MULTILINGUALISM

FFST
Department of English

MULTILINGUALISM

Student:

Mentor:

Andrea Munjiza

prof.dr.sc. Sanja urkovi-Kalebi

Split, 07.01.2015.

MULTILINGUALISM

Table of contents
1. Introduction.......................................................................................................................3
2. Scope of multilingualism..................................................................................................4
3. Possible definitions of multlingualism..............................................................................6
3.1. Individual vs. social dimension................................................................................6
3.2. Proficiency vs. use dimension..................................................................................7
3.3. Bilingualism vs. multilingualism.............................................................................8
4. Towards a more holistic view...........................................................................................9
5.Conclusion.......................................................................................................................11
6. References.......................................................................................................................13

MULTILINGUALISM

1. Introduction
Multingualism has become one of the most widely researched areas of linguistics in the past
few decades, mostly due to globalisation and the growing interconnectedness of individuals
of different ethnic, cultural and, most importantly, linguistic backgrounds. This accumulation
of terms and discoveries concerning multingualism has lead to it to become a distinct field in
linguistic studies. However, a problem can occur when we try to give an universal definition
of what multilingualism is, what it entails and how it manifests. Since it is a interdisciplinary
study, every field involved in the research of this phenomenon has offered a different
interpretation of it, depending on the point of view taken in the inquiry. Some of these
scientific fields involve linguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, educational studies,
sociolinguistics etc. All of them use different methodology, terminology and perspectives. It is
of vital importance that this accrued mass of information and findings is summarized and
systematized, in order for multilingualism to gain the title of an autonomous study. As
Weinreich (1953, p.115) stated, ''no two studies are thoroughly comparable, because the
linguistic techniques employed an the social orientations, if any, on which they are based have
been so different from one case to the next.'' However, it is the aim of this paper to present
some of the different aspects of multilingualism, its types and definitions, in hopes of
providing a more complete overview of the data acquired during the recent reasearch boom.

MULTILINGUALISM

2. Scope of multilingualism
In this modern age, when the Internet and cheap and fast travel options have shrunk the Earth
into a global village, where anyone can reach any point in the world in a matter of hours,
minutes or (in the case of Internet and social media) minutes, it is obvious why
multilingualism is becoming such a common occurence. Although English has become a
lingua franca of sort, the number of English speaking Internet users has been slowly
declining over the years, from the considerable 51.3% back in 2000 to 26.8% back in 2011
(Internet World Stats, 2011). Other languages, such as Spanish and Chinese, continue to gain
more prominence throughout the Internet, therefore gaining more learners. This implies that,
although speaking English might enable one to reach and communicate with almost anyone
in the world, '' the ability to speak other languages none the less ensures a competitive edge.'
(Edwards, 2004, p. 164).
As mentioned before, it was never easier to travel or migrate to different parts of the world.
This usually implies that the newcomer must learn the language of his/her new community,
but also his/her very presence exposes the natives to a foreign language.
Multilingual individuals are also a common occurrence in places where a regional or
indigenous language is spoken among a small number of citizens, who are therefore required
the learn the predominant language. Such is the case of Catalan in Spain, Manx and Welsh in
the United Kingdom or Romani throughout Europe, as well as many others. There are 165
indigenous languages spoken in North America only.
Furthermore, learning languages in schools is also more widespread than ever. This includes
both language learning as a part of the regular primary and secondary school curicula, in
universities, as well as autonomous language schools.

MULTILINGUALISM

According to ethnologue.com (n.d.), one of the most extensive language catalogues, there are
more than 7,000 living languages in the world, distributed throughout about 200 countries.
Bearing this in mind, along with the previously mentioned factors, it is not surprising that the
number of multilingual individuals continues to grow. Also, multilingualism is not a modern
notion. It dates back to 3000 BC, when the Sumerian language was gradually replaced by
Akadian, during the increasing symbiosis of the Sumerians and Semites.
Aronin and Singleton (2008) distinguish how these more ancient instances of multilingualism
differ from the more modern ones:

Geographically- Multilingualism is not limited only to those languages which can be

found in relative proximity to each other. The phenomenon is more widely spread

throughout the world.

Socially- Multilingual individuals were members of specific classes, castes or
professions and the use of different languages was reserved for specific occasions,
such as rituals. Today, people of all backgrounds, professions and during more

activities utilize their knowledge of languages.

Type of medium- In the past, the use if several languages was mostly reserved for
writing. Nowadays, due to Internet and social media, communication is multimodal
and instanteneous.

After a brief introduction to the historical and geographical scope of multilingualism, we are
going to attempt to define this phenomenon according to what different disciplines have
inferred from their distinct perspectives.

3. Possible definitions of multilingualism

5

MULTILINGUALISM

Various fields of linguistic study offered their respective descriptions of how multilingualism
develops, manifests and influences both the speaker and his/her environment. Some of these
include sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, linguistics and educational studies. There are
several elements in the definition of multilingualism which hinder the systematization of this
emerging discipline: 1) individual/social dimension, 2) proficiency/ use dimension , 3)
bilingualism/ multilingualism:
3.1. Individual vs. social dimension
Depending on whether researchers study multilingualism from the point of view of a
individual speaking several languages or a society in which different linguistic groups coexist,
a variation of terminology occurs. When it comes to individual multilingualism, the term
'plurilingualism' is also used, and is defined as the 'repertoaire of varieties of language which
many individuals use'' by the Council of Europe (n.d.), which can be found on their website.
The word 'multilingualism' is, on the other hand, more commonly applied when speaking
about the societal aspect of the term, i.e. it is 'the presence of in a geographical area, large or
small, of more than one 'variety of language' (...); in such an area individuals may be
monolingual, speaking only their variety.' This type of distinction is the one most widely
adopted. Moore and Gajo (2009, p.138) share a similar view, stating that plurilingualism aims
attention to ''the focus on the individual as the locus and actor of contact''. For Li (2008, p.4),
a multilingual individual is ''anyone who can communicate in more than one language, be it
active (through speaking and writing) or passive (through listening and reading)''. How a
person acquires the knowledge of different languages can also differ. One can be exposed to
several (usually two) languages since early childhood and sees them as being one's mother
tongue. This is an instance of simultaneous multilingualism. Conversely, a person can learn
more languages additionally in addition to one's native language, which is called sequential
multilingualism. Also, the acquirement of an L2 (or L3, L4 etc.) can be elective (the study of a
6

MULTILINGUALISM

foreign language by means of language classes for work or pleasure) or circumstantial (when
one is forced to learn a language because he/she has relocated to a foreign speaking
community). In the societal aspect of the study of multilingualism there are also some more
differentiations, one being that of additive and subtractive multilingualism. The first one
denotes the situation when a L2 or L3 is added, but the L1 is still used and valued, while the
latter stands for the occurrence when a L2 or L3 is added, simultaneously replacing the L1 (or
L2). The subtrative form can be found in the situation when a socially dominant community
languages replace home languages. The additive form frequently occurs when a speaker's
mother tongue is a majority language.
Nevertheless, multilingualism cannot be studied in such a one-sided manner, since its scope
can only be understood by combining these scholarly positions. The type of community
greatly influences whether an individual will acquire two or more languages or not. Therefore,
one might find more multilingual speakers in multilingual communities (as opposed to
monolingual ones), in border areas, in areas with regional or minority languages or in areas
with a high rate of technological and Internet accessability.
3.2. Proficiency vs. use dimension
The definiton of multilingualism given by the Council of Europe touched upon another
stumbling point in our attempt to define multilingulism, indicating the problem of language
user's aptitude. Bassetti and Cook (2011) distinguished two groups when it comes to the
necessary knowledge of language: the first one requires topmost proficiency, while the other a
minimal competence. This entails the problem of balanced and unbalanced multilingualism.
A balanced multilingual speaker is equally proficient in all spoken languages, whereas the
language skills of an unbalanced speaker differ. For Skutnabb-Kangas and McCarty (2008), a

MULTILINGUALISM

perfect command of all acquired languages is not a criterion for establishing whether a person
is multilingual or not.
Other researchers focus more on the use dimension, for instance Ldi and Py (2009, p.158),
who mention that each individual currently practicing two (or more) languages, and able,
where necessary, to switch from one language to the other without major difficulty is bilingual
(or plurilingual).
3.3. Bilingualism vs. multilingualism
Although the term multilingualism has been used in a generic manner throughout this paper
(conforming to the generally accepted position), his can also be applied to the term
bilingualism. In the first case, multilingualism refers to having skills in two or more
languages (Aronin & Singleton, 2008). This means that bilingualism is, at the same time, a
subset of the term multilingualism. In the other case, when bilingualism is seen as a generic
term, research is based on the acquisition of only two languages and seldom does it include
more additional languages. Such is the case with Mackey (1962, p. 27), who draws the
distinction between monolinguals and bilinguals, where bilingual denotes knowing two or
more languages (27). Finally, bilingualism and multilingualism can be treated as two separate
notions. Throughout his book, De Groot (2011) approaches these terms in such fashion, for
bilinguals are seen as people skilled in the use of two languages, and multilinguals as skilled
in three or more.

MULTILINGUALISM

4. Towards a holistic view of multilingualism

As we have seen throughout this paper, there are a number of opposing
positions and terms still existing in the study of multilingualism. The last
antipodal stance we aim to tackle here is the difference between the
atomistic and holistic view. When studying something in an atomistic
manner, one tends to analyze its parts as autonomous and separable
elements, while a holistic view is concerned with the whole, rather than its
distinct parts. In the context of multilingualism, this means that one trend
will study this phenomenon in terms of specific components of syntax,
lexis and phonetics in the process of acquisition of one particular language
at a time. A researcher with atomistic views treats a language as a
complete, distinct and a relatively stable item and a multilingual person
can be seen as a sum of more monolinguals of which he/she consists. On
the other hand, scholars who hold a more holistic point of view might view
a multilingual person as an entity of its own, having a unique linguistic
profile. Cook (1991, p.121) proposed the term multicompetence, defined
as a compound state of mind with two grammars. She explains that this
is a complex type of competence, which is qualitatively different from the
competence of monolingual speakers of a language. This implies that the
parts of a whole are dynamically interrelated and that they should not be
discussed in isolation. Cook (2003) considered that the knowledge
multilingual speakers have of their language is different from that of
monolingual speakers because acquiring a second language can have an
effect on the first language.

MULTILINGUALISM

Cook is not the only researcher to take the holistic standpoint. Moreover,
there has been a shift towards this view as opposed to a more traditional
atomistic stance, since the latter could not explain all of the specificities of
the phenomenon that is multilingualism. The atomistic bias, i.e. the study
of multilingualism through a monolingual perspective evaluates the
multilingual individuals knowledge of a language by the standard of a
perfectly competent native speaker. While atomists see a multilingual
linguistics apparatus as total of separate monolingual apparatuses,
researchers like Block (2007) suggest that multilinguals should not be seen
as semilinguals, but rather as hyperlinguals, as they tend to have (and,
consequently, utilize) more linguistic resources in communication and
further language acquisition. Also, as Jessner (2008) states, development
of multilingual competence is dynamic and involves changes in language
acquisition and language use. This means that a multilingual individual
uses different languages in different social contexts and their competence
may vary according to its use.
Furthermore, when talking about boundries between the languages, an
atomistic view considers mixing and crossing of these as a sign of low
proficiency. This is the result of analyzing languages independently from
each other. In reality, a multilingual person uses his/her linguistic
repertoire in a creative way, utilizing the obtained knowledge of all
languages depending on the given situation.
This unifying approach can be applied in language learning, where several
different language school subjects can be incorporated into one all10

MULTILINGUALISM

encompassing curriculum. Authors like Cenoz & Gorter (2011) and SolteroGonzalez, Escamilla, & Hopewell (2012) think that this method can help
foreign language students to use their linguistic knowledge more
inventively, i.e. students could use their resources cross-linguistically and
become more efficient language learners than when languages are taught
separately. This way, the same linguistic resources can be learned at one
point and then be transferred to the learning process of any other
language. I find this novel pedagogic approach to be very efficient,
inasmuch as it could be both time and cost effective, while simultaneously
endowing learners with a universal linguistic strategy.
As we have already seen, multilingualism cannot be studied only from an
individuals point of view. We must also try to apply the holistic standpoint
to a broader, societal aspect of the phenomenon, because language use
must be examined within its context (language users environment). This
means that being a competent multilingual implies acquiring skills to be
accepted as a member of a community of practice (Kramsch & Whiteside,
2007).
Nowadays, the communicative context is often multimodal and can
combine visuals, sound, texts, and other semiotic symbols. A holistic view
of multilingualism sees multilingual competence as linked to the social
context in which language practices take place. In these contexts, the
boundaries between languages and between different semiotic devices are
often blurred.
5. Conclusion
11

MULTILINGUALISM

Naturally, different researchers and research groups working in different

research traditions use different definitions of multilingualism according to
their purposes. Defining a phenomenon as complex as multilingualism is
problematic in many ways. Including a definition of multilingualism in each
study benefits researchers in the field because it increases clarity with
regard to who is under research in the study, and consequently
understanding of how studies are comparable, and in quantitative
research, whether a study is generalisable to a specified population. A
definition may also be used by researchers themselves to select or screen
participants. As research into multilingualism has been undertaken by
researchers working in different research traditions, a number of terms are
used to refer to same (and different) phenomena within the field. Most
researchers now use the term bilingual to refer to individuals who use
two languages, and multilingual to refer to individuals who use three or
more languages (rather than using the term bilingual to mean more than
two languages, or multilingual for users of just two languages). Evidence
from research now appears to indicate that the argument that bilingualism
and multilingualism are the same ability, but with different numbers of
languages, is not necessarily the case. As research proceeds in more
depth, substantial differences between bilinguals and multilinguals appear
to be emerging, just as differences between multilinguals are emerging. In
the end, it would be useful if researchers were to give a detailed definition
of multilingualism as part of each study. Explicit definitions would allow
others to understand the principles behind the study, and how each study
relates to the existing literature.
12

MULTILINGUALISM

References
Aronin, L., & Singleton, D. (2008). Multilingualism as a new linguistic dispensation.
International Journal of Multilingualism, 5, 116.
Bassetti, B., & Cook, V. (2011). Language and cognition: The second language user. In V.

13

MULTILINGUALISM

J.Cook & B. Bassetti (Eds.), Language and bilingual cognition (pp. 143190). Oxford,
UK: Psychology Press.
Block, D. (2008). Multilingual identities in a global city. London, UK: Palgrave.
Cenoz, J., & Gorter, D. (2011). Focus on multilingualism: A study of trilingual writing.
Modern Language Journal, 95, 356369.
Cook, V. (Ed.). (2003). Effects of the second language on the first. Clevedon, UK:
Multilingual Matters.
Cook, V. 1991. The poverty-of-the-stimulus argument and multi-competence. Second
Language Research 7: 103117.
Council of Europe. (n.d.). Policies for Plurilingualism. Council of Europe, Education and
Language, Language Policy (website). Retrieved from
http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Division_en.asp
Edwards, V. (2004). Multilingualism in the English-speaking world. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
Ethnologue(n.d.). World languages. Retrieved from http://www.ethnologue.com/world
Internet World Stats. (2011). Internet world users by language. Retrieved from
http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats7.htm
Jessner, U. (2008). A DST model of multilingualism and the role of metalinguistic awareness.
Modern Language Journal, 92, 270283.
Kramsch, C., & Whiteside, A. (2007). Three fundamental concepts in SLA and their
relevance in multilingual contexts. The Modern Language Journal, 91, 905920
Li, W. (2008). Research perspectives on bilingualism and multilingualism. In W. Li &M.

14

MULTILINGUALISM

Moyer (Eds.), The Blackwell handbook of research methods on bilingualism and

multilingualism (pp. 317). Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
Ldi, G., & Py, B. (2009). To be or not to be . . . a plurilingual speaker. International
Journal of Multilingualism, 6, 154167.
Mackey, W. F. 1962. The description of bilingualism. Canadian Journal of Linguistics 7: 51
85.
De Groot, A. M. B. (2011). Language and cognition in bilinguals and multilinguals: An
introduction. New York, NY: Psychology Press. 85.
Moore, D., & Gajo, L. (2009). Introduction: French voices on plurilingualism and
pluriculturalism: Theory, significance, and perspectives. International Journal of
Multilingualism,6, 137153.
Skutnabb-Kangas, T., & McCarty, T. (2008). Key concepts in bilingual education:
Ideological, historical, epistemological, and empirical foundations. In J. Cummins &
N. Hornberger (Eds.), Encyclopedia of language and education: Bilingual
education (2nd ed., Vol. 5, pp. 317). New York, NY: Springer.
Soltero-Gonzalez, L., Escamilla, K., & Hopewell, S. (2012). Changing teachers perceptions
about the writing abilities of emerging bilingual students: Towards a holistic bilingual
perspective on writing assessment. International Journal of Bilingual Education and
Bilingualism, 15, 7194.
Weinreich, U. 1953. Languages in Contact. The Hague: Mouton

15

MULTILINGUALISM

16