemistry are adhesives, antiperspirants,
cosmetics, deodorants, detergents, dietary supplements, hair colourings, herbicides, inks, nail
polish, paints, perfumes, pesticides, petrol, petroleum oil products like petrol, pharmaceutical
products like headache tablets and sunscreens/sunblockers.
1.
Formulation chemistry is the mixing of compounds/substances that do not react with

each other but produce a mixture with the desired characteristics/properties to suit a
particular application/use.
2.
Many modern products contain a combination of several chemical substances, each

contributing an advantage to the finished product for a particular application.
3.
Any developed product must be commercially viable i.e. a useful profitable material, so,
almost every example quoted below, you will actually find in your home i.e. a broad range of
useful household products are the result of the science of formulation chemistry.
4.
Since no reactions happen in making the mixture, most formulations are prepared by
measuring liquids by volume and solids by mass ('weight'). It is perfectly possible for a
marketed product to go on sale without a chemical equation ever being written down!
However, there may be much chemistry going on to actually make some of the ingredients
e.g. chemically synthesising a drug is one matter, mixing it with water and other ingredients to
make a liquid medicine for oral consumption is another!
5.
Although there are no chemical reactions involved in preparing formulations, there are many
chemical aspects to do with formulation. These include thermodynamics (energy changes) of
mixing, phase equilibria, solutions, surface chemistry, colloids, emulsions and suspensions.
6.
These important principles and ingredients may be related to properties such as adhesion,
weather resistance, texture, shelf-life, biodegradability, allergenic response and many other
properties.
7.
By changing the composition of the mixture, its properties will change to be more or less
suited to a particular useful application. Quite a bit of trial and error goes into product
formulation research and even computer programmes have been developed to model and
therefore predict the properties a mixture may have - BUT its still got to be tested in the
laboratory.
8.
[GCSE/GCE syllabus-specification references]
Examples of Formulation Products

alphabetical list of formulates
mentioned * adhesives * antiperspirants * cosmetics * deodorants * detergents * dietary
supplements * hair colouring * herbicides * inks * nail
polish * paints * perfumes * pesticides * petrol * petroleum oil products * pharmaceutical
products * sunscreens/sunblockers *
Paints
A paint is made up of a base pigment, a mixture of compounds to give it a particular colour, a binder
and a solvent which evaporates to give a hard solid surface finish (matt or gloss depending on the
composition). Paints may be water, latex, oil, acrylic or epoxy based. House paints must be
reasonably durable at a reasonable price but high durability paints used for car and aircraft bodies are
more costly. Binders bind the pigment to the surface painted and pigments must be insoluble
materials e.g. titanium dioxide and zinc oxide are used as white pigments (and have replaced
potentially harmful lead pigments). Sometimes the binding action involves a chemical change e.g.
polymerisation. Acrylic paints use polymer resins as a solvent and can be thinned with water, but still
dry easily.
Thermochromic paint - changes colour when heated i.e. the colour observed is depends on the
temperature.
Photochromic paint - changes colour on exposure to light i.e. observed colour depends on light
intensity.
[OCR GCSE Gateway Science Module C2 Rocks and Metals - ingredients of paint (pigment, binding
medium/agent, solvent - pigment dispersed in oil, thermochromic pigments]
[WJEC GCSE science and others, mention photochromic/thermochromic paint/pigments]
Inks and Dyes

There is a huge variety of inks available of different compositions to suit different circumstances. Ink
used for newspapers or paperback novels must be cheap and have the consistency of a thick sludge
to properly feed through the ink rollers of a printing press. Good colour quality is required for glossy
magazines. As well as colour composition, appropriate ink flow is important for pens and computer
printers. The performance and formulation of a good photocopier or laser printer toner depends upon
its electrostatic properties.
Dyes, natural or synthetic (dyestuffs) are used to colour fabric materials.
[]
Cosmetics and other 'personal products'

The cosmetic industry provides a wide range of formulated products. In the bathroom/bedroom you
may find perfumes, moisturizers, rouge, lipstick, antiaging skin products, face powder, nail polish,
sunscreen/sunblocker, hair gel, hair conditioning and colouring products, aftershave and deodorants
etc.
In the highly competitive world of cosmetics developments in non-allergenic formulations and longer
wearability factors have become increasingly important and the way they look and easy application all
help to make a product line more marketable.
Nail polish consists of flexible lacquers, organic dyes for colouring effects, iron or chromium oxides,
and ultramarine blue along with drying agents and binders and solvents such as ethyl ethanoate
( ethyl acetate) that evaporate on drying. Nail polish remover is usually an organic solvent such as
propanone (acetone) or ethyl ethanoate.
Perfumes have been used for thousands of years and first recorded for posterity by the Egyptians?
They and other cultures extracted fragrant substances from plants such as pleasant smelling flowers
like roses, geraniums and from lemon oils. Animal extracts like musk were added later. The first
perfumes were probably developed to mask the odours from the body or disease - good hygiene is a
relatively modern concept! Perfumes are mixtures of various components blended to produce a
pleasing scent that will last for several hours. Each fragrant component is called a note. The first note
'impression' is the odour perceived when the scent/perfume is opened or sprayed. The second note is
detected after the perfume has made contact with the skin, and the third note is the component to
make the fragrance last for a reasonable time. High-quality perfumes are mixtures of 'highly selected'
substances that appeal on a personal level. Typical ingredients include extracts of flowers and
fragrances such as valerian, lavender, chamomile, passionflower, vanilla, geranium, mint, lemon as
well as ambergris or musk, and water or alcohols. The formulation of perfumes is a mixture of 'art' and
'science' and new products are constantly appearing in the 'market place'. As well as products for
personal use, perfumes/fragrances are now used in numerous cleaning products and for spraying
around the house! Cleopatra would have loved, and been a great patron of the modern cosmetics
industry!
Hair colouring products are either temporary or permanent. Temporary hair colours attach to the
surface of hair and wash out after repeated shampooing. A dye is considered permanent if it
penetrates into the hollow hair fibres. Colouring of hair starts with a treatment of substances such as
hydrogen peroxide and ammonia. The ammonia causes hair shafts to swell and open, allowing dye
intermediates and couplers to penetrate. Dyes applied during the second step of colouring react with
the intermediates/couplers to form pigments that remain in the hair. Melanin compounds determine
hair colour and the density of melanin granules determines the shade. Hair colours are combinations
of organic dyes chosen to produce particular shades. Hair that contains little or no melanin is very
light coloured or white. Hair can be deliberately bleached with oxidising agents like hydrogen peroxide
which destroys melanin.
Deodorants and antiperspirants are often mixed in the same formulation. It should be admitted that
deodorants don't usually remove bad body odours, but mask them with a more pleasant smell, but
some can inhibit the microorganisms that cause body odour in the first place. Deodorants contain a
mixture of strong perfumes e.g. with minty or musky odours. Body odour can be partially reduced by
decreasing perspiration, a natural gland function primarily to cool the skin and get rid of excess heat,
but perspiration carries pheromones and fatty acids with the resulting odour, as well as the excretion
of odourless salt. One active wisely used ingredient of antiperspirants is aluminum chloride and when
aluminum ions are absorbed by cells in the epidermis cause the sweat gland ducts to close.
Sunscreens/sunblockers/suncreams absorb/block harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation and allows the
skin to tan. UV rays are high energy photons and can cause cancer by damaging DNA and excess UV
exposure causes increased wrinkling of the skin. Many of the older 'suncreams' contained organic
molecules (usually aromatic compounds) that absorb ultra-violet light (but not necessarily all the UV
light) so many products now use reflective-blocking properties of fine zinc oxide (ZnO) and titanium
dioxide (TiO2) particles (nanoparticles) because they block a much wider variation of the
wavelengths/frequencies of UV light. There are several factors to consider in formulating a particular
product e.g. (1) Most aromatic compounds are potentially carcinogenic and/or interfere with hormones
so low concentrations are used to minimise risks. (2) The active ingredients should not precipitate out
of the solution/cream or the product feel gritty. (3) It is now possible to encapsulate the active
ingredients, i.e. the sunblockers, in tiny polymer bags so the active chemicals do not come into
contact with the skin.
Hair gel Toothpaste -
Shaving foam [AQA double award Applied Science - cosmetics industry - example of occupation and products]
[AQA GCSE Science uses of esters and perfume design]
[OCR GCSE Gateway Science Module C1 Carbon Chemistry - section on esters, perfume design in
cosmetics industry]
Detergents - liquids/gels (e.g. washing up liquids/shampoos) and soaps blocks/powders

Detergents are a type of surfactant molecule in that changes the surface tension of the 'washing'
solution and act as wetting agents. Enzymes are added to 'biological' washing
liquids/powders/detergents. A good acting enzyme is one which efficiently breaks down the organic
matter that some stains are made of with zero/minimal damage to the organic matter which the
clothes are made of. Washing up liquid detergents are formulated to effectively clean without harming
the skin of the person doing dishes.
Water is a polar compound that readily dissolves most salts and polar compounds such as sugar but it
will not dissolve non-polar fatty/oily substances from the body. Non-polar solvents such as alkane
hydrocarbons (hexane etc.) and chlorinated hydrocarbons like 1,1,1-trichloroethane (CH 3CCl3),
tetrachloromethane (CCl4, carbon tetrachloride) do not really mix with water (immiscible), but will
dissolve nonpolar substances such as grease or oil.
Shampoo contains a mixture of ingredients, including detergents, that allow water to wet the nonpolar
oils found in bodily secretions such as sebum, the oily substances which holds dirt and dead skin in
hair. Common detergents include sodium or ammonium lauryl sulfates (lauryl sulphate is an anion negative ion). Cationic detergents, which act to condition hair as well remove dirt and oil from it,
include alkyl ammonium compounds such as stearylammonium chloride or sulphate. Other
components of shampoo include surfactants such as polyethylene glycol, antifoaming agents,
thickeners, antistatic agents, and buffers (pH balancers) as well as colouring agents and perfumes to
make them more attractive to the consumer.
Most soaps are sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids that function well as surface active or wetting
agents (soaps!) because they are soluble in water but the hydrocarbon chain can interact with grease,
oils and other 'fatty' material to dislodge such materials in the washing process. However, calcium and
magnesium ions in hard water form insoluble compounds with these fatty acids that dull shower/was
basin walls etc. i.e. scum formation! Shampoos/washing up liquids etc. therefore contain chelating
agents such as ethylenediaminetetraacetate (EDTA) that form soluble complexes with the
magnesium/calcium ions and stopping 'scum' precipitates forming. In addition, a surfactant such as an
ethylene glycol ether wets the wall so water droplets run off. Propan-2-ol (2-propanol, isopropyl
alcohol) is a solvent both for the shampoo ingredients and helps dissolve substances such as oils that
are not water-soluble.
Research is being done to utilise bleach substitutes.
[OCR GCSE Science Topic 8 Designer Products e.g. poses the Q What would the properties a perfect
hair gel be?]
Pharmaceutical products
One of the most important aspects of the pharmaceuticals industry relates to drug delivery, i.e. what is
the best means of administering a drug? The usefulness of a drug is not just about its effectiveness in
treating a condition but also on how readily it can be given to the patient. A tablet with little taste is one
of the most convenient and successful methods of administering medicines. Tablets can be
formulated with additional ingredients to prevent stomach upset, give a timed release and hold the
tablet together as a solid. Liquid medications of an 'unpleasant' tasting drug can be mixed with (mouth
watering!) flavourings to mask the taste of the medicine.
(i)
and (ii)
the two possible structures of the active ingredient of Aspirin.
(i) the non-salt like insoluble acid (-COOH group) and (ii) the water soluble sodium salt-like form
produced by neutralising the acid. Can have a formulated mixture of (i) and sodium
hydrogencarbonate in the tablet which then dissolves in water to form (ii) administered in the form of a
'fizzy' drink.
Potential side-effects not seen when using an individual drug, but occur with a mixture of assumed
beneficial ingredients.
[OCR Gateway Science Module C6 Chemistry Out There - section on analgesic formulations]
Adhesives
Generally speaking an adhesives is a mixture of a bonding agent and a solvent, which fill surfaces at
the microscopic level and harden as the solvent evaporates. Some adhesives, such as super glue epoxy resins do undergo a chemical reaction as they harden. Silicon based adhesives are used for
high temperature applications such as car exhaust repairs.
[]
Pesticides and Herbicides

Pesticides are chemical agents used to kill pests such as insects and herbicides are used to control
plant life such as 'weeds', so by their very nature they are potentially harmful/toxic substance.
Pesticides are widely used agrichemicals but their history is a rather mixed one
and contentious issues still remain and not just on safety/environmental grounds, but also the 'purer'
organic farming/gardening/horticulture versus the use of agrichemicals like synthetic/artificial fertiliser
formulations as well as pesticides/herbicides.
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) is a halogenated hydrocarbon used during the 1940-1960s to

control mosquitoes in Africa and other parts of the world and other pests in the so-called developed
world. However, DDT dissolves in fatty tissues of animals and builds up in the food chain. It caused
genetic damage in birds which manifested itself by causing thin eggshells that easily break, resulting
in the unfortunate death of many chicks. Although DDT is banned in many countries, including the
USA, all/most? European countries DDT remains a potent weapon against malarial mosquitoes in
other parts of the world.
Organophosphate pesticides act by interfering with the nervous system of animals. The lethal dose
required depends on the weight of the animal and the effectiveness of the formulation.
Doc Brown's Chemistry KS4 science GCSE/IGCSE/AS O Level Revision Notes

Atomic Structure, Isotopes, Electronic Structure of Atoms
This page describes the structure of atoms in terms of the three fundamental subatomic
particles protons, neutrons and electrons. Isotopes are defined with examples and nuclide
notate (e.g. top right picture) is explained. The simplified electronic structure of atoms is
explained via the rules on filling shells with electrons. Which electron arrangements are
stable? and Why? and which electron arrangements are unstable giving rise to very reactive
elements. The link between the Periodic Table and Electronic Structure is described. The
important historic alpha particle scattering experiment is described, variations of atomic
structure diagrams, Allotropes don't confuse with isotopes! and, on a separate page for
advanced level chemistry students, the mass spectrometer is explained with annotated
diagrams and explanatory notes.
1. The Structure of Atoms three fundamental particles
2. Isotopes definition and examples
3. The Electronic Structure of Atoms rules to be learned
4. Which electron arrangements are stable and which are not?
5. The Periodic Table and Electronic Structure more patterns!
1. to 5. are essential for ALL KS4 Science GCSE/IGCSE sciencechemistry students
KEYWORDSphrases for this page: allotropes * Alpha particle scattering * Atomic (proton)
number * Atom structure * Electron * Electron arrangement (examples)* Electron shell
rules * ions * Isotopes * Mass (nucleon) number * Mass spectrometer (advanced students
only) * Neutron * Neutron number * Nuclide symbol notation* Periodic Table (and electron
structure) * Periodic Table (its general structure) * Proton * stable/unstable electron
arrangements
Appendix 1. The Alpha Particle Scattering Experiment
Appendix 2. Atomic structure diagrams some variations!
Appendix 3. Allotropes don't confuse with isotopes!
Appendix 4.
The Mass Spectrometer (separate page for advanced level students!)

other associated web pages
GCSE/IGCSE Foundation Atomic Structure multiple choice QUIZ
GCSE/IGCSE Higher Atomic Structure multiple choice QUIZ
GCSE/IGCSE Atomic Structure Crossword Puzzle * ANSWERS!
GCSE/IGCSE multiword gapfill worksheet on atomic structure
and definitely NOT GCSE/IGCSE pages on atomic structure

Advanced Level Chemistry notes on electronic structure - s, p, d orbitals etc.
A Level notes on electron configurations of elements & the periodic table
A Level Notes on mass spectrometers, mass spectrometry and relative atomic mass
1. The Structure of Atoms three fundamental particles

WHAT ARE ATOMS? and WHAT DO WE MEAN BY FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES? (subatomic
particles)
Compounds are formed when two or more elements are chemically combined to form a new
substance in a reaction which is not easily reversed ie its difficult to separate a compound back into
its constituent elements.
However, what are elements made up of? How and why do elements bond together?
In order to answer these questions we must look a bit deeper into the fundamental structure of matter,
that is everything around you!
Atoms are the smallest particles of matter whose properties we study in Chemistry.
Every element or compound is comprised of atoms. All the atoms are the same in the structure of
an element (ignoring isotopes) and two or more different atoms/elements must be present in a
compound.
Initially, once the concept of an atom was established, it was assumed that atoms were indestructible
and not divisible into smaller particles, but merely combined in different proportions to give the range
of compounds we know about.
However from experiments done in the late 19th and early 20th century it was deduced that atoms are
made up of three fundamental or subatomic particles called protons, neutrons and electrons,
which are listed below with their relative masses and electrical charges.
WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTIC PROPERTIES OF THESE SUBATOMIC PARTICLES?
WHAT IS THE NUCLEUS? WHAT ARE NUCLEONS?
The three fundamental particles of which atoms are composed
The table gives the relative mass and electric charge of the three subatomic particles known
as the proton, neutron and electron.
Subatomic
particle
Relative mass
Electric charge
Comments
Proton
+1 (+ positive)
In the nucleus, a nucleon
Neutron
Electron
1
1
/1850 or 0.00055
0 (zero)
In the nucleus, a nucleon
1 ( negative)
NOT a nucleon. Electrons are

arranged in energy levels or
shells in orbit around the
nucleus
You can think of the mass of an electron as about 1/2000th of the mass of a proton or neutron, pretty
small mass BUT it occupies most of the space of atom!!!
What can we say about 'A Portrait of an Atom'? an image of what you can't
see!
However this diagram, although more realistic in terms of the real size of the nucleus
compared to the atom as a whole, it is not convenient to give a brief diagrammatic picture of
the composition of an atom like the style of the diagram below.
Some more concise and handy styles to show the atomic composition of the same lithium
atom
What subatomic particles make up atoms? What is their mass and charge?
The diagram above of a 'portrait of an atom' gives some idea on the structure of an atom
(sometimes called the Bohr Atomic Model), it also includes some important definitions and
notation used to describe atomic structure
The three fundamental particles you need to know are ...
proton: particle mass = 1, electric charge = +1, the charged particle in the nucleus
neutron: particle mass = 1, charge = 0, uncharged particle in the nucleus
electron: particle mass = 1/1850 ~1/2000, electric charge = 1, NOT in nucleus

but exist in electronic energy levels around the nucleus (a sort of orbit, often
described as a shell, see later).
The nucleus of protons and neutrons is tiny, even compared to the tiny atom!
So most of the volume of an atom is where the electrons are, the diameter of
the nucleus of protons plus neutrons is about a ten thousandth of the
diameter of an atom!
Since the nucleus is composed of positive protons and neutral neutrons, the
nucleus itself must be positive.
Protons and neutrons are the 'nucleons' or 'subatomic' particles present in the minute
positive nucleus and the negative electrons are held by the positive protons in 'orbits'
called energy levels or shells.
Although the nucleus must be positive because of the positive protons (neutrons are
neutral) an individual atom is neutral because the number of electrons equals the
number of protons so the charges 'cancel out'.
If electrons are removed from an atom you get a positive ion and if electrons are
added to an atom you get a negative ion.
An ion, by definition, cannot be neutral.
Some important evidence for this 'picture' is obtained from alpha particle scattering
experiments (see Appendix 1).
The atomic number (Z) is the number of protons in the nucleus and is also known as
the proton number of the particular element.
Each element has its own atomic number, so all the atoms of a particular
element have the same atomic number.
It is the proton/atomic number (Z) that determines the number of electrons an element
has, its specific electron structure and therefore the specific identity of a particular
element in terms of its physical and chemical properties.
It cannot be overemphasised that it is the electronic structure that determines the

chemical character of an element, hence the proton/atomic number determines everything
about a particular element
The mass number (A) is also known as the nucleon number, that is the number of
particles in the nucleus of a particular atomisotope (notes on isotopes definition and
examples).
Therefore the mass/nucleon number = sum of the protons plus neutrons in the
nucleus.
Since the mass of a proton or neutron equals 1, the mass number equals the mass of
an atom to the nearest whole number.
The neutron number (N) = mass number proton/atomic number
In a neutral atom the number of protons (+) equals the number of electrons (), that is
the number of positive charges is equal to the number of negative charges.
If not, and the atom has an overall surplus or deficiency electrical charge, and is the
resulting electrically charged particle called an ion e.g.
the positive sodium ion Na+ (11 protons, 10 electrons, excess positive
protons)
or the negative chloride ion Cl (17 protons, 18 electrons, excess negative

electrons)
for more details and examples see ionic bonding notes.
Other alternative atomic structure diagrams than the one below are described and
shown in Appendix 2.
In the example below for lithium7, the nuclide notation states that
before the chemical symbol of the element Li
the top left number = nucleon/mass number = 7
and the bottom left number = proton/atomic number = 3
The electrons are arranged in specific energy levels according to a set of rules (dealt
with in section 3).
This description of an atom consisting of the relatively minute nucleus of protons and
neutrons surrounded by electrons in particular shells or energy levels is sometimes referred to
as the Bohr Model of the atom, after the great Danish scientist Niels Bohr (18851962), one
of the brilliant founders of modern atomic theory.
Other examples of interpreting the nuclide notation and definition reminders:
Top left number is the nucleon number or mass number (A = sum of protons +
neutrons = nucleons)
Bottom left number is the atomic number or proton number (Z = protons in

nucleus)
Electrons = protons if the atom is electrically neutral i.e. NOT an ion.
The neutron number N = A Z i.e. mass/nucleon number atomic/proton number
Iron atom (isotope iron56), 26 protons, 30 neutrons (56 26), 26

electrons
Cobalt atom (isotope cobalt59), 27 protons, 32 neutrons (59

27), 27 electrons
Californium atom (isotope californium246), 98 protons, 148

neutrons (246 98), 98 electrons
So, at this point we had better explain what isotopes are!
2. ISOTOPES
WHAT ARE ISOTOPES? ARE THEY IMPORTANT?
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons and
therefore different masses (different nucleon/mass numbers).
This gives each isotope of a particular element a different mass or nucleon number,
but, being the same element they have the same atomic or proton number
They are also chemically identical, because they have the same number of electrons,
hence the same electron structure.
Study the diagrams of the isotopes of carbon further down the page.
The phrase 'heavier' or 'lighter' isotope means 'bigger' or 'smaller' mass number.
There are small physical differences between the isotopes e.g. the heavier isotope has a
greater density or boiling point, the lighter the isotope the faster it diffuses.
However, because they have the same number of protons (proton/atomic number)
isotopes of a particular element have the same electronic structure and identical
chemistry.
Examples of isotopes are illustrated and described below.
Caution Note: Do NOT assume the word isotope means the atom it is radioactive, this
depends on the stability of the nucleus i.e. unstable atoms (radioactive) might be referred to
as radioisotopes.
Many isotopes are extremely stable in the nuclear sense and NOT radioactive i.e. most of the
atoms that make up you and the world around you!
,
and
are the three isotopes of hydrogen with mass numbers of 1, 2 and
3, with 0, 1 and 2 neutrons respectively. All have 1 proton, since all are hydrogen! Hydrogen
1 is the most common, there is a trace of hydrogen2 (sometimes called deuterium)
naturally but hydrogen3 (sometime called tritium) is very unstable and is used in atomic
bombs nuclear fusion weapons.
They are sometimes denoted more simply as 1H, 2H and 3H since the chemical
symbol H means hydrogen and therefore must have only one proton.
and
or 3He and 4He, are the two isotopes of helium with mass numbers of 3
and 4, with 1 and 2 neutrons respectively but both have 2 protons. Helium3 is formed in the
Sun by the initial nuclear fusion process. Helium4 is also formed in the Sun and as a product
of radioactive alpha decay of an unstable nucleus.
An alpha particle is a helium nucleus (mass 4, charge +2) and if it picks up two
electrons it becomes a stable atoms of the gas helium. For more details see
Radioactivity Revision Notes Part 4
and
or 23Na and 24Na, are the two isotopes of sodium with mass
numbers of 23 and 24, with 12 and 13 neutrons respectively but both have 11 protons in the
nucleus and 11 surrounding electrons. Sodium23 is quite stable e.g. in common salt (NaCl,
sodium chloride) but sodium24 is a radioisotope and is a gamma emitter used in medicine
as a radioactive tracer e.g. to examine organs and the blood system.
and
are the two nuclear symbols for the two most common and stable
isotopes of the element chlorine. They both have 17 protons in the nucleus and 3517 = 18
and 3717 = 20 neutrons respectively (and both have 17 surrounding electrons).
and
are the two nuclide symbols for the two most common and stable
isotopes of the element bromine. They both have 35 protons in the nucleus and 7935 = 44
neutrons and 8135 = 46 neutrons respectively. By coincidence, there are almost exactly 50%
of each isotope present in naturally occurring bromine.
The three known isotopes of carbon
o
isotope
protons neutrons electrons % abundance
carbon
12
12
6
98.9%, stable
carbon
13
13
6
1.1%, stable
carbon
14
14
6
trace,
unstable
radioactive
The table of information on the three isotopes of carbon is illustrated by the diagrams
above it.
Now is an appropriate point to introduce the concept and definition of relative atomic
mass (Ar), which is required for very accurate quantitative chemistry calculations.
The relative atomic mass of an element is the average mass of all the isotopes
present compared to 1/12th of the mass of a carbon12 atom (12C = 12.00000
amu i.e. the standard).
When you average the masses of the isotopes of carbon, taking into account their
relative abundance (%), you arrive at a relative atomic mass of carbon of
12.011, Ar(C) = 12.011, though at this academic level 12.0 is accurate enough!
nuclide
symbol
See also chemical calculations
Knowledge of isotopes is important in modern science.
Radioactive isotopes are used in medicine to trace aspects of body chemistry due to
their radioactive emissions, and in chemical synthesis as tracers to follow how a
reaction sequence occurs.
Radioactive isotopes are used in radiotherapy to kill malignant cancer cells.
For lots more details see the
RADIOACTIVITY NOTES
DO NOT CONFUSE ISOTOPES and ALLOTROPES see Appendix 3.
3. The Electronic Structure of Atoms rules to be learned

WHAT DO WE MEAN BY Electron configuration, electronic structure of atoms arrangement in
shells or energy levels?
The electrons are arranged in energy levels or shells around the nucleus and with 'orbits' on
average increasing in distance from the nucleus.
Each electron in an atom is in a particular energy level (or shell) and the electrons must
occupy the lowest available energy level (or shell) available nearest the nucleus.
When the level is full, the next electron goes into the next highest level (shell) available.
There are rules to learn about the maximum number of electrons allowed in each shell and
you have to be able to work out the arrangements for the first 20 elements (for GCSE
students, upto at least 36 for Advanced level students).
The 1st shell can contain a maximum of 2 electrons (electrons 12)
The 2nd shell can contain a maximum of 8 electrons (electrons 310)
The 3rd shell also has a maximum of 8 electrons (electrons 1118)
The 19th and 20th electrons go into the 4th shell, (required limit of GCSE
knowledge).
Remember the total electrons to be arranged equals the atomic/proton number for a
neutral atom.
If you know the atomic (proton) number, you know it equals the number of electrons in
a neutral atom, you then apply the rules to work out the electron arrangement
(configuration).
For elements 1 to 20 the electron arrangements/configurations are written out in the following
manner:
Note that each number represents the number of electrons in a particular shell, dots
or commas are used to separate the numbers of electrons in each shell. They are
written out in order of increasing average distance from the positive nucleus which
holds these negative electrons in their energy levels (shells).
The electron configurations are summarised below with reference to the periods of
the periodic table and in order of increasing atomic number.
Period 1 elements 1 to 2 (2 elements)
electron arrangements of 2.1 to 2.8 (since 1st shell is full with 2 electrons i.e.
the first number)
the electron arrangement is written out simply as 1 or 2
For more see the Periodic Table and Electron Structure notes below.
denoted by 2.8.1 to 2.8.8 (1st,2nd full shells with 2,8 electrons)
Period 4 first two elements 19 to 20
written out as 2.8.8.1 and 2.8.8.2 (1st,2nd,3rd full shells with 2,8,8 electrons)
Reminder this is as far as GCSE students need to know, after that things
get more complicated, BUT only for advanced level students!
For example, after element 18, the 3rd shell can hold a maximum of 18
electrons!
The above is summarised in the diagram below
For the rest of Period 4 and other Periods you need a more
advanced electron
configuration system upto at least Z=36 using s, p, d and f orbital notation BUT
for advanced level chemistry students only!
Examples: diagram, symbol or name of element (Atomic Number = number of protons and the
number of electrons in a neutral atom), shorthand electron arrangement and a diagram to help you
follow the numbers.
Filling 1st shell, electron level 1

the Periodic Table
Filling 2nd shell, electron level 2

elements of Period 2
2 elements only, Period 1 of
to
to
3 of the 8
Filling 3rd shell, electron level 3

the 8 elements of Period 3
to
The first 2 elements of the 4th shell

start of Period 4
3 of
to Kr [2.8.18.8],
Only the first 2 of the 18 elements of Period 4 are shown above, the rule for 3rd shell changes from
element 21 Sc onwards (studied at Advanced level, so GCSE students don't worry!)
A few more 'snappy' examples given atomic number, work out electron configuration (abbreviated
to e.c.)
Z = 3 e.c. 2.1 or Z = 7 e.c. = 2.5 or Z = 14 e.c. = 2.8.4 or Z = 19 e.c. = 2.8.8.1 etc. upto Z = 20
4. Which electron arrangements are stable and which are not?

Both atoms and ions are considered
WHY ARE SOME ELECTRON ARRANGEMENTS ARE MORE STABLE THAN OTHERS?
WHICH ELECTRON ARRANGEMENTS ARE THE MOST STABLE AND WHICH

ELECTRON ARRANGEMENTS THE LEAST STABLE?
HOW DO ELECTRON ARRANGEMENTS RELATE TO THE REACTIVITY OF CHEMICAL

ELEMENTS?
When an atom has its outer level full to the maximum number of electrons allowed, the atom
is particularly stable electronically and very unreactive.
This is the situation with the Noble Gases: He is [2], neon is [2,8] and argon is [2,8,8]
etc.
There atoms are the most reluctant to lose, share or gain electrons in any sort of
chemical interaction because they are so electronically stable.
For all elements most of their chemistry is about what outer electrons do or
don't!
[2], [2,8] and [2,8,8] etc. are known as the 'stable Noble Gas arrangements', and
the atoms of other elements try to attain this sort of electron structure when
reacting to become more stable.
More details on
Students
Electron configuration notes for Advanced Level Chemistry
The most reactive metals have just one outer electron.
These are the Group 1 Alkali Metals, lithium [2,1], sodium [2,8,1], potassium
[2,8,8,1]
With one outer shell electron, they have one more electron than a stable Noble Gas
electron structure.
So, they readily lose the outer electron when they chemically react to try to form (if
possible) one of the stable Noble Gas electron arrangements which is why atoms
react in the first place!
When Group 1 Alkali Metal atoms lose an electron they form a positive
ion because the positive proton number doesn't change, but with one negative
electron lost, there is a surplus of one + charge e.g.
sodium atom ==> sodium ion
Na ==> Na+
is [2.8.1] ==> [2.8] electronically
in fundamental particles [11p + 11e] ==> [11p + 10e]
IONS are atoms or group of atoms which carry an overall electrical

charge i.e. not electrically neutral.
The most reactive nonmetals are just one electron short of a full outer shell.
These are the Group 7 Halogens, namely fluorine [2,7], chlorine [2,8,7] etc.
These atoms are one electron short of a stable full outer shell and seek an 8th outer
electron to become electronically stable yet again, this is why atoms react!
They readily gain an outer electron, when they chemically react, to form one of the
stable Noble Gas electron arrangements either by sharing electrons (in a covalent
bond) or by electron transfer forming a singly charged negative ion (ionic bonding)
e.g.
chlorine atom ==> chloride ion
Cl ==> Cl
is [2.8.7] ==> [2.8.8] electronically
in fundamental particles [17p + 17e] ==> [17p + 18e]
the positive proton number of Cl doesn't change but the chloride ion carries
one extra negative electron to give the surplus charge of a single on the
ion.
EXTRA NOTE ON 'ATOMIC' NOTATION representation of isotopes of ions
Nuclide notation and ions (interpretation required for advanced level students only)
sodium24 isotope ion, 11 protons, 13 neutrons, 10 electrons (one

electron lost to form a positive ion)
sodium23 isotope ion, 11, protons, 12 neutrons, 10 electrons (one

electron lost to form a positive ion)
isotope sulfur32 in the form of the sulfide ion, 16 protons, 16 neutrons, 18

electrons (two electrons gained to form the double charged negative ion)
For more on electron structure and chemical changes and compound formation see ...
GCSE/IGCSE/AS notes on CHEMICAL BONDING
and for more on metal and nonmetal reactivity see
GCSE/IGCSE notes REACTIVITY SERIES of METALS
GCSE/IGCSE notes Group 1 ALKALI METALS
GCSE/IGCSE notes GROUP 7 HALOGENS
5. The Periodic Table and Electronic Structure more patterns!

Selected Elements of the Periodic Table are shown below with atomic number and chemical
symbol.
HOW DOES AN ELEMENT'S ELECTRON ARRANGEMENT RELATE TO ITS POSITION IN THE
PERIODIC TABLE?
The elements are laid out in order of Atomic Number that is the number of protons in the
nucleus.
It is important to realise that the 'chemical structure' of the periodic Table (shown
above), that is the chemical similarity of vertical groups 'like' elements (apart from the
Noble Gases), was known well before the electronic structure of atoms was
understood.
In other words the elements are laid out in vertical columns (groups) and horizontal
rows (periods) so that chemically (usually) VERY similar elements appear under each
other and there is a very good electronic structure reason for this!
However, it wasn't understood why they behaved in the same way chemically e.g.
similar compound formulae and reactions etc. nor was it understood at first why
Noble Gases were so unreactive towards other elements.
BUT, once the electronic structure of atoms was understood, 'electronic' theories
could then be applied to explain the chemical similarity of elements in a vertical
Group of the Periodic Table.
Originally they were laid out in order of ' relative atomic mass' (the old term was 'atomic
weight'). This is not correct for some elements now that we know their detailed atomic
structure in terms of protons, neutrons and electrons, and of course, their chemical and
physical properties.
For example: Argon (at. no. 18, electrons 2,8,8) has a relative atomic mass of 40. Potassium
(at. no. 19, electrons 2,8,8,1) has a relative atomic mass of 39. BUT Argon, in terms of its
physical, chemical and electronic properties is clearly a Noble Gas in Group 0. Likewise,
potassium is clearly an Alkali Metal in Group 1.
Hydrogen, 1, H, does not readily fit into any group

A Group is a vertical column of chemically and physically similar elements e.g.
Group 1 The Alkali Metals (Li, Na, K etc.) with one outer electron (one more than a
Noble Gas structure),
Group 7 The Halogens (F, Cl, Br, I etc.) with seven outer electrons (one short of a
Noble Gas arrangement)
and Group 0 The Noble Gases (He, Ne, Ar etc.). The group number equals the
number of electrons in the outer shell (e.g. chlorine's electron arrangement is 2.8.7,
the second element down Group 7 on period 3).
A Period is a horizontal row of elements with a variety of properties (left to right goes
from metallic to nonmetallic elements. All the elements use the same number of electron
shells which equals the period number (e.g. sodium's electron arrangement 2.8.1, the first
element in Period 3).
The ten elements Sc to Zn are called the Transition Metals Series and form part of a period
between Group 2 and Group 3 from Period 4 onwards.
Below are the electron arrangements for elements 1 to 20 set out in Periodic
Table format (Hydrogen and The Transition metals etc. have been omitted). When you move
down to the next period you start to fill in the next shell according to the maximum electrons in
a shell rule (see previous section).
NOTE: In the most modern periodic table notation Groups 37 and 0 are numbered
Group 3 to 18.
The first element in a period has one outer electron (e.g. sodium Na 2.8.1), and
the last element has a full outer shell (e.g. argon Ar 2.8.8)
Apart from hydrogen (H, 1) and helium (He, 2) the last electron number is the group
number (in the old notation) and the number of shells used is equal to the Period
number.
The periodicity of elements i.e. the repetition of very chemically similar elements in a
group is due to the repetition of a the same outer electron structure check out
the last number from element 3 onwards.
More GCSE/IGCSE notes on the Periodic Table
and the
Advanced Level Chemistry electron configurations/arrangements and the

Periodic Table
electronic explanations of chemical bondingformulae
APPENDIX 1. The history of the atom concept and the Alpha Particle Scattering Experiment
(some of the ideas described here go above GCSE/IGCSE level!)
The Greeks Leucippus and Democritus ~400 BC wondered what was the result of continually dividing
a substance i.e. what was the end product or smallest bit i.e. what was left that was indivisible the
word atomic is from Greek adjective meaning 'not divisible'.
The Greeks idea was not forgotten and later revived by Boyle and Newton but with little progress.
However in 1808 Dalton proposed his atomic theory that all matter was made up of tiny hard
particles called atoms and the different types of atoms (elements) combined together to give all the
different substances of the physical world. He also produced the first list of 'atomic weights' (we now
call relative atomic masses) on a scale based on hydrogen given the arbitrary value of 1 since it was
lightest element known, and, as it happens, correctly so.
Thompson ~1897 proposed his 'plum pudding' theory based on the growing evidence that atoms
where themselves composed of even small more fundamental particles and the mass and charge of
the proton and electron. Thompson envisaged a plumb pudding atom consisting of a positively
charged 'pudding' with just enough lighter negatively charged electrons embedded in it to produce a
neutral atom. The positive balancing the negative was correct but the relative size and nature of the
nucleus were not.
Rutherford, Geiger and Marsden (the latter two were students of Rutherford at Cambridge
University) conducted alpha particle scattering experiments (19021910, and described in detail
below). These experiments established
(i) minute nature of the nucleus even compared to the size of an atom
(ii) the nucleus was positive and the positive charge varied from element to element.
Moseley studied the Xrays emitted by highly energisedionised atoms and from the Xray spectra of
elements (the K alpha line, K) he was able to deduce the electric charge of the nucleus which we
now know is equal to the atomic number of protons in the nucleus. Moseley showed that when atoms
were bombarded with cathode rays (electrons) Xrays where produced. It was found that the square
root of the highest energy emission line (called the K alpha line, K ) gave a linear plot with the
apparent atomic number. However the plot of K against atomic weight (relative atomic mass) gave a
zigzag plot.
However, there was still the problem of why the atomic mass and atomic number where different i.e.
in the case of the lighter elements, the atomic weight was often about twice the atomic number.
In 1919 Aston developed a cathode ray tube i.e. like those used by Wien and Thompson etc. into a
'mass spectrograph', which we now know as a mass spectrometer GCSEAS atomic structure
notes. This showed that atoms of the same element had different masses but there was no
experimental evidence that they had different atomic numbers (which of course they didn't). In 1920
Rutherford suggested there might be a 'missing' neutral particle and in 1932 Chadwick discovered the
neutron by bombarding beryllium atoms with alpha particles which produced a beam of neutrons.
It was not until 1932 that the nature of the neutron was finally deduced by Chadwick and this
completely explained the nature of isotopes and backed up the ideas from Moseley's work that the
fundamentally important number that characterises an element is its atomic number and NOT the
atomic mass.
The Rutherford and GeigerMarsden scattering experiments (19021910).
When alpha particle beams are fired on very thin layers of metals (e.g. very fine gold
leaf) some rather surprising results were by scientists of the early 20th century.
By using a 360o charged particle detection system it was found that
most particles passed through undeflected (as if there was nothing there!)
a small proportion were deflected slightly (so there was something there!)
and about 1 in 20,000 were 'bounced' back through an angle of over 90 o (so
whatever was there was substantial BUT not very big!)
From a detailed mathematical analysis of the scattering results, the only 'model' which could account
for the pattern was an atom of ...
mainly empty space (why most alpha particles passed through!),
a positive centre causing deflection (like charges repel, alpha particles are positively charged and
so are being repelled by the 'later to be discovered protons'),
a tiny dense centre of similar or greater charge or mass to an alpha particle (which we now call
the nucleus),
in other words, an atom is well represented by the Bohr model of the atom diagram near the top of
this page were we started!
Earlier theories of atomic structure, e.g. the 'plum pudding' model in which 'protons' and 'electrons'
were scattered or arranged evenly across the atom, were superceded by this model.
It was the only model that could explain the scattering of the high speed alpha particles by a small
dense and positive atomic centre.
Later experiments showed that the outer bits could be knocked off atoms and these had a very tiny
mass and a negative charge, in other words the electron!
See section 2. Radioactivity Notes page on other experiments with mixed particle beams and
their separation.
http://www.docbrown.info/page04/4_71atom.htm#Allotropes
Appendix 2. Atomic structure diagrams some variations!
e.g. for the element lithium 73Li consisting of three protons and four neutrons
Appendix 3. Allotropes don't confuse with isotopes!

WHAT ARE ALLOTROPES?
As explained above, Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different masses due to
different numbers of neutrons in the nucleus. Same protons and electrons. e.g. atomic number 6
= 6 protons = carbon, but there can be 6, 7 or 8 neutrons giving isotopes of carbon12, 13 or 14.
Oxygen atoms usually form 'stable' O2 oxygen molecules (also called dioxygen), BUT they can form
an unstable molecule O3 ozone (also called trioxygen). The mass of the oxygen atoms in each of
the molecules is mainly 16 (99.8%), and about 0.2% of two other stable isotopes of masses 17 and
18. Whatever isotope or isotopes make up the molecule, it doesn't affect the molecular
structure or the respective chemistry of the O2 or O3 molecules.
However, what sometimes confuses the issue is the fact that oxygen O2 and ozone O3 are examples
of allotropes.
Allotropes are defined as different forms of the same element in the same physical state.
The different physical allotropic forms arise from different arrangements of the atoms and molecules
of the element and in the case of solids, different crystalline allotropes.
They are usually chemically similar but always physically different in some way e.g.
O2 (oxygen, dioxygen) and O3 (ozone, trioxygen) are both gases but have different densities,
boiling points etc.
Graphite, diamond and buckminsterfullerene are all solid allotropes of the element carbon and
have significantly different physical and in some ways chemical properties! (details on bonding
page)
Rhombic and monoclinic sulphur have different geometrical crystal structures, that is different
ways of packing the sulphur atoms (which are actually both made up of different packing
arrangements of S8 ring molecules). They have different solubilities and melting points. There is also
a 3rd unstable allotrope of sulfur calledplastic sulphur made by pouring boiling molten sulphur into
cold water which forms a black plastic material consisting of chains of sulphur atoms SSSS
S etc..
It doesn't matter which isotopes make up the structure of any of an element's allotropes described
above, so to summarise by one example ...
oxygen16, 17 or 18 are isotopes of oxygen with different nuclear structures due to different
numbers of neutrons,
and O2 and O3 are different molecular structures of the same element in the same physical
state and are called allotropes irrespective of the isotopes that make up the molecules.
other associated web pages

GCSE/IGCSE Foundation Atomic Structure multiple choice QUIZ
GCSE/IGCSE Higher Atomic Structure multiple choice QUIZ
GCSE/IGCSE Atomic Structure Crossword Puzzle * ANSWERS!
GCSE/IGCSE multiword gapfill worksheet on atomic structure
and definitely NOT GCSE/IGCSE pages on atomic structure
Advanced Level Chemistry notes on electronic structure - s, p, d orbitals etc.
A Level notes on electron configurations of elements & the periodic table

A Level Notes on mass spectrometers, mass spectrometry and relative atomic mass
KEYWORDSphrases for this page: allotropes * Alpha particle scattering * Atomic (proton) number *
Atom structure * Electron * Electron arrangement (examples) * Electron shell rules * ions * Isotopes *
Mass (nucleon) number * Mass spectrometer (advanced students only) * Neutron * Neutron number *
Nuclide symbol notation * Periodic Table (and electron structure) * Proton * stable/unstable electron
arrangements * mass electric charge proton neutron electron fundamental subatomic particles *1.
The Structure of Atoms three fundamental particles 2. Isotopes definition and examples 3. The
Electronic Structure of Atoms rules to be learned 4. Which electron arrangements are stable and
which are not? 5. The Periodic Table and Electronic Structure more patterns! 1. to 5. are essential
for ALL GCSE/IGCSE sciencechemistry students Appendix 1. The Alpha Particle Scattering
Experiment * 2. Atomic structure diagrams some variations! 3. Allotropes don't confuse with
isotopes! 4. The Mass Spectrometer (separate page for advanced level students!) AND Atomic
Structure Crossword Puzzle * ANSWERS! * multiword gapfill worksheet on atomic structure
GCSE/IGCSE Foundation Atomic Structure lower tier multiple choice quiz or GCSE/IGCSE Higher
Atomic Structure higher tier multiple choice quiz
Revision KS4 Science GCSE/IGCSE/O level Chemistry Information Study Notes for revising for AQA
GCSE Science, Edexcel GCSE Science/IGCSE Chemistry & OCR 21stC Science, OCR Gateway
Science WJEC gcse science chemistry CCEA/CEA gcse science chemistry (revise courses equal to
US grade 8, grade 9 grade 10) Exam Revision Tuition A Level Revision Guides for A Level Courses
Examinations Revision notes for GCE Advanced Subsidiary Level AS Advanced Level A2 IB Revise
AQA GCE Chemistry OCR GCE Chemistry Edexcel GCE Chemistry Salters Chemistry CIE
Chemistry, WJEC GCE AS A2 Chemistry, CCEA/CEA GCE AS A2 Chemistry revising courses for pre
university students (equal to US grade 11 and grade 12 and AP Honours/honors level courses) for
revising science chemistry courses revision guides
The USES and APPLICATIONS of VARIOUS CHEMICALS - elements, compounds or mixtures

Uses of selected-examples of Elements, compounds or Mixtures in alphabetical order of name
of element, compound or mixture for KS3 Science KS4 Science GCSE/IGCSE CHEMISTRY and
GCE AS A2 IB Advanced Level Chemistry (~US grades 6-10)
PAGE INTRODUCTION - PLEASE READ first! This web page consists of an ALPHABETICAL
LIST of 220 elements, compounds or mixtures with a brief description of their properties and
uses. You can quickly scroll down through them using the 'page up or page down key' or click
on the first letter index below. * Do NOT print out all of this page, it is 30-40 A4 pages long!
Chemical name beginning

with A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
This list is very much about what is around you or close by geographically. Not only are you a
complex biochemical system yourself, but much of your 'environment' in its widest cultural
and technological sense depends on chemistry and its many applications. The proof is just to
browse down this 'humble' list, which only contains a tiny fraction of the millions of different
chemical compounds that exist, both naturally and manmade whether used in the chemical
industry, the environment or a household product. Can I 'emphasise' that the 'emphasis' in
this list is how different materials have different uses without going into excessive detail and
there are lots of 'cross-links' on this page for inter-related material uses and links to more
detailed notes where available. There are no graphic images so as to reduce the download
time of this extensive and long page. Issues relating to the use of the listed materials may be
mentioned here or elsewhere on the website. I hope this alphabetical list will prove useful as a
quick brief and preliminary research resource or revision study notes for pupils/students of
KS3 science, GCSE/IGCSE/KS4 Science, GCSE/IGCSE Chemistry, GCE-AS-A2-IB Advanced
Level Chemistry and US science-chemistry K12 grades 6-12 and other equivalent courses.
SUBSTANCES in
alphabetical order
STRUCTURE and
PROPERTIES
TYPICAL EXAMPLES of USES of the

substance which you should be able you
relate to the substances structure and
properties
A uses of materials - elements, compounds and mixtures

ACETIC ACID and
VINEGAR
ACIDS
HCl,HNO3, H2SO4
CH3COOH etc.
ACRYLIC MATERIALS
See ETHANOIC ACID for More on carboxylic acids at GCSE Extra

uses.
Organic Chemistry Notes, see
also ESTERS and CARBOXYLIC ACIDS.
Compounds containing
an 'acidic' H that can be
replaced by a metal or
ammonium ion. Acids
react with metals,
oxides, hydroxides and
carbonates to form
salts. If soluble n water
give a pH < 7.
Large organic
molecules formed by
polymerising
e.g.
polymethylmethacrylate unsaturated molecules
(alkenes with the C=C
(PMMA), man-made
double carbon=carbon
organic polymers.
bond group) such as
methyl acrylate (methyl
propenoate), methyl
methylacrylate (methyl
2-methyl propenoate),
acrylonitrile
(propenenitrile), acrylic
acid (propenoic acid).
PMMA when cast in
sheets has the trade
name Perspex.
Uses of acids: Look up individual acids by

name for their uses, too many to list here.
Detailed chemistry notes on Acids, Bases,
Alkalis, pH, Neutralisation & Salts GCSE
Revision Notes.
Uses of acrylic materials: They make tough

flexible plastics or sticky resins that can
solidified in context e.g. paints, moulded
bone substitute. These resins and plastics
have a huge range of uses. Poly(methyl
acrylate) is used in emulsion form in textile
and leather finishes, lacquers, paints,
adhesives and safety glass layers (can
replace glass in many situations).
Poly(methyl methylacrylate), PMMA is a
clear plastic material (Perspex) which can
be injection moulded and extruded into a
variety of products e.g. transparent impact
resistant screens like car headlampsaircraft windows, aquarium tanks, eye
lenses, bone substitutes, signs. Acrylic
paints consist of PMMA 'resin' suspended
in water mixed with the colour pigment.
Polyacryonitrile is used to make artificial
fibres and elastomers (materials with
elastic rubbery properties) for the textile

industry.
ALCOHOLS
(compounds)
Organic compounds of
C, H and O atoms
forming a homologous
series of molecules
containing the hydroxyl
functional group -OH.
They are colourless
molecular liquids at
room temperature.
Uses of alcohols: Wide range of uses e.g.

fuels, solvents, esters, starting molecule to
make other molecules. Best to
see methanol, ethanol
('alcohol') and esters.
ALKALIS
Dissolve in water to
give alkaline solutions
of pH > 7 because the
hydroxide ion, OH-, is
formed.
Uses of alkalis: Best to look up individual

acids by name for their uses e.g. sodium
hydroxide, calcium hydroxide. Their single
biggest function is to make salts by
reaction with acids. Detailed chemistry
notes at Acids, Bases, Alkalis, pH,
Neutralisation & Salts GCSE Revision
Notes
ALKALI METALS
Group 1 elements of the Uses of alkali metals: See individual metals

periodic table. See
and their compounds e.g. sodium, sodium
alsoGCSE/IGCSE Alkali chloride etc.
Metal
Notes and Advanced
Level s-block notes
ALKALINE EARTH
METALS
Group 2 elements of the Uses of alkaline earth metals: See

periodic table.
individual metals and their compounds
e.g. calcium, calcium carbonate etc.
e.g. CH3OH, CH3CH2OH

etc.
ALKANES (compounds) Covalent saturated

hydrocarbon molecules
Homologous series of consisting of
combinations of carbon
hydrocarbon
compounds of general and hydrogen atoms.
formula CnH2n+2where n
= 1, 2, 3 etc.
Flammable, smelly
colourless gases or
liquids or white waxy
solids of little odour,
depending on the value
of n.
Uses of alkanes: Widely used as fuels from

natural gas, petrol, central heating oil,
paraffin/candle wax etc.
ALKENES (compounds) They are small

unsaturated covalent
Homologous series of hydrocarbon molecules
of carbon and hydrogen
hydrocarbon
compounds of general atoms. They have a C=C
double bond which
formula
makes them reactive.
CnH2n where n = 2, 3, 4 The first few in the
series are the most
etc.
useful and are pungent
smelling colourless
gases.
Uses of alkenes: Alkenes are not used

directly for anything BUT they are readily
converted to other very useful organic
molecules e.g. you can add water to
make ethanol, as unsaturated monomer
molecules they can be polymerised to
make useful polymer-plastic materials
called poly('alkene name') e.g. ethene
makes poly(ethene).
ALLOYS a mixture of
Uses of alloys: Huge range, need to look
Huge range of mainly
see also methane, ethane, propane, butane

and GCSE notes on Oil and its useful
products
See also ethene, propene and GCSE notes

on Oil and its useful products
metal atoms with other

metal or non-metal
atoms
solid (sometimes
liquids) mixtures of a
metal mixed with other
metals or non-metals.
They are good
conductors of
heat/electricity but can
have a wide variety of
strengths and melting
points. Metal structure
& properties notes
ALUMINIUM (aluminum, Relative low density

element)
('light'), quite strong,
high melting metal and
a good conductor of
Al atoms
heat and electricity.
See Metal structure &
properties notes and Al
is obtained from bauxite
ore, see Extraction of
Metals
up individual alloys in this list or

elsewhere. By varying the mixture you can
design an alloy material to suit a wide
range of applications and uses e.g. alloys
likesteel, brass, nitinol/NiTi,
Uses of aluminium: Used for electrical

power lines-cables (with copper),
saucepans (less so, aluminium ions are
harmful if aluminium dissolves in fruit
juices), many alloys e.g. with magnesium
to make strong light metal fabrication
products like aircraft wings, food and drink
containers and kitchen foil.
Chemical Nanoscience and Nanotechnology

The Chemical Nanoscience and Nanotechnology Group (CNN) is one of the RSC's many Interest Groups. The
Interest Groups are member driven groups which exist to benefit RSC members, and the wider chemical science
community, in line with the RSC's strategy and charter.
Scope
The evolution of chemical nanotechnology has brought chemists working in close collaboration with other
scientific and engineering disciplines, physics and biochemistry, as well as with materials scientists and
industrialists. In order for this area of chemistry to progress rapidly it is crucial that these diverse specialists
understand the requirements of each other and work together efficiently.
The scope of the group includes:
The fabrication and utilisation of:

novel nanostructured materials.
novel nanoparticle materials including metal, oxide and other inorganic systems.
carbon and inorganic nanotubes and fullerenes and their utilisation in technological
processes.
o
novel nanostructures using bottom-up self-assembly processes.
o
novel nanostructured surfaces,
o
novel quantum dots in technological processes.
o
novel biologically relevant nanostructures.
The development of top-down lithographic processes and materials to fabricate nanostructured
surfaces.
The integration of bottom-up self-assembly processes with top-down lithographic processes to create
three dimensional functioning and adaptive nanostructures.
Investigation of the property-size relationship at the nanoscale.
Health, safety and environmental implications of chemical nanoscience and nanotechnology.
o
o
o
Get Involved
We are always looking for new members who are keen to get involved and to help organise our activities. If you
would like to find out more please contact the Secretary.
Chemical Nanoscience and Nanotechnology Group - IYC Challenge

Postgraduate Symposium on Nanotechnology
Join this Interest Group

If you are a member of the Royal Society of Chemistry and would like to join an Interest Group, please contact
Membership Department using the email link below with:
your name
your membership number
state the name of the group you wish to join
Free membership of 3 Interest Groups is now included in the cost of RSC membership.
Nanoscience Concentration
Nanoscience as a discipline builds upon basic principles of physics, chemistry, and other fields to understand
what happens when systems are shrunk to the scale of a nanometer. A nanometer is a billionth of a meter, which
is about the size of six carbon atoms in a row.
Areas where nanotechnology principles are being applied include microelectronics fabrications, chemical and
biological sensors, solar cells and fibrous devices for filtration and separations. And it's expected that advances in
nanoscience will lead to new "nanoapplications" in medicine, food, energy, air and water purification, and
consumer goods.
The Chemical Engineering Nanoscience Concentration introduces students to the basic tenets of
nanoscience and nanotechnology. These include materials science, polymers, and quantum mechanics, and how
they impact chemical systems and their function at the nano scale. This background prepares graduates to work
in areas where nanotechnologies are important.
CH 437, Physical Chemical for Engineers, and MSE 201, Structure and Properties of Engineering
Materials, are fundamentals courses in the concentration which give students a broad understanding of
chemistry and materials science principles associated with quantum chemical phenomena. Students also choose
two Nanoscience electives from a wide range of topics, including electronic materials, polymer structure and
physics, and colloid science.
What is Nanotechnology?
Nanotechnology is science, engineering, and technology conducted at the nanoscale, which is about
1 to 100 nanometers.
Nanoscience and nanotechnology are the study and
application of extremely small things and can be
used across all the other science fields, such as
chemistry, biology, physics, materials science, and
engineering.
How it Started
The ideas and concepts behind nanoscience and
nanotechnology started with a talk entitled Theres
Plenty of Room at the Bottom by physicist
Richard Feynman at an American Physical Society
meeting at the California Institute of Technology
(CalTech) on December 29, 1959, long before the
term nanotechnology
was used. In his talk,
Feynman described a
Physicist Richard Feynman, the father of
process in which
nanotechnology.
scientists would be
able to manipulate and
control individual atoms and molecules. Over a decade later, in his
explorations of ultraprecision machining, Professor Norio Taniguchi
coined the term nanotechnology. It wasn't until 1981, with the
development of the scanning tunneling microscope that could "see"
individual atoms, that modern nanotechnology began.
Fundamental Concepts in
Nanoscience and Nanotechnology
Its hard to imagine just how small nanotechnology is. One
nanometer is a billionth of a meter, or 10-9 of a meter. Here are a few
illustrative examples:
There are 25,400,000 nanometers in an inch
A sheet of newspaper is about 100,000 nanometers

thick
On a comparative scale, if a marble were a nanometer,

then one meter would be the size of the Earth
Medieval stained glass

windows are an
example of how
nanotechnology was
used in the pre-modern
era. (Courtesy:
NanoBioNet)
Nanoscience and nanotechnology involve the ability to see and to control individual atoms and
molecules. Everything on Earth is made up of atomsthe food we eat, the clothes we wear, the
buildings and houses we live in, and our own bodies.
But something as small as an atom is impossible to see with the naked eye. In fact, its impossible to
see with the microscopes typically used in a high school science classes. The microscopes needed to
see things at the nanoscale were invented relatively recentlyabout 30 years ago.
Once scientists had the right tools, such as the scanning tunneling microscope (STM) and the atomic
force microscope (AFM), the age of nanotechnology was born.
Although modern nanoscience and nanotechnology are quite new, nanoscale materials were used for
centuries. Alternate-sized gold and silver particles created colors in the stained glass windows of
medieval churches hundreds of years ago. The artists back then just didnt know that the process they
used to create these beautiful works of art actually led to changes in the composition of the materials
they were working with.
Today's scientists and engineers are finding a wide variety of ways to deliberately make materials at
the nanoscale to take advantage of their enhanced properties such as higher strength, lighter
weight, increased control of light spectrum, and greater chemical reactivity than their larger-scale
counterparts.
MSc in Nanoscience and Technology

Do you want to be a pioneer?
The Master of Science (MSc) programme in Nanoscience and Technology is an

interdisciplinary and research-based programme with a focus on theoretical,
experimental and practical subjects. The programme enables the student to understand
and apply nanoscience and nanotechnology concepts and methods and provides the
student with a basic knowledge of business innovation and entrepreneurship. The
candidate in nanoscience and technology has an eye for new and non-traditional
applications of scientific techniques and methods.
The partners behind the MSc programme have active research environments in various
nanoscience fields ranging from condensed matter physics, nano physics, surface
analysis, quantum mechanics, soft matter physics, materials chemistry, physical
chemistry, nano chemistry, organic chemistry, synthesis, molecular self-organisation,
nanomaterials of nanoelectronics, photophysics and photochemistry.
Your future career

The MSc in Nanoscience and Technology will provide you with academic competences
that allows you to work in multiple fields, including:
Electronics
Energy
Medicine
Food
Biotechnology
Materials Science
Chemistry
Research
You apply through the University of Copenhagen. See full description of MSc
programme at the University of Copenhagen's homepage, the leading Danish
University on this programme.
CHEMICAL BONDING Part 4 Covalent Bonding - giant covalent structures and polymers
Doc Brown's Science-Chemistry Chemical Bonding GCSE/IGCSE/O/AS/A2 Level Revision
Notes
DIAGRAMS of GIANT COVALENT STRUCTURES and their PROPERTIES EXPLAINED - This
section describes how covalent bonds can lead to large linear ('1D') e.g. thermoplastic
polymer macromolecules, two dimensional ('2D') structures like graphite layers and three
dimensional ('3D') giant covalent structured molecules like diamond, silica and thermosetting
plastics. The physical properties of these structures are described and explained using
models of their molecular structure.
Part 1 Introduction - why do atoms bond together? (I suggest you read 1st)
Part 2 Ionic Bonding - compounds and properties
Part 3 Covalent Bonding - small simple molecules and properties
Part 4 Covalent Bonding - macromolecules and giant covalent structures (this page)
Part 5 Metallic Bonding - structure and properties of metals
Part 6 More advanced concepts for advanced level chemistry (in preparation, BUT a lot
on intermolecular forces in Equilibria Part 8)
SEE ALSO
General introduction to nanoscience and commonly used terms explained
NANOCHEMISTRY - an introduction and potential applications
NANOCHEMISTRY including fullerenes and CARBON NANOTUBES
SMART MATERIALS SCIENCE (alphabetical index at top of page)
Part 4. COVALENT BONDING - macromolecules & giant covalent structures

giant network bonding - giant molecules e.g. carbon C-diamond/graphite, silicon Si/silica SiO 2
properties of giant covalent structures * polymers/plastics * properties of polymers
carbon (diamond), carbon (graphite), carbon (buckminsterfullerene/fullerenes), silica/silicon
dioxide SiO2
BIG!
4. Large Covalent Molecules and their Properties

macromolecules - giant covalent networks and polymers
What is the bonding, structure and properties of the carbon allotropes diamond, graphite &
buckminsterfullerenes (fullerenes), silica (silicon dioxide), thermosets, thermoplastics?
Because covalent bonds act in a particular direction i.e. along the 'line' between the two nuclei
of the atoms bonded together in an individual bond, strong structures can be formed,
especially if the covalent bonds are arranged in a strong three dimensional giant covalent
lattice.
Its a good idea to have some idea of where the elements are in the periodic table
The black zig-zag

line 'roughly'
divides the
metals on the left
from the nonmetals on the
right of the
elements of the
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The structure of the three allotropes of carbon (diamond, graphite

and fullerenes), silicon and silicon dioxide (silica)
It is possible for many atoms to link up to form a giant covalent

structure or lattice. The atoms are usually non-metals.
This produces a very strong 3-dimensional covalent bond

network or lattice which gives the structure great thermal
stability e.g.very high melting point and often great physical
strength.
This gives them significantly different properties from the

small simple covalent molecules mentioned above.
This is illustrated by carbon in the form of

diamond (an allotrope of carbon). Carbon has four outer
electrons that form four single bonds, so each carbon bonds to
four others by electron pairing/sharing. Pure silicon, another
element in Group 4, has a similar structure.
o NOTE: Allotropes are different forms of the same

element in the same physical state. They occur due to
different bonding arrangements and
so diamond, graphite (below) and fullerenes (below)
are the three solid allotropes of the element carbon.
Oxygen (dioxygen), O2, and ozone (trioxygen),

O3, are the two small gaseous allotrope
molecules of the element oxygen.
Sulphur has three solid allotropes, two different

crystalline forms based on small S8 molecules
called rhombic and monoclinic sulphur and a 3rd
form of long chain ( -S-S-S- etc.) molecules
called plastic sulphur.
TYPICAL PROPERTIES of GIANT COVALENT STRUCTURES
This type of giant covalent structure is thermally very stable and

has a very high melting and boiling points because of the
strong covalent bond network (3D or 2D in the case
of graphite below).
A relatively large amount of energy is needed to melt or boil giant

covalent structures because strong chemical bonds must be
broken (and not just weakening intermolecular forces as in the
case of small covalent molecules like water).
o Energy changes for the physical changes of state of

melting and boiling for a range of differently bonded
substances are compared in a section of the Energetics
DIAGRAMS
DIAMOND
SILICA
silicon dioxide
Notes.
They are usually poor conductors of electricity because the

electrons are not usually free to move as they are in metallic
structures.
Also because of the strength of the bonding in all directions in the

structure, they are often very hard, strong and will not
dissolve in solvents like water. The bonding network is too strong
to allow the atoms to become surrounded by solvent molecules
Silicon dioxide (silica, SiO2) has a similar 3D structure and

properties to carbon (diamond) shown below.
DIAMOND
o The hardness of carbon in the form of diamond

enables it to be used as the 'leading edge' on cutting
tools, the hardness is derived from the very strong
rigid three-dimensional carbon-carbon bond network.
o Diamond also has a very high melting point because

of this very strong giant covalent lattice in which every
carbon atom is strongly bonded to four other carbon
atoms (see diagram above on right).
o The strong bond network in diamond (and graphite

and silica) prevents these materials from dissolving
in any conventional solvent.
o Energy changes for the physical changes of state of

melting and boiling for a range of differently bonded
substances is given in a section of the Energetics
Notes.
SILICON DIOXIDE (SILICA)
o Many naturally occurring minerals are based on -O-XO- linked 3D structures where X is often silicon (Si)
and aluminium (Al), three of the most abundant
elements in the earth's crust.
o Silicon dioxide ('silica') is found as quartz in granite

(igneous rock) and is the main component in sandstone which is a sedimentary rock formed the compressed
erosion products of igneous rocks.
Looking at the diagram on the right, each silicon

atom (black blobs) forms four strong covalent
bonds with the linking oxygen atoms (yellow
blobs).
o Silica (SiO2) is a very hard substance with a very high

melting point and won't dissolve in any solvent.
o Many some minerals that are hard wearing, rare and

attractive when polished, hold great value
as gemstones, but sand is also mainly silica, but not
quite as valuable!
GRAPHITE
GRAPHITE
o Carbon also occurs in the form of graphite. The

carbon atoms form joined hexagonal rings forming layers
1 atom thick.
o There are three strong covalent bonds per carbon (3

C-C bonds in a planar arrangement from 3 of its 4 outer
electrons), BUT, the fourth outer electron is 'delocalised'
or shared between the carbon atoms to form the
equivalent of a 4th bond per carbon atom (this situation
requires advanced level concepts to fully explain, and this
bonding situation also occurs in fullerenes described
below, and in aromatic compounds you deal with at
advanced level).
o The layers are only held together by weak

intermolecular forces shown by the dotted lines NOT by
strong covalent bonds, so graphite, for a giant covalent
structure, is unusually physically weak.
o Like diamond and silica (above) the large molecules of

the layer ensure graphite has typically very high
melting point because of the strong 2D bonding
network (note: NOT 3D network)..
o Graphite will not dissolve in solvents because of the

strong bonding
o BUT there are two crucial differences compared to

diamond ...
Electrons, from the 'shared bond', can move

freely through each layer, so graphite is a
conductor like a metal(diamond is an electrical
insulator and a poor heat conductor). Graphite is
used in electrical contacts e.g. electrodes in
electrolysis.
The weak forces enable the layers to slip over

each other so where as diamond is hard
material graphite is a 'soft' crystal, it feels
slippery.
This enables graphite to be used as a

lubricant.
Carbon in the form of graphite is the only

non-metal that is a significant electrical
conductor.
o These two different characteristics described above are

put to a common use with the electrical contacts in
electric motors and dynamos. These contacts (called
brushes) are made of graphite sprung onto the spinning
brass contacts of the armature. The graphite brushes
provide good electrical contact and are self-lubricating as
the carbon layers slide over each other.
A 3rd form of carbon are fullerenes or 'bucky balls'! It consists

of hexagonal rings like graphite and alternating pentagonal rings
to allow curvature of the surface.
Buckminster Fullerene C60 is shown and the bonds form a

pattern like a soccer ball. Others are oval shaped like a rugby
ball. It is a black solid insoluble in water.
They are NOT considered giant covalent structures and are

classed as simple molecules. They do dissolve in organic
solvents giving coloured solutions (e.g. deep red in petrol
hydrocarbons, and although solid, their melting points are not that
high.
They are mentioned here to illustrate the different forms of

carbon AND they can be made into continuous tubes to form
very strong fibres of 'pipe like' molecules called 'nanotubes'.
These 'molecular size' particles behave quite differently to a bulk
carbon material like graphite.
Uses of Nanotubes - carbon nanotechnology - examples

of nanochemistry
o They can be used as semiconductors in electrical

circuits.
o They act as a component of industrial catalysts for

certain reactions whose economic efficiency is of great
importance (time = money in business!).
The catalyst can be attached to the nanotubes

which have a huge surface are per mass of
catalyst 'bed'.
They large surface combined with the catalyst

ensure two rates of reaction factors work in
FULLERENES
harmony to increase the speed of an industrial

reaction so making the process more efficient
and more economic.
o Nanotube fibres are very strong and so they are used in

'composite materials' e.g. reinforcing graphite in carbon
fibre tennis rackets.
o Nanotubes can 'cage' other molecules and can be used

as a means of delivering drugs in controlled way to the
body because the thin carbon nanotubes can penetrate
cell walls.
I've written NEW pages with more examples and details on
o General introduction to nanoscience and commonly

used terms explained
o NANOCHEMISTRY - an introduction and potential

applications
o NANOCHEMISTRY including fullerenes and CARBON

NANOTUBES
o SMART MATERIALS SCIENCE (alphabetical index at

top of page)
Size of the Nanoscale

Just how small is nano? In the International System of Units, the prefix "nano" means one-billionth,
or 10-9; therefore one nanometer is one-billionth of a meter. Its difficult to imagine just how small that
is, so here are some examples:
A sheet of paper is about 100,000 nanometers thick
A strand of human DNA is 2.5 nanometers in diameter
There are 25,400,000 nanometers in one inch
A human hair is approximately 80,000- 100,000 nanometers wide
A single gold atom is about a third of a nanometer in diameter
On a comparative scale, if the diameter of a marble was one nanometer, then

diameter of the Earth would be about one meter
One nanometer is about as long as your fingernail grows in one second
The illustration below has three visual examples of the size and the scale of nanotechnology, showing
just how small things at the nanoscale actually are.
The Scale of Things
THE FUTURE IS NANO!

Nanoscience Physics and Chemistry of Advanced Materials (N-PCAM) is a four-year degree programme,
run jointly by the Schools of Chemistry and Physics at Trinity College Dublin. Students will gain a deep
and lasting understanding of the science of advanced materials that underpins the nano revolution.
Some laboratory training is provided in CRANN, the leading institute for nanoscience in Ireland
(www.crann.tcd.ie).
Nanotechnology is being used to develop smaller and more powerful electronic devices, lasers, medical
diagnostics and materials with completely new properties. This degree programme will equip students to
work across a diverse range of industries that employ nanotechnology. The course provides a solid
foundation in Chemistry, Physics and Mathematics for the first two years and specialises in nanoscience
for the final two years.
WHY STUDY NANOSCIENCE?

Nanoscience and materials science are where physics and chemistry meet for the benefit of mankind. Do
you want to participate in these scientific endeavours?
Find out about our course from these video testimonials (to the left), from our brochure (below), and
more detailed information in the rest of our website (see menu).
- Course Director: Cormac McGuinness
http://iopscience.iop.org/2043-6262/2/4/049301
Introductory Nanoscience: Physical and Chemical Concepts
BOOK REVIEW
Having grown rapidly during the last two decades, and successfully
synthesized the achievements of physics, chemistry, life science as
well as information and computational science and technology,
nanoscience and nanotechnology have emerged as interdisciplinary
fields of modern science and technology with various prospective
applications towards environmental protection and the sustainable
development of industry, agriculture, public health etc. At the present
time, there exist many textbooks, monographs and encyclopedias on
nanoscience and nanotechnology. They present to readers the whole
process of development from the emergence of new scientific ideas to
comprehensive studies of concrete subjects. They are useful for
experienced scientists in nanoscience and nanotechnology as well as
related scientific disciplines. However, there are very few textbooks on
nanoscience and nanotechnology for beginnerssenior
undergraduate and junior graduate students. Published by Garland
Science in August 2011, Introductory Nanoscience: Physical and
Chemical Concepts by Masaru Kuno is one of these rare textbooks.
The purpose of this book is twofold. In a pedagogical manner the
author presents the basic physical and chemical concepts of
nanoscience and nanotechnology. Students with a background
knowledge in general chemistry and semiclassical quantum physics
can easily understand these concepts. On the other hand, by carefully
studying the content of this textbook, readers can learn how to derive
a large number of formulae and expressions which they will often use
in their study as well as in their future research work. A distinguishing
feature of the book is the inclusion of a large number of thought
problems at the end of each chapter for demonstrating how to
calculate the numerical values of almost all physical quantities
involved in the theoretical and experimental studies of all subjects of
nanoscience and nanotechnology. The author has successfully
achieved both of the main aims of the textbook.
The book consists of 15 chapters. According to their detailed contents
they can be divided into three groups. In five chapters forming the first
group (Introduction, Structure, Length Scales, Types of
Nanostructures, Absorption and Emission Basics) the author presents

the notions, definitions and concepts related to nanosystems, as well
as the length scales of all their physical parameters. The contents of
these chapters have been written for all readers studying any
undergraduate academic programme in natural sciences and
engineering. The subsequent seven chapters forming the second
group (A Quantum Mechanics Review, Model Quantum Mechanics
Problems, Additional Model Problems, Density of States, Bands,
Time-Dependent Perturbation Theory, Interband Transitions) contain a
comprehensive and easily understandable presentation of the
theoretical basics of nanoscience. The last three chapters (Synthesis,
Characterization, Applications) contain presentations on the
fundamental methods in the experimental studies and applications of
nanosystems.
This book is very useful not only for training beginners in research and
engineering in nanoscience and nanotechnology, but also for
attracting the interest of specialists in other scientific disciplines to the
application of the achievements of this new emerging multidisciplinary
scientific field.
Seeing at nano scale

How do scientists see whats going on in the extremely small world of nanotechnology? The
microscopes that are typically used in high school and college wont do the job. Nanoscientists use
high-powered microscopes that use unique methods to allow them to see the surface features on the
atomic scale, effectively opening the door to modern nanotechnology.
Beginning as early at the 1930s, scientists were able to see at the nanoscale using instruments such
as the scanning electron microscope, the transmission electron microscope, and the field ion
microscope. The most recent and notable developments in microscopy are the scanning tunneling
microscope and the atomic force microscope.
The electron microscope, first developed by German engineers Ernst Ruska and Max Knoll in the
1930s, uses a particle beam of electrons to illuminate a specimen and create a highly magnified
image. Electron microscopes yield much greater resolution than the older light microscopes; they can
obtain magnifications of up to 1 million times, while the best light microscopes can magnify an image
only about 1,500 times.
The scanning tunneling microscope (STM) is among a
number of instruments that allows scientists to view and
manipulate nanoscale particles, atoms, and small
molecules. Its development earned its inventors, Gerd
Binig and Heinrich Rohrer, the Nobel Prize in Physics in
1986.
Atomic force
microscopes
(AFMs) gather
information by "feeling" the surface with a mechanical probe.
Gerd Binig, along with Calvin Quate and Christoph Gerber,
developed the first AFM in 1986.
These microscopes make use of tiny but exact movements to
enable precise mechanical scanning.
Atomic Force Microscope
Additional Microscopy Information

The Nobel Prize webpage on microscopy has information on different types of microscopes, how
they help scientists explore hidden worlds, and a microscopy timeline. Other resources include:
Molecular ExpressionsScience, Optics and You, Florida State University
Nanoworld Center for Microscopy and Microanalysis, University of Queensland,

Australia
Boston Museum of Science, Scanning Electron Microscopes and other microscope

resources
Scanning Probe Microscope (SPM) Animation Gallery from Nanoscience

Instruments
Working at nano scale

Nanotechnology is more than just mixing nanoscale
materials together; it requires the ability to
understand and to precisely manipulate and control
those materials in a useful way.
Nanotechnology involves a new and broad
science where diverse fields such as physics,
chemistry, biology, materials science, and
Computer simulation of hemoglobin, a
engineering converge at the nanoscale.
It is also important to understand that nanoscale
naturally occuring nanoscale protein that
materials are found in nature. For instance,
is found in blood.
hemoglobin, the oxygen-transporting protein found in
(Image: Centers for Disease Control)
red blood cells, is 5.5 nanometers in diameter.
Naturally occuring nanomaterials exist all around us, such as in smoke from fire, volcanic ash, and
sea spray. Some nanomaterials are a byproduct of human activity, such as bus and automobile
exhaust and welding fumes.
You may recall from the Size of the Nanoscale page that the nanoscale is about 1 to 100
nanometers. Working at the nanoscale requires an understanding of the various types and
dimensions of nanoscale materials. Different types of nanomaterials are named for their individual
shapes and dimensions. Think of these simply as particles, tubes, wires, films, flakes, or shells that
have one or more nanometer-sized dimension. For example, carbon nanotubes have a diameter
in the nanoscale, but can be several hundred nanometers long or even longer. Nanofilms or
nanoplates have a thickness in the nanoscale, but their other two dimensions can be much larger.
The key is to be able to both see and manipulate nanomaterials in order to take advantage of
their special properties. As mentioned earlier, the invention of special microscopes gave scientists the
ability to work at the nanoscale. The first of these new discoveries was the scanning tunneling
microscope. While its mainly designed to measure objects, it can also move tiny objects such as
carbon nanotubes.
The earliest example of this
type of process was
accomplished by IBM on
IBM logo written with 35 xenon atoms on a copper substrate.
November 11, 1989, when
(Image courtesy: IBM)
researcher Don Eigler and
colleagues spelled the company logo in atoms. He and his
team were able to literally move 35 xenon atoms on a
background of copper atoms to spell out IBM.
More recently a team of Stanford University researchers led
by Hari Manoharan were able to encode 35 bits of
information per electron and write letters so small they are
composed of subatomic bits of matter only 0.3 nanometers
wide, or roughly one third of a billionth of a meter. In other
words, they beat the record set by IBM, writing Stanfords
initials in letters smaller than atoms. These exercises
demonstrated the precision with which it is possible to
manipulate matter.
Today, research scientists in universities and companies
Artist's rendering of "SU" written in
around the world aremanufacturing nanomaterials to
letters smaller than individual atoms.
make new products and applications, from medical devices
(Image courtesy: Stanford University)
and drugs that may treat disease, to strong and lightweight materials that reduce fuel costs for cars
and planes. For more information about these discoveries and inventions, see Benefits and
Applications here on the Nano.gov website.
Manufacturing at the nanoscale is known

as nanomanufacturing.
Nanomanufacturing involves scaled-up,
reliable, and cost-effective manufacturing of
nanoscale materials, structures, devices,
and systems. It also includes research,
development, and integration of top-down
processes and increasingly complex
bottom-up or self-assembly processes.
In more simple terms, nanomanufacturing
leads to the production of improved
materials and new products. As mentioned
above, there are two basic approaches to
nanomanufacturing, either topdownor bottom-up. Top-down
fabrication reduces large pieces of materials
all the way down to the nanoscale, like
someone carving a model airplane out of a
block of wood. This approach requires
larger amounts of materials and can lead to
waste if excess material is discarded. The
bottom-up approach to nanomanufacturing
creates products by building them up from
atomic- and molecular-scale components,
which can be time-consuming. Scientists
are exploring the concept of placing certain
molecular-scale components together that
will spontaneously self-assemble, from the
bottom up into ordered structures.
Within the top-down and bottom-up
catagories of nanomanufacturing, there are
a growing number of new processes that
enable nanomanufacturing. Among these
are:
Chemical vapor deposition is a

process in which chemicals react to
produce very pure, highperformance films
Molecular beam epitaxy is one
method for depositing highly
controlled thin films
Atomic layer epitaxy is a
process for depositing one-atomthick layers on a surface
Dip pen lithography is a
process in which the tip of an
atomic force microscope is
A product of nanomanufacturing: A 16 gauge wire

(above), approximately 1.3 millimeters in
diameter, made from carbon nanotubes that were
spun into thread. And the same wire on a 150 ply
spool (below.) Courtesy of Nanocomp.
"dipped" into a chemical fluid and then used to "write" on a surface, like an old
fashioned ink pen onto paper
Nanoimprint lithography is a process for creating nanoscale features by

"stamping" or "printing" them onto a surface
Roll-to-roll processing is a high-volume process to produce nanoscale devices on a

roll of ultrathin plastic or metal
Self-assembly describes the process in which a group of components come

together to form an ordered structure without outside direction
Structures and properties of materials can be improved through these nanomanufacturing processes.
Such nanomaterials can be stronger, lighter, more durable, water-repellent, anti-reflective, selfcleaning, ultraviolet- or infrared-resistant, antifog, antimicrobial, scratch-resistant, or electrically
conductive, among other traits. Taking advantage of these properties, today's nanotechnologyenabled products range from baseball bats and tennis rackets to catalysts for refining crude oil and
ultrasensitive detection and identification of biological and chemical toxins.
Nanoscale transistors
may someday lead to
computers that are faster,
more powerful, and more
energy efficient than
those used today.
Nanotechnology also
holds the potential to
exponentially increase
information storage
capacity; soon your
computers entire
memory will be able to be
stored on a single tiny
chip. In the energy arena,
nanotechnology will
enable high-efficiency,
low-cost batteries and
solar cells.
For more products and
applications that use
nanotechnology,
see Benefits &
Applications or browse
our database of the
NNI's Major
Achievements in
Nanotechnology.
Nanotechnology R&D,
A high resolution image of a graphene transistor with a sheet of carbon and the eventual
only one atom thick. This high speed electronic device was created using nanomanufacturing of
products, requires
nanoscale processes, and may one day be used for better computer
advanced and often very
chips. (Courtesy of James Yardley, Columbia University Nanocenter, an
expensive equipment and
NNI-sponsored NSEC)
facilities. In order to
realize the potential of nanotechnology, NNI agencies are investing heavily in nanomanufacturing
R&D and infrastructure. Over 90 NNI-funded centers and user facilities across the country provide
researchers the facilities, equipment, and trained staff to develop nanotechnology applications and
associated manufacturing processes.
The NNI helps drive the nanomanufacturing field by providing researchers and small businesses with
access to this specialized equipment in order to maintain global U.S. competitiveness. To assist in
agency coordination in the area of nanomanufacturing, the Nanoscale Science, Engineering, and
Technology (NSET) Subcommittee created theNanomanufacturing, Industry Liaison, &
Innovation (NILI) Working Group.
The Presidents FY 2014 Budget provides nearly $1.7 billion for the National Nanotechnology
Initiative, including an estimated $100 million for nanomanufacturing.
The National Nanomanufacturing Network (NNN) is an alliance of academic, government and
industry partners that cooperate to advance nanomanufacturing strength in the U.S. The NNI and its
member agencies actively participate in, support, and contribute to the NNN in its mission to advance
nanomanufacturing.
The NNN functions as part electronic resource, part community of practice, and part network of
experts working on the development of nanomanufacturing. The NNN fosters technology transition
and exchange through a host of activities including reviews and archiving of emerging materials,
processes, and areas of practice, strategic workshops and roadmap development. InterNano is the
information arm of the NNNa digital library resource of timely information on nanomanufacturing
and a platform for collaboration, providing information archiving in areas of processes and tools,
standards, reports, events, and environmental health and safety databases.
Whats Nanoscale particles are not new in either nature or science.

However, the recent leaps in areas such as microscopy have given scientists new tools to
understand and take advantage of phenomena that occur naturally when matter is
organized at the nanoscale. In essence, these phenomena are based on quantum
effects and other simple physical effects such as expanded surface area (more on these
below). In addition, the fact that a majority of biological processes occur at the nanoscale
gives scientists models and templates to
imagine and construct new processes that
can enhance their work in medicine,
imaging, computing, printing, chemical
catalysis, materials synthesis, and many
other fields. Nanotechnology is not simply
working at ever smaller dimensions; rather,
working at the nanoscale enables scientists
to utilize the unique physical, chemical,
mechanical, and optical properties of
materials that naturally occur at that scale.
When particle sizes of solid matter in the

visible scale are compared to what can be
seen in a regular optical microscope, there
is little difference in the properties of the
particles. But when particles are created
with dimensions of about 1100
nanometers (where the particles can be
seen only with powerful specialized
Computer simulation of electron motions
microscopes), the materials properties
change significantly from those at larger
within a nanowire that has a diameter in
scales. This is the size scale where sothe nanoscale range.
called quantum effects rule the behavior
and properties of particles. Properties of
materials are size-dependent in this scale range. Thus, when particle size is made to be
nanoscale, properties such as melting point, fluorescence, electrical conductivity,
magnetic permeability, and chemical reactivity change as a function of the size of the
particle.
Nanoscale gold illustrates the unique properties that occur at the nanoscale. Nanoscale
gold particles are not the yellow color with which we are familiar; nanoscale gold can
appear red or purple. At the nanoscale, the motion of the golds electrons is confined.
Because this movement is restricted, gold nanoparticles react differently with light
compared to larger-scale gold particles. Their size and optical properties can be put to
practical use: nanoscale gold particles selectively accumulate in tumors, where they can
enable both precise imaging and targeted laser destruction of the tumor by means that
avoid harming healthy cells.
A fascinating and powerful result of the quantum effects of the nanoscale is the concept
of tunability of properties. That is, by changing the size of the particle, a scientist can
literally fine-tune a material property of interest (e.g., changing fluorescence color; in
turn, the fluorescence color of a particle can be used to identify the particle, and various
materials can be labeled with fluorescent markers for various purposes). Another
potent quantum effect of the nanoscale is known astunneling, which is a phenomenon
that enables the scanning tunneling microscope and flash memory for computing.
Over millennia, nature has perfected the art of biology at the nanoscale. Many of the
inner workings of cells naturally occur at the nanoscale. For example, hemoglobin, the
protein that carries oxygen through the body, is 5.5 nanometers in diameter. A strand of
DNA, one of the building blocks of human life, is only about 2 nanometers in diameter.
Drawing on the natural nanoscale of biology, many medical researchers are working on
designing tools, treatments, and therapies that are more precise and personalized than
conventional onesand that can be applied earlier in the course of a disease and lead to
fewer adverse side-effects. One medical example of nanotechnology is the bio-barcode
assay, a relatively low-cost method of detecting disease-specific biomarkers in the blood,
even when there are very few of them in a sample. The basic process, which attaches
recognition particles and DNA amplifiers to gold nanoparticles, was originally
demonstrated at Northwestern University for a prostate cancer biomarker following
prostatectomy. The bio-barcode assay has proven to be considerably more sensitive than
conventional assays for the same target biomarkers, and it can be adapted to detect
almost any molecular target.i
Growing understanding of nanoscale biomolecular structures is impacting other fields
than medicine. Some scientists are looking at ways to use nanoscale biological principles
of molecular self-assembly, self-organization, and quantum mechanics to create novel
computing platforms. Other researchers have discovered that in photosynthesis, the
energy that plants harvest from sunlight is nearly instantly transferred to plant reaction
centers by quantum mechanical processes with nearly 100% efficiency (little energy
wasted as heat). They are investigating photosynthesis as a model for green energy
nanosystems for inexpensive production and storage of nonpolluting solar power. ii
Nanoscale materials have far larger surface areas than similar masses of larger-scale
materials. As surface area per mass of a material increases, a greater amount of the
material can come into contact with surrounding materials, thus affecting reactivity.
A simple thought experiment shows why nanoparticles have phenomenally high surface
areas. A solid cube of a material 1 cm on a side has 6 square centimeters of surface area,
about equal to one side of half a stick of gum. But if that volume of 1 cubic centimeter
were filled with cubes 1 mm on a side, that would be 1,000 millimeter-sized cubes (10 x
10 x 10), each one of which has a surface area of 6 square millimeters, for a total surface
area of 60 square centimetersabout the same as one side of two-thirds of a 3 x 5
note card. When the 1 cubic centimeter is filled with micrometer-sized cubesa trillion
(1012) of them, each with a surface area of 6 square micrometersthe total surface area
amounts to 6 square meters, or about the area of the main bathroom in an average
house. And when that single cubic centimeter of volume is filled with 1-nanometer-sized
cubes1021 of them, each with an area of 6 square nanometerstheir total surface area
comes to 6,000 square meters. In other words, a single cubic centimeter of cubic
nanoparticles has a total surface area one-third larger than a football field!
Illustration demonstrating the effect of the increased surface area provided by

nanostructured materials
One benefit of greater surface areaand improved reactivityin nanostructured

materials is that they have helped create better catalysts. As a result, catalysis by
engineered nanostructured materials already impacts about one-third of the huge U.S.
and globalcatalyst markets, affecting billions of dollars of revenue in the oil and
chemical industries.iii An everyday example of catalysis is the catalytic converter in a car,
which reduces the toxicity of the engines fumes. Nanoengineered batteries, fuel cells,
and catalysts can potentially use enhanced reactivity at the nanoscale to produce
cleaner, safer, and more affordable modes of producing and storing energy.
Large surface area also makes nanostructured membranes and materials ideal
candidates for water treatment and desalination (e.g., see Self-Assembled,
Nanostructured Carbon for Energy Storage and Water Treatment in our database,Major
Achievements in Nano), among other uses. It also helps support functionalization of
nanoscale material surfaces (adding particles for specific purposes), for applications
ranging from drug delivery to clothing insulation.
_____________________________
i For example, see C.S. Thaxton, R. Elghanian, A.D. Thomas, S.I. Stoeva, J.S. Lee, N.D.
Smith, A.J. Schaeffer, H. Klocker, W. Horninger, G. Bartsch, and C.A. Mirkin. Nanoparticlebased bio-barcode assay redefines undetectable PSA and biochemical recurrence after
radical prostatectomy. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 106(44):1843718442, 2009,
doi:10.1073/pnas.0904719106.
ii For more detail, see http://newscenter.lbl.gov/feature-stories/2010/05/10/untanglingquantum-entanglement/ and associated links.
iii As of 2003, catalyst technologies accounted for over $1 trillion of revenue in the U.S.
economy and about a third of the material GDP (M.E. Davis and D. Tilley, Future
Directions in Catalysis Research, Structures that Function on the Nanoscale, NSF
Workshop, Caltech, June 19-20,
2003; http://www.che.caltech.edu/nsfcatworkshop/#Reports).
Nanoscale particles are not new in either nature or science. However, the recent leaps in
areas such as microscopy have given scientists new tools to understand and take
advantage of phenomena that occur naturally when matter is organized at the
nanoscale. In essence, these phenomena are based on quantum effects and other
simple physical effects such as expanded surface area (more on these below). In
addition, the fact that a majority of biological processes occur at the nanoscale gives
scientists models and templates to imagine
and construct new processes that can
enhance their work in medicine, imaging,
computing, printing, chemical catalysis,
materials synthesis, and many other fields.
Nanotechnology is not simply working at
ever smaller dimensions; rather, working at
the nanoscale enables scientists to utilize
the unique physical, chemical, mechanical,
and optical properties of materials that
naturally occur at that scale.
When particle sizes of solid matter in the

visible scale are compared to what can be
seen in a regular optical microscope, there
is little difference in the properties of the
particles. But when particles are created
with dimensions of about 1100
nanometers (where the particles can be
seen only with powerful specialized
Computer simulation of electron motions
microscopes), the materials properties
change significantly from those at larger
within a nanowire that has a diameter in
scales. This is the size scale where sothe nanoscale range.
called quantum effects rule the behavior
and properties of particles. Properties of
materials are size-dependent in this scale range. Thus, when particle size is made to be
nanoscale, properties such as melting point, fluorescence, electrical conductivity,
magnetic permeability, and chemical reactivity change as a function of the size of the
particle.
Nanoscale gold illustrates the unique properties that occur at the nanoscale. Nanoscale
gold particles are not the yellow color with which we are familiar; nanoscale gold can
appear red or purple. At the nanoscale, the motion of the golds electrons is confined.
Because this movement is restricted, gold nanoparticles react differently with light
compared to larger-scale gold particles. Their size and optical properties can be put to
practical use: nanoscale gold particles selectively accumulate in tumors, where they can
enable both precise imaging and targeted laser destruction of the tumor by means that
avoid harming healthy cells.
A fascinating and powerful result of the quantum effects of the nanoscale is the concept
of tunability of properties. That is, by changing the size of the particle, a scientist can
literally fine-tune a material property of interest (e.g., changing fluorescence color; in
turn, the fluorescence color of a particle can be used to identify the particle, and various
materials can be labeled with fluorescent markers for various purposes). Another
potent quantum effect of the nanoscale is known astunneling, which is a phenomenon
that enables the scanning tunneling microscope and flash memory for computing.
Over millennia, nature has perfected the art of biology at the nanoscale. Many of the
inner workings of cells naturally occur at the nanoscale. For example, hemoglobin, the
protein that carries oxygen through the body, is 5.5 nanometers in diameter. A strand of
DNA, one of the building blocks of human life, is only about 2 nanometers in diameter.
Drawing on the natural nanoscale of biology, many medical researchers are working on
designing tools, treatments, and therapies that are more precise and personalized than
conventional onesand that can be applied earlier in the course of a disease and lead to
fewer adverse side-effects. One medical example of nanotechnology is the bio-barcode
assay, a relatively low-cost method of detecting disease-specific biomarkers in the blood,
even when there are very few of them in a sample. The basic process, which attaches
recognition particles and DNA amplifiers to gold nanoparticles, was originally
demonstrated at Northwestern University for a prostate cancer biomarker following
prostatectomy. The bio-barcode assay has proven to be considerably more sensitive than
conventional assays for the same target biomarkers, and it can be adapted to detect
almost any molecular target.i
Growing understanding of nanoscale biomolecular structures is impacting other fields
than medicine. Some scientists are looking at ways to use nanoscale biological principles
of molecular self-assembly, self-organization, and quantum mechanics to create novel
computing platforms. Other researchers have discovered that in photosynthesis, the
energy that plants harvest from sunlight is nearly instantly transferred to plant reaction
centers by quantum mechanical processes with nearly 100% efficiency (little energy
wasted as heat). They are investigating photosynthesis as a model for green energy
nanosystems for inexpensive production and storage of nonpolluting solar power. ii
Nanoscale materials have far larger surface areas than similar masses of larger-scale
materials. As surface area per mass of a material increases, a greater amount of the
material can come into contact with surrounding materials, thus affecting reactivity.
A simple thought experiment shows why nanoparticles have phenomenally high surface
areas. A solid cube of a material 1 cm on a side has 6 square centimeters of surface area,
about equal to one side of half a stick of gum. But if that volume of 1 cubic centimeter
were filled with cubes 1 mm on a side, that would be 1,000 millimeter-sized cubes (10 x
10 x 10), each one of which has a surface area of 6 square millimeters, for a total surface
area of 60 square centimetersabout the same as one side of two-thirds of a 3 x 5
note card. When the 1 cubic centimeter is filled with micrometer-sized cubesa trillion
(1012) of them, each with a surface area of 6 square micrometersthe total surface area
amounts to 6 square meters, or about the area of the main bathroom in an average
house. And when that single cubic centimeter of volume is filled with 1-nanometer-sized
cubes1021 of them, each with an area of 6 square nanometerstheir total surface area
comes to 6,000 square meters. In other words, a single cubic centimeter of cubic
nanoparticles has a total surface area one-third larger than a football field!
Illustration demonstrating the effect of the increased surface area provided by

nanostructured materials
One benefit of greater surface areaand improved reactivityin nanostructured

materials is that they have helped create better catalysts. As a result, catalysis by
engineered nanostructured materials already impacts about one-third of the huge U.S.
and globalcatalyst markets, affecting billions of dollars of revenue in the oil and
chemical industries.iii An everyday example of catalysis is the catalytic converter in a car,
which reduces the toxicity of the engines fumes. Nanoengineered batteries, fuel cells,
and catalysts can potentially use enhanced reactivity at the nanoscale to produce
cleaner, safer, and more affordable modes of producing and storing energy.
Large surface area also makes nanostructured membranes and materials ideal
candidates for water treatment and desalination (e.g., see Self-Assembled,
Nanostructured Carbon for Energy Storage and Water Treatment in our database,Major
Achievements in Nano), among other uses. It also helps support functionalization of

nanoscale material surfaces (adding particles for specific purposes), for applications
ranging from drug delivery to clothing insulation.
_____________________________
i For example, see C.S. Thaxton, R. Elghanian, A.D. Thomas, S.I. Stoeva, J.S. Lee, N.D.
Smith, A.J. Schaeffer, H. Klocker, W. Horninger, G. Bartsch, and C.A. Mirkin. Nanoparticlebased bio-barcode assay redefines undetectable PSA and biochemical recurrence after
radical prostatectomy. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 106(44):1843718442, 2009,
doi:10.1073/pnas.0904719106.
ii For more detail, see http://newscenter.lbl.gov/feature-stories/2010/05/10/untanglingquantum-entanglement/ and associated links.
iii As of 2003, catalyst technologies accounted for over $1 trillion of revenue in the U.S.
economy and about a third of the material GDP (M.E. Davis and D. Tilley, Future
Directions in Catalysis Research, Structures that Function on the Nanoscale, NSF
Workshop, Caltech, June 19-20,
2003; http://www.che.caltech.edu/nsfcatworkshop/#Reports).
Frequently Asked Questions.

Nanotechnology is the understanding and control of matter at dimensions between
approximately 1 and 100 nanometers (nm), where unique phenomena enable novel
applications not feasible when working with bulk materials or even with single atoms or
molecules. A nanometer is one-billionth of a meter. A sheet of paper is about 100,000
nanometers thick; a single gold atom is about a third of a nanometer in diameter.
Researchers seeking to understand the fundamentals of properties at the nanoscale call
their work nanoscience; those focused on effective use of the properties call their
work nanoengineering.
Encompassing nanoscale science, engineering, and technology, nanotechnology involves
imaging, measuring, modeling, and manipulating matter at the nanoscale.
The nanoscale is the dimensional range of approximately 1 to 100 nanometers. For more
information, see What it is and How it Works.
A nanometer is one billionth of a meter. (A meter is 39.37 inches, or slightly longer than
one yard.) The prefix nano means one billionth, or 10-9, in the international system for
units of weights and measure. The abbreviation for nanometer is "nm."
For visual examples of the size of the nanoscale, see The Size of Nano.
Nanoscale materials have been used for over a millenium. For example, nanoscale gold
was used in stained glass in Medieval Europe and nanotubes were found in blades of
swords made in Damascus. However, ten centuries passed before high-powered
microscopes were invented, allowing us to see things at the nanoscale and begin working
with materials at the nanoscale.
Nanotechnology as we now know it began about 30 years ago, when our tools to image
and measure extended into the nanoscale. Around the turn of the millennium,
government research managers in the United States and other countries observed that
physicists, biologists, chemists, electrical engineers, optical engineers, and materials
scientists were working on overlapping issues emerging at the nanoscale. In 2000, the
U.S. National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) was created to help these researchers
benefit from each others insights and accelerate the technologys development.
To learn more, see What is Nanotechnology?
Nanomaterials are all nanoscale materials or materials that contain nanoscale structures
internally or on their surfaces. These can include engineered nano-objects, such as
nanoparticles, nanotubes, and nanoplates, and naturally occuring nanoparticles, such as
volcanic ash, sea spray, and smoke.
These are different types of nanomaterials, named for their individual shapes and
dimensions. Think of these simply as objects with one or more dimension at the
nanoscale.
Nanoparticles are bits of a material in which all three dimensions of the object are within
the nanoscale. Nanotubes have a diameter in the nanoscale, but can be several hundred
nanometers longor even longer. Nanoplates have a thickness at the nanoscale, but
their other two dimensions can be quite large.
Nanotechnology is used in many commercial products and processes, for example,
nanomaterials are used to manufacture lightweight, strong materials for applications
such as boat hulls, sporting equipment, and automotive parts. Nanomaterials are also
used in sunscreens and cosmetics.
Nanostructured products are used to produce space-saving insulators which are useful
when size and weight is at a premiumfor example, when insulating long pipelines in
remote places, or trying to reduce heat loss from an old house. Nanostructured catalysts
make chemical manufacturing processes more efficient, by saving energy and reducing
waste.
In healthcare, nanoceramics are used in some dental implants or to fill holes in diseased
bones, because their mechanical and chemical properties can be tuned to attract bone
cells from the surrounding tissue to make new bone. Some pharmaceutical products have
been reformulated with nanosized particles to improve their absorption and make them
easier to administer. Opticians apply nanocoatings to eyeglasses to make them easier to
keep clean and harder to scratch and nanoenabled coatings are used on fabrics to make
clothing stain-resistant and easy to care for.
Almost all high-performance electronic devices manufactured in the past decade use
some nanomaterials. Nanotechnology helps build new transistor structures and
interconnects for the fastest, most advanced computing chips.
All told, nanotechnologies are estimated to have impacted $251 billion across the global
economy in 2009. This is estimated to grow to $2.4 trillion by 2015 (Lux Research, 2010).
For more information, see Benefits and Applications.
Exciting new nanotechnology-based medicines are now in clinical trials, which may be
available soon to treat patients. Some use nanoparticles to deliver toxic anticancer drugs targeted directly to tumors, minimizing drug damage to other parts of the
body. Others help medical imaging tools, like MRIs and CAT scans, work better and more
safely. Nanotechnology is helping scientists make our homes, cars, and businesses more
energy-efficient through new fuel cells, batteries, and solar panels. It is also helping to
find ways to purify drinking water and to detect and clean up environmental waste and
damage.
Nanomaterials are being tested for use in food packaging to greatly improve shelf life
and safety. Nanosensors to detect food-borne pathogens are also being developed for
food packaging. New nanomaterials will be stronger, lighter, and more durable than the
materials we use today in buildings, bridges, automobiles, and more. Scientists have
experimented with nanomaterials that bend light in unique ways that may enable the
development of an invisibility cloak. The possibilities seem limitless, and the future of
nanotechnology holds great potential. For more information, see Benefits and
Applications.
The National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) is a U.S. Government research and
development initiative that coordinates funding for nanotechnology among the
participating Federal departments and agencies. The NNI vision is a future in which the
ability to understand and control matter at the nanoscale leads to a revolution in
technology and industry that benefits society.
The NNIs member agencies advance a world-class nanotechnology research and
development program leading to new materials, devices, and products. The NNI supports
the development of robust educational resources, a skilled workforce, supporting
infrastructure and tools, as well as a coordinated research strategy to study the potential
environmental, health, safety, and societal impacts of nanotechnology. For more
information on how the NNI started and how it is organized, see the page entitled What is
the NNI?
The National Nanotechnology Coordination Office (NNCO) provides technical and
administrative support to the Nanoscale Science, Engineering, and Technology (NSET)
Subcommittee, National Science and Technology Coucil, which coordinates the NNI. The
NNCO serves as a central point of contact for Federal nanotechnology R&D activities, and
it provides public outreach on behalf of the National Nanotechnology Initiative. For more
information, see the NNCO section of this website.
The 2014 Federal Budget provides more than $1.7 billion for the National
Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI), reflecting steady growth in the NNI investment. The
cumulative NNI investment since fiscal year 2001, including the 2014 request, now totals
almost $20 billion. Cumulative investments in nanotechnology-related environmental,
health, and safety research since 2006 now total nearly $750 million.
The United States is not the only country to recognize the tremendous economic
potential of nanotechnology. While difficult to measure accurately, estimates from 2008
showed the governments of the European Union (EU) and Japan invested
approximately $1.7 billion and $950 million, respectively, in nanotechnology research
and development. The governments of China, Korea, and Taiwan invested
approximately $430 million, $310 million, and $110 million, respectively (Roco, Mirkin,
and Hersam, Nanotechnology Research Directions for 2020, 2010). This compares to
2008 U.S. Government spending of $1.55 billion.
Nanotechnology has the potential to profoundly change our economy and improve our
standard of living, in much the same way as information technology advances have
revolutionized our lives and the economy over the past two decades. While some
commercial products are beginning to come to market, many major applications for
nanotechnology are still 5-10 years away. Private investors look for short-term returns on
investment, generally in the range of 1-3 years. Consequently, government support for
nanotechnology research and development in its early stages is required to ensure that
the United States can maintain a competitive position in the worldwide nanotechnology
marketplace while realizing nanotechnologys full potential. For more information on the
various funding mechanisms of the NNI, see Funding Opportunities. To see some
examples of what NNI funding has accomplished, see NNI Achievements in
Nanotechnology.
The NNI itself is not a funding program; funding is provided through the NNI member
agencies. There are various mechanisms for funding research through these agencies.
For detailed information on Federal funding programs, see Funding Opportunities. For
grant information, see Current Solicitations.
A 2008 survey estimated that there were about 400,000 workers worldwide in the field of
nanotechnology, with an estimated 150,000 of those in the United States. (Roco, Mirkin,
and Hersam, 2010)
A study funded by the National Science Foundation projects that 6 million
nanotechnology workers will be needed worldwide by 2020, with 2 million of those jobs in
the United States (Roco, Mirkin, and Hersam, 2010). To find out about nanotechnology
programs at college and graduate levels, see College and Graduate Programs. If you are
interested in 2-year degrees or training programs, see Associate Degrees, Certificates, &
Job Info.

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Part 1. General introduction to nanoscience and commonly used terms explained

nm is the accepted abbreviation for nanometre (nanometer) - more on the relative

What is Nanoscience? Nanoscience is the branch of science concerned with the

What is Nanotechnology? Nanotechnology involves methods for transforming matter,

Nanotechnology is still based on manufacturing processes that use typical chemical

So, it is now possible to see and investigate nanoscale structures at the

Does this advanced technology blur the distinction between computer

The many applications of nanotechnology include the use of semi-conductors that

The wide applications of such nanostructures includes semi-conductor devices,

As already mentioned nanoparticles are usually in the size range of 1 to 100

Nanoparticles can be made of elements, organic molecules, inorganic compounds,

To put nanoparticles in 'size' or 'dimension' perspective, consider the table of

1 nanometre (US nanometer), 1 nm = 10-9 of a metre.

Compared to other units:

1 cm = 10-2 m (1 cm = 10000000 nm)

1 mm = 10-3 m (1 millimetre = 1000000 nm)

1 m = 10-6 m (1 micrometre = 1000 nm)

1 pm = 10-12 m (1 picometre = 0.001 nm)

Notes on the table

na = not applicable i.e. no simple formula or representation possible

n = a large number of atoms

Carbon is the basic atom or unit of carbon nanotubes.

Sulfur is a typical non-metal atom.

Water is a relatively small molecule, one of the smallest in fact.

Silver is typical metallic lattice or huge array of atoms.

Glucose is a molecule of 24 combined atoms of carbon, hydrogen and

Fullerene-60, a 'bucky ball', is the precursor structure on which carbon

A simple protein is a polymer of alpha-amino acids [H2HCH(R)COOH]n where

Assume silver or titanium dioxide nanoparticles are ~spherical

A virus is a very simple organism, the simplest of which consists of a strand

10. A typical carbon nanotube might have a radius of 3 nm and up to 100 nm

12. A bacterium is a usually a single celled cellular micro-organism and can

Part-2: NANOCHEMISTRY - Introduction

What is NANOCHEMISTRY? Nanochemistry is a branch of nanoscience, deals with the

Nanochemistry involves the study of the synthesis and characterisation of materials of

Nanochemistry is a relatively new branch of chemistry concerned with the unique

Physical techniques allow atoms to be manipulated and positioned to specific

Traditional chemical techniques arrange atoms in molecules using well characterised

Applications of Nanoscience - with an emphasis on NANOCHEMISTRY

The work on nanochemistry can include colloid chemistry.

Part 5. Graphene and Fluorographene

Part 4. Fullerenes and carbon nanotubes

There is also amorphous carbon e.g. soot or charcoal, but this is

The name Buckminsterfullerene (fullerene-60), is derived from the American

Other typical fullerenes have formulae such as ...

In these fullerenes the carbon atoms lie at vertices of a polyhedron with 12

They do dissolve in organic solvents giving coloured solutions.

They are the only soluble allotrope of carbon.

Although solid, their melting points are not that high.

They have many chemical synthetic and pharmaceutical applications.

Chemical derivatives of fullerenes have fascinating electrical and magnetic behaviour

Uses of Carbon nanotubes

These presumably would make a stronger material?

Some nanotubes are excellent insulators, semiconductors or conduct electricity as

They can be used as semiconductors or 'miniature wires' in electrical

They act as a component of industrial catalysts for certain reactions whose

Carbon nanotubes could be used to make tiny mechanical devices, molecular

The nanotube molecule is held together by strong covalent carbon-carbon

Single or multiple-walled tubes, made from concentric nanotubes (i.e. one

Note that graphite is soft and malleable.

Diagrams of the molecular structure of buckminster fullerenes ('fullerenes') and

A section of a carbon nanotube e.g.