Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Materials
That Sense
and Respond
Keep Em Flying
Laser Peening Keeps
Aircraft Turbine Blades
in Action
How many times in the past year have I heard the word synergy? And of those times, how many were at home with my
wife or out at a restaurant? I would guess that the ratio is
something like 10:0, because like so many other management clichs or buzzwords, synergy lives only at the office.
Things like cooperation, give-and-take, and understanding live at home.
Why does this matter? Honestly, it probably doesnt, but
arent we all just a little overloaded with how many catchphrases come along? I recall having lunch with the CEO
from one of the nations largest manufacturers of industrial
carbon products a few years back. He said that there were
three kinds of organizations in business: there were those that
Editor-in-Chief
Wade G. Babcock
Creative Director
Cynthia Long
Information Processing
Judy E. Tallarino
Patricia McQuinn
Inquiry Services
David J. Brumbaugh
Product Sales
Gina Nash
Training Coordinator
Christian E. Grethlein, P.E.
The AMPTIAC Quarterly is published by the Advanced Materials and Processes Technology Information
Analysis Center (AMPTIAC). AMPTIAC is a DOD sponsored Information Analysis Center, operated
by IIT Research Institute and administratively managed by the Defense Information Systems Agency (DISA),
Defense Technical Information Center (DTIC). The AMPTIAC Quarterly is distributed to more
than 25,000 materials professionals around the world.
Inquiries about AMPTIAC capabilities, products and services may be addressed to
David H. Rose
Director, AMPTIAC
315-339-7023
EMAIL:
URL:
amptiac@alionscience.com
h t t p :/ / a m p t i a c . a l i o n s c i e n c e . c o m
We welcome your input! To submit your related articles, photos, notices, or ideas for future issues, please contact:
AMPTIAC
ATTN: WADE G. BABCOCK
201 Mill Street
Rome, New York 13440
PHONE: 315.339.7008
FA X : 3 1 5 . 3 3 9 . 7 1 0 7
EMAIL:
amptiac_news@alionscience.com
Benjamin Craig
AMPTIAC Technical Staff
Rome, NY
INTRODUCTION
Fluids capable of a rapid and dramatic change in their rheological properties (properties associated with the flow of matter) in the presence of an electric or magnetic field are finding
many new applications. They are classified as being electrorheological (ER) or magnetorheological (MR) fluids
accordingly. ER and MR fluids are actuators that have the
repetitive ability to react to an applied field. In their liquid-like
state, they exhibit fluid-like properties. In their activated,
solid-like state however, they can physically resist an applied
force much like a solid material (or extremely high viscosity
liquid) would.
These special fluids have recently gathered greater attention
due to their commercial success in state-of-the-art automobiles. The 2003 Corvette Anniversary Edition and Cadillac
Seville STS feature a shock absorbing system that incorporates
MR fluids as the primary damping component. (See this
issues MaterialEASE for a brief description of the electro- and
magneto-rheological effects, as well as an introduction to other
sensor and actuator materials.)
Willis M. Winslow discovered the ER effect in 1942, and
since then there has been much struggle first to completely
understand the effect, and second to develop ER fluids with
properties that meet the design requirements for practical
applications. Some of the properties of ER fluids that have
hindered them from performing sufficiently for many applications are yield stress, temperature stability, and power
consumption.[1]
In the late 1940s the MR effect was first reported. The
amount of effort that was put forth to study MR fluids was not
nearly as significant as that for ER fluids mainly because they
require particles with much higher densities, which results in
sedimentation a significant complication. Recently, however,
there has been a renewed interest in MR fluids primarily
because they exhibit some superior properties.
ELECTRORHEOLOGICAL FLUIDS
General Composition
ER fluids basically consist of particles that are held in suspension by a non-conducting liquid. The suspending liquid,
which should have a high electrical resistivity, is typically a
low-viscosity hydrocarbon or silicone oil. The particles
dispersed in this liquid are commonly metal oxides, aluminosilicates, silica, organics, or polymers.[2] In particular, the
15
Miscellaneous properties
Non-abrasive
Non-toxic
Non-corrosive
Non-Flammable
Specific Composition
The properties of ER fluids can be modified by varying the
components and compositions of the particles and liquid. In
general, increasing the concentration of particles in the fluid or
increasing the intensity of the applied field will increase the
magnitude of the ER effect. The properties of these fluids also
depend on particle size and density, carrier fluid properties,
additives, and temperature. Figure 1 displays the dynamic
yield stress for a few sample compositions of ER fluids.
Silica gel has been one of the more common types of particles used for ER fluids, but despite having high shear stresses
and low minimum field strength (to induce the ER effect),
these fluids have some serious disadvantages. They have a
relatively high conductivity, poor stability, are abrasive and not
very resistant to sedimentation.[1] Aluminosilicates are among
the particles providing the best ER effect, [1] and metal
hydroxides can be activated with water or a polar solvent to
exhibit a good ER effect.[1] Poly(lithium methacrylate) and
0.25
34 wt. % Zeolite in
Silicone Oil
0.2
Polyelectrolyte Dispersed in an
Oil
4.06
0.3
0.15
0.1
0.05
3.12
2.18
1.24
0.3
0
Figure 1. Comparison of Dynamic Yield Stress vs. Electric Field for Two Groups of ER Fluids[4]
16
10
Conductivity(nS/cm)
Shear Stress, Pa
kPa, while that of MR fluids is about 100 kPa.[5] The MR fludirectly proportional to the volume fraction of particles in the
ids are also much more efficient in that they require a low voltfluid, and since the carrier liquid volume expands with the
age, whereas the ER fluids require a high voltage. This power
increase of temperature, the volume fraction of the particles
consumption aspect translates into a lower cost for MR fluids
decreases.
Other properties affected by temperature include conducas well as a safer system. In addition, the MR fluids are much
tivity and current density. The overall conductivity of the fluid
less sensitive to contaminants, and can effectively operate over
increases with increasing temperature, as does current densia broad temperature range: -40 to 150C.[5] One major disty.[1] Figure 3 shows the temperature dependence of the ER
advantage of MR fluids is the strong tendency of sedimentaresponse and the conductivity of a fluid having a polyurethane
tion, in that once a significant amount of the particles coagudispersed particulate phase in a silicone oil.
late, it is difficult to redisperse them. A disadvantage in both
ER fluids that contain water
ER and MR fluids is that the
have an ER effect that is strongcarrier fluid is usually organic.
1000
ly dependent on temperature.
Organic fluids have problems
Cellulose/Mineral Oil
T=26C
These ER fluids experience a
with degradation, polymerizasignificant change in their ER
tion, flammability, bacterial
effect above 100C and below
growth, and can also be incom0C, which limits their use to
patible with other components
applications that have operating
in systems where they are
100
5 kV/mm
temperatures within this range.
used.[6]
4 kV/mm
Thus, much effort has been
The yield strength of MR
made to create ER fluids that
fluids can be increased by
3 kV/mm
exhibit a strong ER effect withincreasing the concentration of
2 kV/mm
out requiring water. These are
particles or by increasing the
1 kV/mm
10
called anhydrous ER fluids; an
intensity of the magnetic field.
0
10
100
example
of
which
is
The higher concentration of
Volume Fraction, %
poly(anthracene quinone radiparticles, though, corresponds
Figure 2. Effect of the Volume Fraction of Cellulose on the
cal) particles in silicone oil
to a higher viscosity when the
Dynamic Yield Stress as a Function of Electric Field[1]
(PAnQR/silicone).[1]
magnetic field is absent, which
ER fluids that can operate at
is not usually a desired property.
A comparison of the typical properties of ER and MR fluids is
very low temperatures are also of interest. Cryogenic ER fluids
given in Table 2.
have been investigated in the form of aluminum powders (20MR fluids are not ferrofluids, which also have a rheological
vol.%) in liquid nitrogen. Strong, solid particle, columnar
response to a magnetic field (although to a lesser extent than
structures form when an AC field of 10.7 kV/cm is applied.[1]
MR fluids). Hence, ferrofluids are not considered actuators
but they are colloidal fluids that have particles much smaller
MAGNETORHEOLOGICAL FLUIDS
than in the non-colloidal MR fluids (approximately one to
The key difference between electrorheology and magnetorhethree orders of magnitude smaller.) They also do not form
ology is in the application of the stimulating field.
chain-like structures of the same magnitude as MR fluids in
Electrorheology uses low current, high voltage to generate an
the presence of a magnetic field. Moreover, ferrofluids do not
electric field, whereas magnetorheology uses low voltage, high
current through a coil to generate a magnetic field.
The MR effect is also similar to the ER effect, but obviousDC Couette Viscometry @ 1000 s-1
ly, instead of an electric field, a magnetic field is applied to
2000
5
polarize the particles. The polarized particles interact and form
chains and columnar structures, and the rheological properties
4
1500
are changed dramatically. These events also take place over an
extremely short period of time: on the order of a millisecond.
3
1000
Upon removing the magnetic field, the particles lose their
polarization and return to their freely roaming state.
MR fluids have a similar composition to ER fluids in that
2
500
they typically contain a dispersed, polarizable, particulate
0 kV/mm
phase suspended in a carrier fluid. Unlike the ER fluids
1
10
3 kV/mm
though, the MR fluids use ferromagnetic or paramagnetic
Conductivity
solid particles. These particles are usually within an order of
0
0
magnitude of a micrometer in diameter. It is common for
-20
0
20
40
60
80
them also to contain surfactants and other additives.
Temperature, C
MR fluids usually have greater yield strengths than do ER
Figure 3. ER-Behavior of a Polyurethane Based ERF[1]
fluids. The yield stress of an ER fluid is typically around 10
17
Density (g/cm3)
Operable temperature range (C)
Response time
Power supply (typical)
Maximum field
Maximum energy density (J/cm3)
Plastic viscosity, p (Pas)
Maximum yield strength, 2y (kPa)
p/2y (s/Pa)
Contaminants
12
10 90
~milliseconds
2000 5000 V @ 110 mA
~4 kV/mm
0.001
0.1 1.0
25
10-8 10-10
Cannot tolerate impurities
MR fluids
34
-40 150 (limited by carrier fluid)
< milliseconds
2 25 V @ 1 2 A (2-50 watts)
~250 kA/m
0.1
0.1 10
50 100
10-10 10-11
Unaffected by most impurities
AMPTIAC Directory
Government Personnel
T ECHNICAL M ANAGER /COTR
Dr. Lewis E. Sloter II
Staff Specialist, Materials & Structures
ODUSD(S&T)/Weapons Systems
1777 North Kent St., Suite 9030
Arlington, VA 22209-2110
(703) 588-7418, Fax: (703) 588-7560
Email: lewis.sloter@osd.mil
DEFENSE TECHNICAL INFORMATION CENTER
(DTIC) POC
Melinda Rozga, DTIC-AI
8725 John J. Kingman Road, STE 0944
Ft. Belvoir, VA 22060-6218
(703) 767-9120, Fax: (703) 767-9119
Email: mrozga@dtic.mil
A SSOCIATE COTR S
ORGANIC STRUCTURAL MATERIALS &
ORGANIC MATRIX COMPOSITES
Roger Griswold
Division Chief
US Air Force
AFRL/MLS
2179 Twelfth St., Bldg. 652
Wright-Patterson AFB, OH 45433-7702
(937) 656-6052, Fax: (937) 255-2945
Email: roger.griswold@wpafb.af.mil
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
& SPECIAL FUNCTION MATERIALS
Dr. James Murday
Naval Research Laboratory
4555 Overlook Ave., S.W. Code 6100
Washington, DC 20375-5320
(202) 767-3026, Fax: (202) 404-7139
Email: murday@ccsalpha3.nrl.navy.mil
Did you
work for the
Air Force
Materials
Lab?
19