RobertJonPeterson

UniversityofSt.Thomas

ConstructingaPacificIslanderEthnicIdentity
TheliteraturereviewIconductedbroadlyfocusedonthe
developmentofethnicidentityinPacificIslanders.Specificresearch
emphasiswasplacedontheculturalconditionsthathaveanimpact
ontheidentityformationofSamoansresidingwithinthePacific
diaspora.AreviewoftheliteratureonPacificIslandersandSamoans
livingwithinthisgeographicareaandculturalcontextrevealedfour
primarythemeslinkingtheconstructionofanidentityuniqueto
PacificIslandersand,morespecifically,toSamoanslivingwithin
diasporiccommunitiesthroughoutthePacificregion.Ancestry,
family,culturalpractice,andplaceweretheprimarythemes
appearingintheliteratureashavinganimpactonthedevelopment
ofethnicidentityinPacificIslanders(Spickard,2002).Mypersonal
interestinhelpingtoestablishaPacificIslanderAmericanethnic
identityformsthecentralpurposeformyhavingselectedthistopic
ofresearch.
Iutilizedavarietyoftoolsandmethodstoconducttheresearch
processforthisliteraturereview.First,IconsultedwithaUniversity
ofSt.Thomasreferencelibrarianandbegansearchingdatabases
suchasAcademicSearchPremierandCLICnetforarticles,books,
andessaysrelatedtothetopicofethnicidentitydevelopmentand
PacificIslanders.Thissearchresultedinapproximately50
documentssemirelatedtomytopic.Iperusedthedocuments
generatedfromthisinitialcanvassingofthedocumentarydatainan
efforttolearnmoreabouthowImightrefinemysearchcriteria.
Next,IrefinedmysearchbyfocusingonSamoansandSamoan

AmericanslivingincountriesthroughoutthePacificregion.The
numberofarticlesandbooksrelated,specifically,tothetopicof
SamoanAmericansandthedevelopmentoftheirethnicidentityin
theUnitedStateswerefew.Iwas,however,abletogeneratea
varietyofresearchmaterialsfocusedonPacificIslandergroupssuch
asTongans,Hawaiians,andSamoansandhowtheyhaveformed
uniqueethnicidentitiesacrossthePacificregioninareasincluding
NewZealand,Hawaii,andCalifornia.
Afterthissecondaryreviewoftheliterature,Idevelopedthefocus
questionofmyresearch;whatculturalconditionshaveanimpacton
thedevelopmentofethnicidentityinPacificIslanders,particularly
Samoans?InthefollowingsectionIbeginmydiscussionofhowthe
culturalconditionsofancestry,family,practice,andplacehavean
impactonthedevelopmentofethnicidentityforPacificIslander
groupswithaspecificemphasisonSamoans.
Ancestry
TheImportanceoftheSamoanBloodline
OneoftheculturalbasesfordevelopingethnicidentityinPacific
Islandersthatemergedfromtheliteraturereviewwasancestry.
AccordingtoSpickard(2002),Onesuchbasisisconsciousnessof
ancestrybloodline,asmanywouldcallit.Samoans,especially,talk
alotabouttheimportanceofblood,butallthePacificIslanders
interviewedstressedancestryasanessentialbasisofethnicidentity
(p.47).
InPolynesiansocietiesapersonsgenealogylargelydeterminestheir
identity(Spickard,2002).IndividualsinSamoanculture,meetingfor
thefirsttimewithinaformalsetting,commonlyintroduce
themselvestoeachotherbyrecitingtheirrespectivegenealogical
connectionstoaparticularfamilyorclan(p.48).Samoansreadily
identifyoneanotherviatheserelationalconnectionsand,asaresult,
theyareabletoplaceotherindividualstheyencounterwithina
particularsocial,political,andhistoricalcontext.Ancestryprovides
thelensthroughwhichSamoansviewtheirspecific,socialsituations
andrelationshipswithoneanother.InthecaseofPacificIslanders,
theprocessofsocializationviatracingonesgenealogicalrootsand
comparingthemwiththeancestralbloodlineofanotherpersonaids
inthedevelopmentofbothapersonalandcommunityidentity
(Spickard,2002).

Fromasociopoliticalperspectivethechiefly,ormatai,titles
associatedwithaSamoansancestryplayanimportantroleinthat
personsidentityformation.Meleisea(1987)statesthat,Thesehigh
titlesandtheoratorgroupsofSamoaarelikeafishingnet,the
stringsofwhichlinktogetherallthefamilies,villages,anddistricts
ofSamoa(p.32).Aparticularfamilysgenealogicalbackground,
suchasthosefoundintheSamoanmataisystemofsocial
organizationandpoliticalgovernance,confersstatusinSamoaand
oftentimesprovidesindividualswithleadershipopportunitieswithin
agivenfamilyorcommunity(Tcherkezoff,1998).Leadership
opportunitiesstemmingfromtheholdingofamataititlecontribute
tothedevelopmentofpersonalandcommunityidentity.
Tcherkezoff(1998)claimsthat,Thechiefthemataiisthehead
ofanextendedfamilydefinedasaworshipcommunity,a
genealogicalgroup,withjointlandownership.Membersworshipthe
nameofafoundingancestor.Tobealive,thisnamemustalways
bethenameof(atleast)onefamilymember(p.419).Althoughnot
allmataititleswereequitablycreatedintermsoftheauthorityvested
inthem,allSamoanfamilieshaveamataititleoriginatingfroma
commonancestor.Genealogicallytracingtherootsofapersons
familyhistorytoacommonmataitherebyconnectsextendedfamily
memberswithoneanotherandhelpstomaintainsociopoliticalstatus
oftheindividualandfamilywithinthebroadercommunity
(Tcherkezoff,1998).
Samoanidentityformationiscloselylinked,therefore,tothe
ancestryorbloodlineoftheindividualperson.Ancestryoperates
withinthebroadercultureofPacificIslanderethnicgroupsasa
meansforactivatingsociallybasedconstructsforculturallyrelevant
thought,speech,andbehaviorthatmaybetransferredfromone
generationtoanother(Tcherkezoff,1998).Atapersonallevel,social
situationsprovideSamoanswithopportunitiestosharetheir
commonancestrieswithoneanotherandconstructidentitiesthatare
uniquelyindividualtothepersonyetoriginatingfromacommonly
heldandsociallyconstructedreferent.InthefollowingsectionI
describetheliteraturerelatingtoindividualandcollectiveaccounts
ofidentityformationwithrespecttoPacificIslanderconceptionsof
time,space,andgenealogy.
GenealogicalConceptionsofTimeandSpace

Inadditiontotheimportanceofestablishingidentityviaagrounded
understandingofapersonsbloodlineasaSamoan,areviewofthe
literaturerevealedasecondaryaspectinthedevelopmentofa
PacificIslanderethnicidentity;theconceptualizationoftimeand
spacebasedongenealogy.InthecaseofHawaiianpeoplesSpickard
(2002),citingtheworkofBeckwithstatesthat,Genealogyis
nonethelessaveryoldPacificimperative.TheKumulipoandother
ancientchantsrecitelonggenealogiesthatgivelocationand
substancetotheHawaiianpeople(p.48).Hawaiians,asdoother
PacificIslanderethnicgroups,tracetheircollectivehistoryasa
peoplethroughtheirgenealogies(Spickard,2002).Throughthe
ritualchantingofthesegenealogiesNativeHawaiiansandother
PacificIslanderpeoplesformcollectiveidentitiesthatareculturally
relevantandsituatedwithinspecific,preestablished
conceptualizationsoftime.
TheprimarygeographicspaceinhabitedbyPacificIslandergroups
likeHawaiians,Tongans,andSamoansremainsthePacificregion.
IntheUnitedStates,forexample,PacificIslandersformapartofa
largermultiethnicgroupcomposedof25differentpeoplesknownas
AsianPacificIslanders(Small,2007).Inresponsetothis
meaninglessdesignationbytheU.S.government,manyPacific
Islanderethnicgroupshaveretainedtheirculturalrootsbytracing,
andthencelebrating,theirfamilygenealogiesacrossthepolitical
andhistoricaldivisionssetupbylocal,state,andnational
governments.Spickard(2002)mentionsthat,Thiscelebrationof
themysticchordsofmemoryisperhapsasimportantastheactual
contentofthegenealogicalaccountingluingtogetherHawaiiansas
apeople(p.49).Throughthecelebrationoftheircollectivehistory
andgenealogicalconceptionofspace,HawaiiansandotherPacific
Islanderethnicgroupseffectivelyestablishidentity.
IntheUnitedStates,theidentitiesofPacificIslandersarewidening
toincludeabroadercrosssectionoftheoverallU.S.population
(Small,2007).Geographicallyandethnicallythelinesseparating
onePacificIslanderethnicgroupfromanotherarebecomingblurred
asfamiliesarecrossfertilizedthroughsharedexperiencesstemming
fromthesocialinstitutionsofmarriage,work,andeducation.
AccordingtoSmall(2007),thecrossfertilizationofPacificIslander
cultureisparticularlyapparentintheyouth.Amongyoungpeople,

thissenseofcommunityhasextendedfromacommonnational
homelandorethnicitytoamorepanPolynesian(orpanPacific
Islander)purview(p.539).
Linkingthesenewmultiethnicidentitiestogetherisa
conceptualizationofPacificIslanderpeoplesowngenealogical
linkagestoaparticularhistoricaltimeperiodandculturalspace.The
commonalitiesofPacificIslanderpeoples,asexpressedthrough
theirancestralconnectionswithoneanother,arehelpingtoform
whatsomeconsiderintheUnitedStatestobeanewidentity:Pacific
IslanderAmerican(Small,2007).Interwovenwithinthisnew
identityareculturalconditionslikeancestry,family,cultural
practice,andplace.InthefollowingsectionIwillreviewthe
literatureontheimpactoffamilyintheconstructionofaPacific
Islanderethnicidentity.
Family
TheExtendedFamilyorSamoanAiga
Asecondculturalconditionthathasanimpactonthedevelopment
ofaPacificIslanderethnicidentityisthefamily(Spickard,2002).
Theplace,aboveallothers,whereTonganorFijianorSamoan
cultureispassedonisinthefamily(p.49).Manyoftheactivities
associatedwithPacificIslanderethnicityhappenwithintheextended
familyor,inthecaseofSamoans,intheaiga.Community
ceremoniesandobligationsareorganizedandcarriedoutonafamily
basisaswell(Spickard,2002).AccordingtoJanes(2002),Most
membersofanaigaareclosecognatickinandaffines,butthereare
moredistantkinintemporaryresidence,forpeoplearewontto
exerciserightstohospitalityandmembershipinaigatowhichthey
cantracekinship(p.123).MembersofaSamoanaiga
cooperativelyutilizeresourcessuchasland,money,andfood(Janes,
2002).Theaigacanalsoprovideindividualfamilymemberswith
opportunitiestoattainleadershipstatuswithinthefamilyand
communityviaaccessingrightstolandownershipandsociopolitical
governanceconferredononebytheholdingofamataititle(Janes,
2002).OneoftheprimarymeansfortransferringPacificIslander
cultureandestablishingethnicidentity,therefore,isthroughthe
extendedfamilyoraiga(Janes,2002).
Atthecommunitylevel,aigaareassociatedwithaparticularvillage.
Brothersoftenformthecoreofthevillageunitandoccupylandthat

historicallybelongstoamatai(Janes,2002).Janes(2002)maintains
that,ThemostimportantdimensionofSamoandescentandsocial
organizationisthatmembershipinalocalizedsegmentismaintained
throughactiveparticipation,andthatonespotentialmembershipin
othergroupsisallowedtolapseorremainlatentuntilactivatedfor
somepurpose(p.123).Thecommunityisdependentuponboththe
activeandthelatentrelationshipsexistingwithintheaigatoprovide
thevillagerswiththesupportrequiredforsocioeconomicand
politicalorganization.
MigrationisonewaythatSamoansutilizelatentkinshiptiesto
establishstrongsocioeconomicandpoliticaltiestotheoutsideworld
(Janes,2002).Ritualandsocialactivitieshelptoactivatethelatent
tiesconnectingfamiliesandcommunitiesspreadthroughoutthe
Pacificdiaspora.Ritesofpassagesuchasmarriages,funerals,and
otherkindredeventsrequiretheparticipationofextendedfamily
membersintheformofeconomicand/orpoliticalsupportprovided
totheaigaandbroadercommunity(Janes,2002).Theoverallhealth
oftheaigaandthecommunity,inmanyinstances,dependsonthe
migratorypatternsoftheextendedfamilymembersandthelatent
kinshiptiestheyhavetotheaiga.Onceactivated,theselatentties
oftentimesresultinpowerfulconnectionsresultinginthe
transferenceofauthorityand,insomecases,significantsumsmoney
and/ormaterialgoods.
InthewakeoftherecentearthquakeinSamoa,PacificIslanders
spreadthroughoutthePacificdiasporaactivatedtheirlatentkinship
tieswithextendedfamilymemberstohelpintherecoveryand
reconstructionofthehomesandvillagesdestroyedbythetsunami.
Forexample,therebuildingofManono,asmallislandlocated
betweenthemainSamoanislandsofUpoluandSavaii,willbea
communitywideprocessinvolvingallvillagers.Theprimary
socioeconomicandpoliticalthrustofthereconstructionprojects,
however,willbeledbytheLeiatauamataioriginatingfromthe
Alailimaaiga.EachvillagerdependsontheLeiatauatoformthe
coreframeworkofManonossocial,economic,andpolitical
organization.TheLeiatauawillprovidetheresourcesneededto
reconstructthevillagesinreturnforuseofthecommunallyheld
lands.Reconstructionprojectsofthisnatureaidinthedevelopment
ofaSamoanidentity.

Familialties,suchasthosefoundintheSamoanaiga,alsohelpto
strengthendiasporiccommunitiesofPacificIslanderslivingwithin
thePacificregion.AccordingtoAblon(1971),AsinSamoa,the
extendedfamilypersistsasthekeysocialunitinPacificCity.The
extendedfamilyhouseholdcustomarilynumbersfromsixtoten
persons.Variousrelativescomeandgo,thedurationoftheirstays
aredependentontheirreasonsforbeinginthehouseholdandinthe
area(p.389).KinshiptiesnascenttoPacificIslandercommunities
locatedinareassuchasNewZealand,SouthernCalifornia,andthe
PacificNorthwestmirror,inmanyways,thekinshiptiesin
communitiesinSamoa(Ablon,1971).
Strongkinshiptiescontributetothetransferringofculturalvalues,
beliefs,andmoresandaidinthedevelopmentofethnicidentities
thatareuniquelySamoan,Tongan,orHawaiian(Ablon,1971).
Collectively,Samoanidentitiesemergeoutoftheaigaandaidinthe
bindingtogetherofotherPacificIslandercommunitiesdispersed
throughoutthePacificregion.InthefollowingparagraphsIwill
discussthesignificanceofadoptionandmarriageinthedevelopment
ofaPacificIslanderethnicidentityandhowthesesocialinstitutions
contributetotheorganizationofcommunity.
FamilybyAdoptionandMarriage
FamilytieswithinPacificIslandercommunitiesdonotnecessarily
havetobegenetic.Itispossibletogainacceptanceinto,ordevelopa
connectionwith,anaigathroughadoptionand/ormarriage
(Spickard,2002).OnesadoptionintoaparticularPacificIslander
ethnicgroupseemstoentitleonetoamorecompletemembershipin
thatgroupthanisthecasewithotherAmericangroups(Spickard,
2002).ChildrencommonlyadoptedintoSamoanfamiliesoftentimes
takeontheculturalcharacteristicsoftheadoptingfamily,despite
preexistingracialorethnicdifferences.Itisnotuncommonfor
theseinterethnicallyadoptedchildrentogrowintoanidentitythatis
uniquelySamoan,despitetheirnonSamoangeneticmakeup
(Spickard,2002).NonSamoanchildrenadoptedintoSamoan
familiesoftenconsiderthemselvestobeSamoanandhavea
tendencytoraisetheirownchildrenasSamoans(Spickard,2002).
Additionally,individualscanmarryintotheaigaalthoughitappears
thattheconnectiontoidentitydevelopmentislessprominentinthis
scenariothanisthatcasewithadoption(Spickard,2002).Spickard

mentionsthat,experiencessuggestthatperhapsidentityacquired
throughmarriageislessstrongthanidentitythatcomesfromthe
homeofyourchildhood(p.50).Irrespectiveofthemaritalor
familialcircumstances,itisclearthatfamilynetworks,suchasthe
Samoanaiga,playanintegralroleinhelpingindividualsformethnic
identitiesandcommunitiesthatareuniquelyPacificIslanderin
nature.Together,theculturalsensibilitiesandtendenciesofa
particularethnicgroupsfamilystructurehelptoformPacific
Islandercommunitiesathomeandabroad(Spickard,2002).Inthe
subsequentsectionoftheliteraturereview,Iwillexaminecultural
practiceasthethirdconditionfordevelopingaPacificIslander
ethnicidentity.
CulturalPractice
Language,Values,andSocialInstitutions
AnequallyimportantaspectofdeterminingPacificIslander
ethnicityisculturalpractice(Spickard,2002).Culturalpractice
includesthelanguage,values,andsocialinstitutionsmakingupa
particularethnicgroupscultureorsociety(Macphersonand
Macpherson,2000).ApersonisTonganbecauseheorshebehaves
likeaTongan,speakstheTonganlanguage,andmaintainsthe
values,beliefs,andmoresthatmakeupTongancultureandsociety
(Spickard,2002).InthecaseofSamoans,Spickardstates,Oneis
SamoanbecauseonespeaksSamoanandoneunderstandsandlives
faasamoa(p.51).
Looselytranslated,faasamoaisanallencompassingwayofbeing
andlivingthatpermeatesallofSamoancultureandsociety.Tobe
faasamoaapersonmustbecommittedtolivingtheSamoanway.
Languageplaysacriticalrolewithinthesocialconstructprovidedby
thefaasamoa.AccordingtoSpickard(2002),ManyPacific
IslanderAmericanswouldargue,indeed,thatlanguageisthesine
quanon,ofethnicity,theessentialvarietyofculturalpractice,
becausesomuchthatispowerfulissharedthroughlanguage(p.
51).Language,forSamoansandotherPacificIslanderethnic
groups,allowsindividualstocommunicatethecriticalaspectsofthe
cultureandsocietywithothersinwaysthatcannotbeexpressedina
nonnativetongue.
InthecaseofSamoanmigrantslivinginthePacificdiaspora,it
appearsthatlanguage,values,andsocialinstitutionsplayan

importantroleintransmittingculturalknowledgeaswellasforthose
livinginSamoa.MacphersonandMacpherson(2000)foundthat
SamoanswhohadmigratedtoNewZealand,exhibitedastrong
senseofethnicidentityandpride,acommitmenttothecommunity
oforigintypicalofsojourners,andasenseofbeinganextensionof
thecommunityratherthanaseparateentity(p.71).Samoan
migrants,livinginNewZealand,demonstratedlittleproclivityfor
settingasidetheirownlanguage,values,andinstitutionsinfavorof
theirhostcountrys(MacphersonandMacpherson,2000).
TheSamoanmigrantslivinginNewZealandfrequentlywerein
touchwithcommunitieslocatedinSamoaasaresultoftheguiding
principlesemergingfromthefaasamoa(Macphersonand
Macpherson,2000).Forexample,manyfamilieshadbeenselected
tomigratetoNewZealand,specifically,forthepurposeofobtaining
higherwageearningoccupations.Familymemberswerethen
obligatedtosendmoneytoSamoatosupporttheexpensesincurred
fromdaytodaylivingwithintheSamoanaiga.Accordingto
MacphersonandMacpherson(2000),itwasthefaasamoathattied
migrantSamoancommunitiestogetherinNewZealandandabroad.
Theyretainedtheirlanguage,values,andsocialinstitutions,thatis,
tothefaasamoa,awordthatcanrefertoanyoneoracombination
ofthesethreeelements(p.71).
StructuralfactorsalsoplayedaroleintheSamoanmigrants
retentionoftheircultureinNewZealand(Macphersonand
Macpherson,2000).Chainmigration,whichcharacterizedthe
SamoanmigrantsmovementintoNewZealandduringthe1960s
and1970s,resultedin,residentialandoccupational
concentrations(p.71).Residentialandoccupationalconcentrations
ofSamoanscontributedtotheretentionofthevalues,language,and
institutionsofthefaasamoa,helpedmigrantfamiliestopooltheir
socialresourcesand,ultimately,aidedintheirsurvivalwithina
marginallystableeconomicenvironmentinNewZealand
(MacphersonandMacpherson,2000).
InNewZealand,Samoansretainedtheinstitutionscommensurate
withtheaiga,theKalupa(savingsandcreditassociations),church
basedwelfareassociations,villagebasedassociations,andsporting
andrecreationalassociationsintheseconcentratedmigrant
communitiesinordertopreservetheirculturalidentity(Macpherson

andMacpherson,2000).ItwasnotthatSamoanmigrantshadan
antipathyforNewZealanderculturebutrathertheychosetodevelop
identitiescenteredonthefamiliarvalues,language,andinstitutions
ofthefaasamoa.Extendedkingroupsprovidedinsurancefor
Samoanmigrantsinanefforttoprovidegreatereconomicsecurity
forindividualSamoanfamilieslivingatornearthemarginsofNew
Zealandersociety,furtheringthedevelopmentofaSamoanethnic
identity(MacphersonandMacpherson,2000).
AnotheraspectofthefaaSamoarelatestotheopportunitiesfor
childrentoacquirethecorevalues,language,andinstitutionsofthe
culture.InthecaseoftheSamoanmigrantsinNewZealand,
MacphersonandMacpherson(2000)foundthatSamoanchildren
wereprovided,bothformallyandinformally,withmultiple
opportunitiestodeveloptheirindividualidentitiesasSamoanyouth
viaparentalmodeling.
Themostinfluentialforceinthisprocesswastheattitudesand
conductofparentsandotheradults.Parentsandotheradults
evaluatedtherelevanceofSamoanidentityandthenrepresentedthis
totheirchildrenquiteformallyandquiteexplicitly.Buttheyalso
spokeinformallyaboutthingsSamoaninwaysthatreflectedtheir
attitudes.Bothexplicitandimplicitrepresentationinfluenced
youngerSamoansespecially,whoseemedtohaveaclearideaof
howpositivelyornegativelytheirparentsviewedthefaasamoa(p.
72).
WithrespecttotheNewZealandercase,thechildrenofmigrant
Samoansdevelopedpositiveattitudestowardthefaasamoa.
ChildrenlivinginhomeswheretheoperatingculturewasSamoan,
ororganizedaroundculturalprinciplesalignedwiththefaasamoa
andinwhichtheSamoanlanguagewasheavilyused,tendedtohave
morepositiveevaluationsofthefaasamoathandidtheirNew
ZealandbornSamoancounterpartswhowerenotexplicitlyengaged
inthelanguage,values,andinstitutionsoftheculture(Macpherson
andMacpherson,2000).Inthehomeswhereseveralcultureswere
operating,includingthefaasamoa,childrenexpressedmixed
evaluationswithrespecttoSamoanculture.Insomeinstancesthe
availabilityofthelanguage,values,andinstitutionsofthefaa

samoawereseenasabenefit.Inotherinstances,familiesdescribed
thefaasamoaasworseorlessusefulthanotherculturally
based
alternatives(MacphersonandMacpherson,2000).
Ineachoftheseexamples,childrenexperiencedtherelevanceofthe
faasamoaassituationalandviewedthedistinctionsbetweenitand
otherculturalalternativesasopportunitiestoexpressthe
multifacetedaspectsoftheirethnicidentities.Accordingto
MacphersonandMacpherson(2000),Languageuseisacasein
point.Languagesarepresentedasalternatives:parentsarelikelyto
useandencouragetheuseofSamoaninsituationsinwhichSamoans
arepresent,andEnglishinsituationsinwhichnonSamoansare
present(pp.7374).Language,asistruewithculturalknowledge,
issituationalanddependentupontheindividualandthecontext
withinwhichthewordsandknowledgearebeingapplied.The
culturalbasisfordevelopingaPacificIslanderethnicidentityis,
therefore,multidimensionalandcontextuallydrivenbythevalues,
beliefs,andinstitutionscomprisingtheindividualssocial
environment.
ImmigrantfamilieswithinthePacificdiasporainitiallyenterthe
UnitedStates,NewZealand,andothergeographiclocaleswithinthe
Pacificregionwiththehopeofseekinggreatereconomicfreedom,
safety,orthedreamofprovidingincreasedopportunitiesfortheir
offspring(Mau,1994).Oftentimesacculturationandthe
developmentofethnicidentityisadifficultprocessforadultsand
childrentoengagein.PacificIslanderadolescents,especially,seem
tostrugglewithmaintainingtheculturallanguage,values,and
institutionsoftheirparentsduetotheonslaughtofwestern,cultural
alternatives(Mau,1994).InthefollowingparagraphsIwilllookat
theliteratureonhowplacehasanimpactonthedevelopmentof
PacificIslanderethnicidentityandexaminethemultiplewaysin
whichpeopleofPacificIslanderdescentareusingplaceasameans
forcarvingoutuniqueidentitiesthroughoutthePacificregion.
Place
TiestotheLand
AfourthbasisforthedevelopmentofaPacificIslanderethnic
identityisapersonsrelationshiptoplace.InHawaiianculturethe
wordforplaceissynonymouswiththenameforthelandwhichis

aina(Spickard,2002).Hawaiiansdeeplyvaluetheirconnectionto
placeoraina.Spickard(2002)states,Thecaringisreciprocal,for
thelandalsocaresforthepeople,andtherelationshipisadeep,
familybond(p.51).Abovealmostallelse,theHawaiianpeople
stresstheimportanceofthisbondandtheneedforreestablishing
theirtiestotheaina(Spickard,2002).
PacificIslandersofotherethnicitiesalsocelebratetheimportanceof
placeindeterminingtheiridentities(Spickard,2002).Storiesexistof
migrantTongansandSamoanswhoeschewedtheiraboriginal
ethnicitiesinfavorofwesternidentitiesonlytolaterrealize,upon
returningtotheirhomelands,theprofoundinfluenceplacehasonthe
developmentofPacificIslanderethnicandculturalidentity.
Spickard(2002)describesthestoryofTupouHopoatePauu,a
TonganraisedinAustraliawhohadtheopportunitytoreturntoher
nativeTonga.Shenowspeaksinhushedtonesofherfirst
encounterwiththevillageandthehutwhereshewasborn,andthe
intenseloveforherpeopleandherculturethatgrewfromthat
encountertobecomeonofthecentralforcesinherlife(p.52).
InthecaseofPauu,herreturntoTongainfluencedherdecisionto
workasamissionaryinTonga,toattendauniversityconsistingof
mainlyPacificIslanders,tomarryaTonganAmerican,toliveina
TongancommunityinSouthernCalifornia,andtobecomealawyer
tohelpserveherpeople(Spickard,2002).Eachstageinherlifewas
heavilyinfluencedbyherdecisiontoreturntotheplaceofherbirth
insearchofheridentityasaTonganwoman.PacificIslandersfrom
alloverthediaspora,likePauu,arereturningtotheirPacific
homelandsinsearchofaplacethatwillconnectthemtothelost,or
hidden,partsoftheiridentity.
InherseminalworkoncolonialismandsovereigntyinHawaii,
HaunaniKayTrask(1999)describestothereadertheimportanceof
placeinpreservingthenaturalbountyofhernativeHawaii.Hand
inhandwithprotectionoftheoceanandlandenvironmentsgoes
protectionofthemanyNativecultures,whicharedependentonthe
island/seaecosystem(p.52).Trask(1999)takesontherapid
growthofforeigncultureandwesterneconomiesandthenegative
impacttheyhavehadontheindigenouspeopleofHawaii.When
coupledwiththeeffectsoftourism,rapidintroductionofmass
communicationandtransportcandestroyculturesinlessthana

generation.Familiarsocialproblemsfollow,andtheNativepeople
areconsignedtoanoppressivedestinytheyhavefewmeansof
controlling(p.5253).Theeffectsofcolonialismand
environmentaldegradationarepresentinmanyislandnationsofthe
Pacificregionandthishasledtothedevelopmentofsuppressedand,
insomeinstancesliketheMarshallIslands,oppressedethnic
identitiesforPacificIslanders(Trask,1999).Theimportanceof
preservingtheenvironmentasasacredandviablemeansfor
connectingthepeopletothelandandcultureappearsasamajor
themeinTrasksworkandsignalstothereaderthesignificanceof
placeindevelopingethnicidentityforPacificIslanders.
Cyberspace
ThroughtheinternetmanyPacificIslandersarefindingnewsways
totapintoglobalnetworksandrediscovertheirethnicidentities.
WithinatransnationalandpanPolynesiancontext,manyPacific
Islandersarecommunicatingwithoneanotherthroughfamilybased
listservsandwebpages,homeislandnewssites,andinternational
websitesandchatrooms(Small,2007).AccordingtoSmall(2007),
thenamesofthechatroomsinclude,PolyCafe,theKavaBowl,
PlanetTonga,SamoaChat,YahoosFijichatroom,andBulaFiji(p.
541).Thecyberspacenetworkhasmadeasizeableimpactonthe
networkingofPacificIslandersthroughoutthePacificdiasporaand
hascreatedanewplaceforpeopleto,keepapprisedofnewsin
theirhomecountry,issuesofconcernstoyoungpeople,andethnic
events,music,andinterfamilynews(p.541).
PacificIslanderyouthcomprisemanyofthepeopleutilizingthe
internetasaplacetocreateandexpressonesethnicidentity(Small,
2007).ItisprimarilytheyoungadultchildrenofPacificIslander
migrantswhoare,inmanyinstances,responsibleforcreatingthe
familywebsitesthataidincommunicatingfamilynewsandassistin
thedisplayingofphotosoffamilymemberslivinginothercountries
(Small,2007).Inadditiontothetypicalbanterregardingfamily
announcements,marriages,andfuneralsthereisalsoapropensityof
PacificIslandersutilizingfamilywebsitesasameansfor
transmittingimportantculturalvalues,beliefs,andinstitutions.
PeoplelivingabroadareabletoconnectwiththeSamoanor
Hawaiianpartsoftheiridentitybyconnectingwithfamilymembers
livingacrosstheglobe.Cookingrecipes,familytrees,andupdates

onnewadditionstothefamilypeppertypicalPacificIslanderfamily
websitesandmakeameasurableimpactonconnectingmembers
identitiestogether.Undoubtedly,placehasaneffectonthe
developmentofethnicidentityforPacificIslanders.Inthenext
sectionsIwilldescribesomegeneralfindingsrelatedtothis
literaturereviewaswellasbrieflydiscussgapsintheliteratureand
recommendationsforfurtherresearch.
GeneralFindings
SocialProcessesandtheConstructionofIdentity
Overall,thefourprimarythemesappearingintheliteratureonthe
developmentofPacificIslanderethnicidentitywereancestry,
family,culturalpractice,andplace.Generallyspeaking,acoupleof
majorelementsemergedintheliteraturetyingtogetheradescription
ofhowidentityformsforPacificIslanders.First,identityformation
inPacificIslandersisacombinationofsocialprocessesinvolving
theinteractionoftheindividualwiththecollectivesociety.
Individualsinteractwithoneanotherinmeaningfulwaysinaneffort
toformalizetheirrelationshipsandconstructpersonalidentities
embeddedincommunity.TheimportanceofancestryforPacific
Islandersisanexampleofthis.Samoans,inparticular,seemto
participateinakindofculturalexchangethroughtherecitingoftheir
respectivelineages.Genealogicalexchangesofthisnaturehelpto
situateindividualswithinacollectivistframeworkthatmost
Samoansrecognizeandreadilyidentifywith.Ancestryprovides
symbolicmeaningtotheconnectionandthishelpstosolidifyones
identityasamemberofthegroup.
Theaigaisasecondexampleofhowethnicidentityformsthrough
thesocializationprocessesexistentbetweentheindividualandthe
collective.ActiveandlatentkinshiptiesallowSamoansandother
PacificIslanderethnicgroupstopoliticallyandeconomically
organizetheirrelationshipswithinthebroadercontextprovidedby
communityandvillagelife.Familynetworksareinterdependent
organizationsreflectingtheculturalvalues,attitudes,andbeliefsof
thecommunity.Thefaasamoaisaprimaryexampleofacollection
ofsociallyconstructedartifactsinculcatedwithinthefamilyand
disseminatedthroughoutthecommunity.Socialobligationssuchas
sendingmoneyhometotheaigatohelpinreconstructionprojects
takeonsymbolicaswellasliteralmeaningandaidindefiningthe

parametersforappropriatebehaviorforindividualmembersofthe
group,village,andcommunity.ASamoanconstructshisorher
identitythroughtheinteractionwithotherfamilyandcommunity
membersengagedinsimilarsocialprocessesthat,again,areeasily
recognizedandunderstoodasculturallysignificant.
Athirdwaythatindividualssociallydevelopidentitythroughtheir
interactionwiththecollectiveisviaculturalpracticeandplace.
Placeprovidesthecontextforunderstandingonespositionwithina
givencultureandculturalpracticegivesmeaningtothecontext.
PacificIslandersconstructmeaningthroughthesharedlanguage,
values,andinstitutionsemergingoutthephysicalenvironments
surroundingthem.Placeprovidesthebackdropforallthatis
containedwithinthecultureandpracticedonadailybasis.Inthis
way,theidentitiesofthepersonsengagingintheculturetakeonthe
physicalcharacteristicspresentintheenvironment.Threatstothe
stabilityoftheenvironmentendangerthelivelihoodoftheculture
andunderminethefoundationuponwhichethnicidentitydevelops
forPacificIslanders.
Onthewhole,individualandcollectiveprocessesofsocialization
involvetheculturalconditionsorbasesofancestry,family,cultural
practice,andplace.Together,theseprocessesandconditionsaidin
theconstructingofanethnicidentitythatisuniquelyPacific
Islander.Recognition,especiallyinthePacificdiaspora,ofan
identityuniquetoPacificIslanderethnicgroupsliketheSamoans,
Tongans,andHawaiianstakesonparticularsignificanceifweareto
betterunderstandwhothesepeopleareandhowtheymightaddto
thevariegatedpatchworkofculturesandethnicitiespresentinplaces
liketheUnitedStates,NewZealand,andAustralia.
GapsintheLiterature
NeedforFurtherResearch
Thegeneralfindingsemanatingfromthisreviewsuggestthatthere
aregapsintheliteratureregardingthedevelopmentofanethnic
identityuniquetotheislandpeopleslivingintheUnitedStatesand
acrossthePacific.AsIpreviouslymentionedintheintroduction,
thereexistsaverifiablelackofresearchandliteraturespecificto
identityformationinPacificIslandersandevenlessinformationis
availableonspecificethnicgroupslikeSamoansandTongans.
ManyofthetitlesthatIutilizedforresearchingthisliteraturereview

weredifficulttofindandtoughtoacquire.Forexample,distant
librariesandtitlespurchasedovertheinternetweretheprimary
placesinwhichIobtainedmyliteraryresources,includingafew
articlesofrelevancegeneratedfromtheUniversityofSt.Thomas
literarydatabase.Whatthisseemstosuggest,isthatmoreresearch
willbeneededpriortodevelopingatheoreticalframeworkfor
explaininghowSamoans,Tongans,andotherethnicgroupsnativeto
thePacificdeveloptheiridentitiesandhowtheseidentitiescoalesce
intobroaderpatternsofidentityformationforPacificIslanders
livingwithinthePacificdiaspora.
Iamintriguedbythepossibilityofinterviewingfamilymembersof
minelivinginplaceslikeSouthernCalifornia,thePacificNorthwest,
Hawaii,AmericanSamoa,andIndependentSamoa.Iamparticularly
interestedinlearningmoreonhowthefourthemesemergingfrom
thisliteraturereviewinteractwithoneanotheracrossgeographic
locales.Whatpatternsexist,intermsoftheconstructionofaPacific
Islanderethnicidentity,acrossthePacificregionwithinthecontext
providedbyasingleaiga?Howdothesepatternsintersectwith
socialissuessuchasdegradationoftheenvironmentandthe
subsequentlossofnativePacificIslanderlanguagesandcultural
knowledge?Howcanweasleadersandqualitativeresearchersbring
theseissuestotheforegroundinanefforttopreservenativeculture
forallpeoples?Beforeweprovidetheanswerstothesetough
questions,weasleadersmustbewillingtolistentothemultitudeof
ethnicandculturalvoicesthathavebeensnuffedoutbythe
dominanthegemonyofthewesternworld.Wemustcelebratethe
diversityinourselvesandineachother,welcomingallatthetableof
nations,ifwearetosurviveasapeople.Onthisprinciple,reststhe
futureofourworld.
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