Machine Design

Lecture - 3 Fatigue failure theories - Part II

Dr. Narasimhan Swaminathan
Indian Institute of Technology Madras - Chennai 600 036

August 10, 2014

1 / 23

Contents I
1

Role of mean stresses

The modified Goodman diagram

Equations of lines
Safe region in Goodman diagram
Estimating factor of safety
a is constant
m is constant
a m
Designing with a known factor of safety

Stress concentration in fatigue and notch sensitivity

Notch sensitivity factor
Applying stress concentration in Fatigue

Multiaxial fatigue
Combining stresses

Problem
2 / 23

Contents II
6

References

3 / 23

Role of mean stress

So far we have looked at fully reversed cases m = 0. m plays
an important role in affecting fatigue behaviour. It is clear that
positive mean generally reduces life for a given a .

Figure 1: Effect of mean stress on life [1]. Note that as mean stress increases the endurance limit decreases.

4 / 23

The modified Goodman diagram

a

The modified Goodman diagram

a
Sy
Se

Sy

Sut

The modified Goodman diagram

a

Goodman line

Sy
Se

Sy

Sut

The modified Goodman diagram

a

Goodman line

Yield line

Sy
Se

Sy

Sut

The modified Goodman diagram

a

Goodman line

Yield line

Soderberg line

Sy
Se

Sy

Sut

The modified Goodman diagram

a

Goodman line

Yield line

Soderberg line

Sy
Se

Gough Ellipse

Sy

Sut

The modified Goodman diagram

a

Goodman line

Yield line

Soderberg line

Sy
Se
Gerber Parabola

Gough Ellipse

Sy

Sut

5 / 23

Equations of Lines
Note that the Goodman diagram is drawn for a certain life. We
will generally consider the diagram for infinite life or 106 cycles and specifically for steel alloys. For determination of factor of safety we will in general need the equations of various
lines/curves.


Soderberg line a = Se 1 Smy

 2 
Gerber parabola a = Se 1 Smut


Modified Goodman line a = Se 1 Smut


Yield line a = Sy 1 Smy
 2  2
Gough Ellipse Sae + Smy
=1

Equations of lines

6 / 23

Safe region
a
Sy

Any point inside the shaded area is Safe zone

Se

Safe region in Goodman diagram

Sy

Sut

7 / 23

Factor of Safety with Goodman diagrams

One can estimate the factor of safety with Goodman diagram.
The manner in which the factor of safety is determined, depends
on how a and m are expected to vary during the service of the
component. We will see three cases:
1

a is a constant while m varies

m is a constant while a varies

a m

For other more general loading scenarios see Ref. [2]

Estimating factor of safety

8 / 23

Factor of safety: Case 1: a constant

a
0

Nf =

Sy

LS
LQ

Sut (1 Sa )
e
0
m

Se

a is constant

Q
0 )
(a0 ,m

Sy

Sut

9 / 23

Factor of safety: Case 1: a constant

a
Nf =

Sy

LS
LQ

0
y

Sy (1 S a )
0
m

Se

L
O

a is constant

Q
0 )
(a0 ,m

S
Sy

Sut

10 / 23

Factor of safety: Case 2: m constant

a
0

Nf =

Sy

LS
LQ

Se (1 S m )
a0

ut

Se
S
Q

m is constant

0 )
(a0 ,m

Sy

Sut

11 / 23

Factor of safety: Case 2: m constant

a
Sy

Nf =

LS
LQ

0
y

Sy (1 Sm )
a0

Se

S
Q
O

m is constant

0 )
(a0 ,m

Sy

Sut

12 / 23

Factor of safety: Case 3: m a

a
Sy

Nf =

LS
LQ

LN
LM

0
m
0 @Q
m

Se
S
0 )Q
(a0 ,m

Sy

Sut

Factor of safety: Case 3: m a

a
Sy
Se

Nf =

LS
LQ

LN
LM

0
m
0 @Q
m

Calculate Nf for point Q

S
0 )Q
(a0 ,m

a m

Q
M

Sy

Sut

13 / 23

Designing with a known factor of safety

When you want to design a component, you have to assume
a factor of safety. Let that be say N. Then you can use the
following equations to design the component.


Soderberg line a = Se N1 Smy


2 
Se
Nm
Gerber parabola a = N 1 Sut


Modified Goodman line a = Se N1 Smut


Yield line a = Sy N1 Smy
 2  2
Gough Ellipse Sae + Smy
= N12

Designing with a known factor of safety

14 / 23

Stress concentration in fatigue

Remember that the design stress is actually higher that the nominal stress due to the presence of notches (any stress raiser) by
a factor Kt . The presence of notches affects the fatigue life and is
characterized by a fatigue-notch factor Kf . It is generally the ratio of endurance (fatigue) strength without the notch to that with
the notch. For cases of completely reversed loading, usually
Kf < Kt
The sensitivity of the material to the presence of the notch is dictated by several factors like heat treatment and hence the Sut ,
size of the notch, type of loading, etc. Notch sensitivity is characterised by a notch sensitivity factor q.

15 / 23

Notch sensitivity factor q

Neubers constant for Steel

q is defined as:
q=

Kf 1
Kt 1

(1)

q is calculated using:
q=

1
1+

a
r

(2)

a is called Neubers
constant
r is notch radius
Notch sensitivity factor

Figure 2: Neubers constant for steel [2]

16 / 23

Neubers constant for Steel and Al

Figure 3: Neubers constant for steel and Al [?]

Notch sensitivity factor

17 / 23

Notch sensitivity

Figure 4: Some charts plot the q itself [2]. Note, how loading condition affects looking up the value for q

Notch sensitivity factor

18 / 23

Stress concentration fatigue

Once q is known, we can calculate Kf using Eqn. 1, since Kt is

known from loading and geometry. .

Now, the question is how do we apply Kf to a and m

For a , Kfa = Kf in other words, amax = Kf anominal

For m , Kfm depends on the material strength

If Kf |max | < Sy no yielding occurs, then Kfm = Kf

If Kf |max | > Sy but |min | < Sy , then Kfm =

Sy Kf anominal
nominal |
|m

Kf | nominal | > 2Sy ; Kfm = 0

Cast Iron
Cast Iron is not very sensitive to notches. Flaws present in them
internally actually brings down the strength to such an extent that, the
failure of a component made of CI is not dependent on whether there
are any notches or not .
Applying stress concentration in Fatigue

19 / 23

How do we handle mutiaxial fatigue?

When we have more that one component of stress on the machine element, we try to combine the stresses to get some effective measure. This is an active area of research and no method
has been found to be good. One logical way to attack this problem is to look at methods available to us. For example, can use
von-Mises stresses for m and a components.
In the Goodman diagram, we plot von-Mises equivalent m on
the X axis and on the Y axis we plot the bluevon-Mises equivalent a .

Combining stresses

20 / 23

What is generally followed?

For fully reversed cases
q
2 + 2 + 2
a0 = 1a
1a 2a
1a 3a
2a 3a
2a
3a
and
Nf =

Sn
a0

(3)

(4)

where Sn is the fatigue strength at the desired life.

For simple fluctuating multiaxial stresses:
Sines method: a0 will be the von-mises equivalent
0
alternating component and m
is 1m + 2m + 3m . Then
use the modified Goodman-diagram
0
von-Mises method: Both a0 and m
are von-mises
equivalent stresses. Then use modified -Goodman diagram.

Note that in Eqn. 3, xa (x = 1, 2, 3), are the Principal Alternating

stresses.
Combining stresses

21 / 23

Do this problem

An aluminium rod of OD 2 in and ID 1.5in is subjected to sinusoidally varying

load F, between 340 lb and -200 lb. The length of the rod is 6 in. The arm
length as shown is 8 in. A finite life design is sought at 6107 cycles. Notch
radius is 0.25in and Kt =1.7 and Kts = 1.35. Given that
(1) Corrected
Sf = 11299psi (for 5E8 cycles),(2) Neubers constant ( a)=0.147, (3)
Maximum shear stress due to transverse load 2V
A (V is shear force and A is
cross sectional area), (4) Sy = 47000 psi and Sut = 68000 psi. Calculate
safety factor for points A and B.
q
BVM =

B )2
(xB )2 + (yB )2 xB yB + 3(XY

BVM is the von-Mises equivalent alternating

(B = a) or mean (B = m) stress.

Figure 5: Taken from Ref.[2]

22 / 23

References
[1] P. Black and O. Adams, Machine Design. 3.ed.

New York, N.Y., McGraw-Hill, 1955.

[2] R. L. Norton, Machine Design: An Integrated Approach, Second Edition.

Pearson Education, 2007.

23 / 23