Physics 2B:

Electricity and
Magnetism

Part I: Electricity
Eric L. Michelsen
emichels at physics etc.
Slightly tailored for Randall Knights
Physics for Scientists and Engineers, 2nd ed.
5/16/2013

Charges
Do particles push on each other because they
are charged? Or ...
Do we say that particles are charged because
they push on each other?
F21

+
particle 1

5/16/2013

F12

particle 2

F21

+
1

F12

+
2

More on charges
Charge is measured in Coulombs (C)
A coulomb is like a dozen, only bigger:
6.242e18 electrons-worth of charge
~10-5 moles of electrons

Or, an electron has 1.602e-19 C of charge

Very small

from
particle 2
on particle 1
F21 F12
+
1
2
+2

1
5/16/2013

F12
?

+2

F12
?

-3

Force is proportional
to both charges:
|F| = ke q1q2 / r2
3

Coulombs Law
Force weakens with distance
1/r2 (like gravity)

Obeys superposition
New charges dont interfere with forces from
existing charges, so forces simply add vectorially
1

F21

F12 ke

F12 2
r12

F21

F12
?
r12

5/16/2013

where

q1q2
r

r12

r r12 ,
ke K

r12

r12
r

1
4 0
4

What are the units of

A
B
C
D
E

5/16/2013

r12
r12
r

dimensionless
m
m2
m-1
m-2

 Kinematic example
First: Take conditions one
at a time
Only initial position
Only initial velocity
Only constant acceleration

Superposition:
The effect of all the
conditions together is the
sum of each separately
x f = x i + v it +

(1/2)at2

vi = 0, a = 0

xi

xf = xi
0

v(t)

xi = 0, a = 0
xf = area = vit

v(t)

t
xi = 0, vi = 0

vf = at

Aside:
Superposition

x(t)

xf = area = (1/2)at2
t

Often used in E&M

5/16/2013

Source charges and test charge

Source charges usually considered fixed in space

Test charge moves around
No physical difference between source and test
Coulombs Law obeys superposition

2
source
charges
1-4

- F
e

3
+

5/16/2013

F4
+

Fe

test charge
q0 > 0

F3
4

F1

F2

ke

qi q0
ri

i 1

q0 ke

ri

qi

ri 2 ri
i 1

Theres no
physical
difference
between source
and test charges

Electric Fields
Consider a distribution of source charges
The force on a test charge at any point is
proportional to the charge:
At a point: Fe q0

Fe Eq0
Fe (r ) q0 E(r )

Extending to any point in space:

2
Units
of E?
Direction
of E?
5/16/2013

F4
+

Fe
q0 > 0

F3

3
+

E constant vector

where

F1

F2

q0 < 0

F3

3
+
4

F4
+

F1

F2

Fe

Electric field from source charges

Source charges create an E-field
4

Recall: Fe q0 ke

qi

ri 2 ri ,

Fe q0 E

and

i 1

E (r ) k e

qi

ri 2 ri
i 1

3
+
5/16/2013

F4
+

Fe
q0 > 0

F3
4

F1

F2
9

At P, which way does

the E-field point?
A
B
C
D
E

5/16/2013

10

Lines of Force
Field of vectors in space: the E-field
Lines of force follow the arrows
E
+

How does lines-offorce density relate

to E-field strength?
5/16/2013

E-field strength is
proportional to linesof-force density.
11

Do objects always move in the

direction of the force applied to them?
No. Objects bend toward the direction of
applied force, but they generally dont move
parallel to it
Lines of force
Not trajectories of motion

g-field?

Fg
5/16/2013

12

Simulated particle trajectory

What sign is the test charge?

line of
force

5/16/2013

trajectory

13

If I release a negative test charge at rest

on a line of force, how will it move?
A
B
C
D
E
+
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To the right, following the line of force

To the right, crossing the lines of force
It wont move
To the left, following the line of force
To the left, crossing the lines of force
-

When does the

test charge move
along the line of
force?
14

Birth, life, and death of

lines of force
No matter how close we get to a positive charge, lines of force
point away from it
Lines of force originate on positive charges

No matter how close we get to a negative charge, lines of force

point toward it
Lines of force terminate on negative charges

Cant cross or split

... because they follow the E-field, which can only point one way from
every point

But they can turn quickly at a point of zero field

5/16/2013

E=0
15

Electric conductors
Conductors (good or poor) have mobile charges
Good conductors: metal
Poor conductors: carbon, electrolytes (e.g. water)

If immersed in an electric field, mobile charges move

While they are moving, we have an electric current
current is the motion of charge

q
-q
5/16/2013

velocity

Much more
on this later
16

Insulators
Insulators do not have longrange mobile charges
E.g., glass, plastic
May have dipoles that can be
induced or rotate a little

All insulators are dielectric at

some level
Some insulators have negligible
polarization (gases)
Dont worry about dielectrics
until a later chapter
5/16/2013

applied
E

Much more
on this later
17

Charging by induction
Start with
neutral
conductors
Induce
Connect
spheres by wire
or touching

+
Connect
with wire

Separate
(E-field
not shown)
5/16/2013

+
18

An electroscope has a + charge, so its

leaves are apart. I bring a negative rod
near it. What happens to the leaves?
A
B
C
D
E

Leaves get closer

Leaves spread farther
One gets higher, the other lower
Nothing
Leaves collapse completely

How can we be
confident this is true?
5/16/2013

--

The electroscope question

(stop to think 26.3 p799)

19

E-field of ring of charge

What is E-field at distance z from center?
Axial symmetry implies E parallel to axis
dE k e

Q
z
R

dE

dEz

dq
r

dE z ke
Ez

dEz ke

E z ke

dE z ke

dq
r

cos

dq z
z
k
dq

e
2 r
2
2
2
2
r
R z
R z

dQ

5/16/2013

R2 z

2 3/ 2

2 3/ 2

Q,

0 dq
E Ez z
20

Flux
Loosely: counting lines of force through the area
This only works because E 1/r2

More precisely: Flux is E-field component through the area,

times the area:
E E A

or

area EdA

Area vector is perpendicular to the area, so the parallel E-field

component gives the E-field perpendicular to the area
So flux is a dot-product

E
A
(area vector)

5/16/2013

What kind of quantity

is ?

A
21

Why flux?
Surface charge distributions (sheet
charge)
A uniform density of charge in a large
flat sheet
What is the E-field near the surface?
Critically important, but ...
Can integrate over Coulombs Law, but its
tedious

Gauss Law (flux) makes this simple

+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
5/16/2013

sheet charge:
C/m2

E
+ + + +

side
view
22

For the same |E| and |A|, how does the

flux through the area on the left
compare to that on the right?
A Flux is greater on the left
B They are the same
C Flux is greater on right
E

E
A

A
5/16/2013

23

What is the flux through a sphere?

E E A

A
B
C

E
E

ke q
r2
ke q
r

r
2

E 4 r ke q

d E dA

E cos dA

surface

surface

dA ke

q
r2

4 r 2 4 ke q

E 4 ke q
dA E

E 0

d?
q
5/16/2013

r
24

What is the flux through the funnyshaped surface?

A

E 4 ke q

E 4 ke q

E 4 ke q

D
E

E 0
q

5/16/2013

25

What is the flux through the bag?

A

E 4 ke q

E 4 ke q

E 4 ke q

E 0

E
q

5/16/2013

26

Gauss Law
The total outward flux from a closed surface
equals 4ke times all the charge enclosed:
E 4 ke qin

qin
0

1
k

,
e
4 0

0 will be handy later

Does superposition apply?

Superposition of what?

What is qin here?

q
2q

5/16/2013

Why are arrows

different lengths?

27

Gauss Law (part deux)

out +

in -

out +

q
out +
5/16/2013

28

Surface charge distributions:

the beauty of Gauss Law
A uniform density of charge in a large flat
sheet
Gazillions of tiny particles (electrons, ions)

What is the E-field near the surface?

What shape is it?
sheet charge
density, C/m2
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + + + A
5/16/2013

Gauss' Law: E qin / 0

2 EA A / 0 ,

A
+ + + +

gaussian
surface (box)

2 0

side
view

A
29

What is the E-field above a surfacecharged conductor?

A
B
C
D
E

zero
/20
/0
2/0
4/0

E?
+ + + + +

+ + + +

How is this
possible?

conductor
5/16/2013

30

Three ways to make E-fields easy

Using Gauss Law relies on any of 3 methods
E-field is constant (though unknown)
E-field is zero
E-field is tangent (to gaussian surface)
E? A
+ + + + + + +
E=0
A
5/16/2013

conductor

+ +

31

Volume charge distributions

Consider a spherically symmetric volume
distribution, in C/m3
What is E-field at distance r, outside the
sphere?
What does Gauss say?
How does it compare to
a point charge at distance r?
E 4 ke qin Er 4
r2 4 ke q

area

Er ke
5/16/2013

q
r2
32

How does the E-field of a spherically

symmetric volume distribution
compare to that of a point charge?
A Its bigger, because some of the charge is
closer
B Its the same
C Its smaller, because more of the charge is
farther away
r

r
q

5/16/2013

33

Forces lead to work, potential energy,

and voltage (aka potential)
1D:

A F ( x) dx

U ( B) U ( A) We

Independent of the trajectory: time, speed

Work can be + or -

A q0 E ( x) dx

Potential energy is proportional to test charge

Voltage is defined as electric potential energy per
unit charge (aka potential difference)
In volts (V), equivalent to joules/coulomb
F
A

q0 +

E>0

A
5/16/2013

- q0

U ( B ) U ( A)
V ( B) V ( A)

q0

A E ( x) dx 0

E>0
34

Electric Potential is different than

Potential Energy
Electric Potential (aka Potential) = Voltage
Potential is defined as electric potential energy per
unit charge
U e ( B ) U e ( A)
V ( B) V ( A)

q0

Potential is independent of test charge

Potential energy of the test charge depends

on its charge: U ( B) U ( A) q V ( B) V ( A)
e

5/16/2013

35

How does the work done (from A to B)

by the field on a fast-moving charge
compare to the work done on a slowmoving charge?
A
B
C
D

Its greater
Its the same
Its less
Depends on the charge

A
5/16/2013

q0

E>0
36

Potential of a point charge

In other words, what is the work needed to bring +1 C of
charge from far away to a distance r from the source charge?
Gets steeper closer in
Which way does a positive charge move?

V(r)

V(r)
PE of +
test charge

5/16/2013

E(r)

r
PE of test charge

V(r) < 0
37

Potential of a point charge (2)

In other words, what is the work needed to bring +1 C of
charge from far away to a distance r from the source charge?
We can use a 1D analysis
V ( B ) V ( A)

rB

A E (r ) dr

q
1 B
ke 2 dr ke q ke
rB
r
r
q

Voltage referenced to is defined as absolute potential

Still a function of distance, r:

V (rB ) VrB ke

If source charge is negative, potential is negative

q
rB

V(r)
F

B
5/16/2013

source
charge

A at

q0

displacement
direction from A to B

38

What is the potential midway

between two point charges?
A
B
C
D

positive
zero
negative
depends on the test charge

q0

-q

V?
5/16/2013

39

Wouldnt I have to do work to bring a

charge from infinity to the midpoint?
At first, from some directions, yes
But once past the + charge, the E-field does as much
work (returns as much energy) to finish the job as it
cost to bring the charge in from infinity
Net energy cost = 0
maximum
potential
q

5/16/2013

-q

equipotential
surfaces

40

Forces lead to work, potential energy,

and voltage (Part Deux: 3D)
ds is the same as dr
How does VAB compare to VAC?
B
B
U ( B) U ( A) We q0 E(r )dr
3D: W A F(r)dr
A
z

Independent of: time, speed

What about path?
uniform E

ds
dx
5/16/2013

dz
dy
x

C
A

q0

F
41

How does the work done on q0

from A to B along path 1
compare to that of path 2?
A Its more
B Its the same
C Its less

5/16/2013

pa
th

What if it were
different?

B
1
th
a
q0 p
E

42

How do negative test charges move

in an electric potential?
A Down the potential hill
B They dont move
C Up the potential hill

How do negative
charges move in a
potential energy field?
5/16/2013

V(x)
?
x

Different setup
than above
?

U(r)

When acted on only by the potential field.

43

E and V
E is to F as V is to Ue
Electric field E is force per unit charge
V is potential energy per unit charge
electric force E(r ) Fe (r ) ,
q0
per unit charge

5/16/2013

V (r )

U e (r )
q0

electric potential energy

per unit charge

44

Hard work: grading your potential

ds dxx dyy dzz
y
ds

dz

We, z

U (r )
U (r )
U (r )
F (r )
x
y
z
y
z
x

U (r )
The gradient produces a vector
Fz dz
field from a scalar field

dy We, y Fy dy
dx
We, x Fx dx

B
ds

A
5/16/2013

U (r )
F (r )

q0
q
0

E(r ) V (r )

dV Eds

V ( B ) V ( A) E(r )ds
A

any path
45

Equivalence of statements
about conservative fields
The E-field is conservative
The electric potential is a function of position only: V(r)
The electric work done on a charge between two points is
independent of path

We expect this from conservation of energy

Different work on different paths + reversing a path reverses the work
= infinite energy for free!

Can prove it explicitly from Coulombs Law & vector calculus

Specifically: the curl of the electrostatic E-field = 0

Bds 0
5/16/2013

E 0

B 0

46

Good conductors
Good conductors (typically metals) have huge
(essentially infinite) numbers of mobile electrons
(~104 C/cm3)
Electrons free to move within the conductor
But they cant leave the surface
E-field drives negative electrons
leave behind positive ions

Allows for a redistribution of charge

Charge always moves to reduce E-field

Molarity:
10-5

1C=
mol of electrons
Copper mobile electron density
= 10-1 mol/cm3 = 100 mol/L
5/16/2013

applied E
-

+
+
+
47

In a conductor, which way do the

positive charges move?
A
B
C
D

left
they dont move
right
depends on the conductor
applied E
-

5/16/2013

+
+
+
48

In a static E-field, after equilibrium,

what is the E-field inside a good
conductor?
A
B
C
D

Depends on the source charges around it

Enhances any applied E-field
Reduces any applied E-field
zero
applied E
-

5/16/2013

E?

+
+
+

conductor

49

In equilibrium, how does the potential

at B, V(B), compare to that at A, V(A)?
A
B
C
D

Its less
Its the same
Its greater
Depends on the conductor
applied E
-

A
5/16/2013

+
+
+

conductor

50

Fluid conductors
Have smaller number of mobile charges
Mobile charges may be electrons or ions

Conductor may be liquid or gas

Plasma (ion/electron gas, not blood)
Electrolyte

5/16/2013

51

Which way do the positive charges

move?
A left
B they dont move
C right

applied E

5/16/2013

52

Alternate units for E

sign convention

[E]=V/m
Equivalent to N/C
V Ed,

or from

Edx

Can view E two ways:

For simplicity, consider
a uniform E-field:
voltage

U q0 Ed Fe d q0 V
force
5/16/2013

potential energy
per unit charge

E
+ V

Sign convention for V:

positive end of V has
higher PE
for positive test charge
53

Relationship between E-field and V-field

E points between equipotentials
E is perpendicular to equipotentials
Tighter equipotential surfaces = stronger E (more volts/meter)
Wider equipotential surfaces = weaker E (less volts/meter)

E(r ) V (r )

F(r ) U (r )

E
2V

3V

1V

3 V
0V

5/16/2013

-q

equipotential
surfaces

decreasing
potential: E
points downhill

54

Potential energy of a bunch of charges

Imagine bringing charges, qj, in one at a time
The 2nd and subsequent charges (j)
interact with all previous charges (i)
j 1

Ue

ke

qi q j

j 2 i 1

rij

rij rij

Also written (as in Knight):

Ue

ke
i j

qi q j
rij

But its really a double sum

And even:
5/16/2013

q1

qi q j
1
Ue
ke
rij
2 i j

q2
q3

q4
55

Capacitor
Two parallel thin plates
Small gap =>
neglect edges

Charges symmetrically
By induction!
(not to be confused with
inductance)

Stores charge
Q (charge on one plate)
is proportional to V
Defines capacitance C:
Q = CV
Measured in C/V F,
Farads
5/16/2013

small
large gap, d
plate
+ E
+

+ V

wire

56

What is the E-field outside the

plates of a capacitor?
A
B
C
D
E

5/16/2013

left
zero
right
depends on which plate has more charge
not enough information
+
+

+
+ V

wire
57

Energy in a capacitor
Given a capacitor charged to voltage V, how
much work does it take to increase the charge
dWe by a small amount, dq?
dU dWoutside

q
V dq dq
C

How much work to

charge the whole
thing from 0 to V ?
final charge
U

dWoutside

1 Q2 1
2

C V
2 C
2
5/16/2013

2 Q

1q
q
dq
C
C 2

NEVEREDDY

hypothetical
dq > 0

wire

+
NB: dq is not a
geometric quantity + V

58

Sign convention for a capacitor

Choose reference plate: defines polarities
Eliminates minus sign where possible
charge on
reference plate

Q
E

0 A 0
V E d Q

d
A 0

A
Q 0 V C V
d

capacitance area,
inversely separation

5/16/2013

I choose this as my
reference plate
+

d
E

+
+ V

wire
59

What is the total net charge in a

capacitor charged to voltage V?
A
B
C
D
E

5/16/2013

Qnet = C V
Qnet = (1/2)C V
Qnet = 0
Qnet = C(V)2
Qnet = (1/2)C(V)2

60

If I charge a capacitor so that

Q < 0, what describes its energy?
A
B
C
D

5/16/2013

U>0
U=0
U<0
depends on V

61

How to solve any problem: Example 1

A bound NaOH molecule is modeled as Na+ bound to O(-2)
bound to H+, in a straight line in that order. The Na+ ion is
1.0e-10 m from the O(-2), which is 1.0e-10 m from the H+.
How much energy does it take to remove the Na+ ion from the
molecule (i.e., take it to far away), in J?

if
needed

5/16/2013

What does it look like?

What does it want? Energy
What do we know about what it wants? U qV
What is given? q1, q2, q3, r1, r2
qs
V
(
r
)

k
What can we find from what is given?
e
r
Build a bridge: what principles/formulas relate what is given or what
we can find to what it wants?
Vtotal (r ) V1 (r ) V2 (r )

Na

-2

1e-10 m

1e-10 m

U q0 Vtotal

qp
2 q p

0 q0 ke

10
10
2 10
1 10

Vtotal()

62

How to solve any problem: Example 2

An electron in a picture tube starts at rest. It is accelerated by
25,000 V across a distance of 0.50 m to the screen. How long
does it take to travel to the screen, in s?

if
needed

What does it look like?

What does it want? time
1 2

at , x vavg t
What do we know about what it wants?
2
What is given? d, V
V
W

F
d

qEd

e
What can we find from what is given? e
d
Build a bridge: what principles/formulas relate what is given or what
we can find to what it wants?
F qE
2x
x d , a
, t
m m
a

screen
x = 0.5 m
Fe
5/16/2013

E 25,000 V / 0.5 m 50, 000 V/m

1.6 10

19

C 50,000 V/m

9.1 1031 kg

2(0.5 m)
8.8 1015

1.1 108 s

8.8 1015 m/s

63

When mobile charges move, what

do they do to the applied E-field?
A they reduce it
B nothing
C they increase it

5/16/2013

64

Dielectrics (1)
applied
Have rotating dipoles
E0
(on springs)
Dipoles rotate to oppose
little E-fields oppose E0
applied E-field
For same charge on plates,
moving charges reduce E-field
vacuum value E0
Enet

Vnet

V0

vacuum value
its linear!

Dielectrics are not conductors

Charges move a little, but are
bound to a small region
5/16/2013

Enet

wire

dielectric +

+ V

65

When I insert a dielectric between the

plates of a capacitor, what happens to
the capacitance?
A
B
C
D

5/16/2013

It decreases
nothing
it increases
depends on the dielectric

large
plate
+

small
gap, d

dielectric +

+ V

wire

66

Dielectrics (2)
For same charge on plates,
rotating dipoles reduce
E-field
Enet

E
0

Vnet

dielectric
constant

V
0

For same charge on plates, V

decreases compared to vacuum
Coulombs per volt increases

large
plate
+

small
gap, d

=> capacitance increases

C
5/16/2013

Q 0 A

d
V

+ V

wire
dielectric
67

Cellular
technology
... local dielectric properties can play
crucial roles in membrane functions.
-- Local Dielectric Properties Around
Polar Region of Lipid Bilayer
Membranes, J. Membrane Biol.
85,225-231 (1985)
An important physical effect of cholesterol is to increase
the membrane's internal electrical dipole potential, which is
one of the major mechanisms by which it modulates ion
permeability. The dipole potential ... arises because of the
alignment of dipolar residues ... in the .. interior of the
membrane. ... its magnitude can vary from 100 to >400
mV.... Recent investigations have suggested that it affects
numerous different biological membrane processes.
-- Cholesterol Effect on the Dipole Potential of Lipid
5/16/2013
Membranes, Biophys J. 2006 June 1; 90(11).

68

Im a cell, and ions are expensive. I need to

create a transmembrane potential difference.
What should I choose to perfuse my membrane?
A
B
C
D

5/16/2013

Cholesterol, = 2
Water, = 80
Air, = 1
It doesnt matter

69

Electricity, with all my heart

Electrical model allows localizing
performance of individual muscles or
small groups from multiple
measurements on the skin

right atrium

pulmonic valve

right ventricle

aortic valve

mitral valve

left ventricle

tricuspid valve

pulmonary arteries and veins

body arteries and veins

left atrium

Jose Bohorquez, An Integrated-Circuit Switched-Capacitor Model and Implementation of

the Heart, Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Applied Sciences on
Biomedical and Communication Technologies, 25-28 October 2008. DOI
5/16/2013
70
10.1109/ISABEL.2008.4712624

Charging a capacitor:
some things just take time
To what voltage (V) does the capacitor
charge?
Why does it stop charging?
1.5 V
+

5/16/2013

electron
current
conventional
current

1.5 V

NEVEREDDY

+
+ V

wire

71

What is a voltage source?

An ideal voltage source maintains a constant voltage

across its terminals under all conditions
A battery is a voltage source. So is ...
... a generator
Nothing is really ideal, but its a useful model

When charges move to reduce the voltage

across the terminals ...
The voltage source pumps out more charge to keep the voltage up
Pulls in charge at low potential energy, pumps out a charge at high PE

This may or may not result in a continuous cycle of charge (current)

An ideal voltage source can ...

Supply or absorb an arbitrarily large charge
Supply or absorb an arbitrary large current
(arbitrarily large charge in arbitrarily short time)
Supply or absorb arbitrarily large energy

+
PE
charge out
(high PE)

I
5/16/2013

+
charge in
(low PE)

72

Ideal voltage source (2)

They have a source of energy, the emf,
which overcomes the electric force
The voltage source does positive work on
the charges
The E-field does negative work on the
charges

PE
e- in
e- out
(low PE)
(high PE)

Usually, voltage sources

supply energy to the circuit

Electron flow view

But sources can just as well absorb

energy from the circuit
You can charge a battery

5/16/2013

73

Electric current
Conductors (good or poor) have mobile charges
If immersed in an electric field, mobile charges move
While they are moving, we have an electric current
current is the motion of charge
Conventional current is the flow of hypothetical positive
charges

current
q
-q
5/16/2013

velocity

74

What describes the electric current

below?
A
B
C
D

It is to the left
It is about zero
It is to the right
Depends on the conductor

-q
-q

5/16/2013

75

Continuous current
If mobile charges are continuously removed
from one side, and resupplied on the other, we
have a continuous current
Conventional current is the flow of
hypothetical positive charges
In C/s amperes (A)
I avg

Q dQ

t 0 t
dt

NEVEREDDY

hypothetical
I = dQ/dt

I (t ) lim

5/16/2013

Most references use

i and q for timedependent values

-q

-q

wire
-q

electron
76

How does the PE of the e- going into

the poor conductor compare to the PE
of the e- coming out?
A
B
C
D

Its less
Its equal
Its more
not enough information

NEVEREDDY

wire

+
5/16/2013

-q

+
poor
conductor

-q

-q

-q

electron
77

How does the PE of the hypothetical (+)

charge going into the poor conductor
compare to the PE of it coming out?
A
B
C
D

Its less
Its equal
Its more
not enough information +

From now on, we always

use conventional current
when discussing circuits.
NEVEREDDY

hypothetical
dQ > 0

q
+

wire

q
5/16/2013

poor
conductor

q
78

A wire is a good conductor. How

much work does it take to move a
charge through it?
A
B
C
D

5/16/2013

exactly zero
essentially zero
a lot
its impossible to move a charge through it

79

Kirchoffs current law (junction rule)

Conservation of charge
Sum of currents into a node
= sum of currents out of a node

Iin Iout
I1 I 2 I 3

I3
I2

I1

Node is aka junction

Sum of currents into a node = 0

This is the books version

Sum of currents out of a node = 0

Not used much
5/16/2013

Iin 0
I1 I 2 I 3 0

Iout 0
I1 I 2 I 3 0

I3
I2

I1

I3
I2

I1
80

Kirchoffs voltage law (loop rule)

PE of charge depends on its location,
but not how it got there
Consider PE change of +1 C of test
charge, at each node around a loop
If possible, choose loop
direction out from battery +
I find it easiest to start from battery -

rises drops
V 0

+ V1 +

Conservative nature of electric field

loop
direction

+ V2 - + V3 V1 V2 V3
V1 V2 V3 0

Final PE must equal starting PE

PE is proportional to charge (and to voltage)
Final voltage must equal starting voltage

5/16/2013

81

Capacitor combinations
When charged, how does V1 compare to
V2, and to V?
How about charges Q1 and Q2 ?
Qtot Q1 Q2

Ctot

Capacitors in parallel

Q
Recall: C
V

Q1
Q2

C1
C2

Qtot Q1 Q2

C1 C2
V
V
V

Capacitors in series

Vtot V1 V2
5/16/2013

Ctot

Qtot
Q
1

Vtot Q / C1 Q / C2 1/ C1 1/ C2

When charged, how does V1 compare to

V2, and to V?
How about charges Q1 and Q2 ?

V
C2

C1
+ V1 -

+ V2 82

Ohms Law
For a large class of conductors (at constant
temperature), the current through it is
proportional to the voltage across it:
V IR

resistors

The constant of proportionality is resistance

Requires consistency in reference directions (sign conventions)
measured in ohms ()

Some things dont follow Ohms Law

Light bulbs ?

R
I
+ V
5/16/2013

+
conductor

NEVEREDDY

wire

I
83

Discharging a capacitor;
Rearranging capacitors
What is the energy delivered when
q
dW

V
dq

dq
discharging a capacitor? e
C
We

dWe

dq R

1 qi 2
We
2 C

+V

q
dq
qi C

There was never an R to start with

Even a wire dissipates the same energy

When rearranging capacitors, the

wires dissipate the missing energy
5/16/2013

+ V

V (q ) dq

Theres no R in the final result

+V

Q
+V
Q/2

Q/2

84

The nature of resistance

5/16/2013

85

What is the effect of temperature

on a given conducting element?
A
B
C
D

5/16/2013

Higher temp usually means higher R

Higher temp usually means lower R
Temp has no effect on R
Theres no general trend, it varies by material

86

Without using any formulas, what

is the total resistance?
A
B
C
D
E

R/2
R
2R
Depends on R
10 ohms
R
R

5/16/2013

87

Resistor combinations
Recall: V IR

How does V1 compare to V2, and to V?

How about currents I1 and I2 ? Itot
Itot I1 I 2
Rtot

1
V
V

Itot V / R1 V / R2 1/ R1 1/ R2

Resistors in series

Ohmic?
V

Resistors in parallel

I1

R1

I2

R2

How does V1 compare to V2, and to V?

How about currents I1 and I2 ?

5/16/2013

Rtot

Vtot V1 V2 IR1 IR2

R1 R2
I
I
I

Vtot V1 V2

I1
R1 + V 1

V
I2
+ V2 -R2
88

What we need is More power

Two terminal devices (R, C, diodes, batteries,
etc.) supply or absorb electrical energy

At what rate? P V I
J/s J/C C/s
Resistors convert electrical energy to heat
Sign convention for sources is
opposite that of all other devices
Capacitors sometimes absorb & sometimes supply

5/16/2013

I
+ V

Sources: Positive power

supplies energy to circuit
+

Resistors: Positive power

absorbs energy from circuit
R

I
+ V

89

What is the power dissipated in a

15 resistor at 120 V?

5/16/2013

1800 W
80 W
960 W
8W
Depends on the current

A
B
C
D
E

90

What is the power dissipated in the

diode, in W?

5/16/2013

0.10
0.06
0.04
0.02
not enough information

A
B
C
D
E

3V

100

+ 2V -

91

What is the power in the diode?

Solution
3V

loop
direction

+ VR
I 100
From the loop rule:

3 VR 2 0

+ 2V -

VR 1 volt

Note the polarities on the loop rule

From Ohm's law:

I VR /100 0.01 amperes

Power law on diode:

P 2 0.01 0.02 watts

5/16/2013

92

Defibrillator

5/16/2013

spoons

93

EKG
Voltages measured between pairs of leads
Sample of one voltage below right
Different pairs measure different regions of the
heart

5/16/2013

94

Home electrical
service
drip loops
prevent this

Drip loops keep water out

Grounding prevents arcing
Find your grounding rod at home
5/16/2013

95

Old-fashioned 120 V service

neutral

neutral

hot 120 V

circuit
breakers

15 A

hot

black
white
safety
ground

15 A

earth neutral/
5/16/2013 ground ground bond

etc.

96

Are you being

served?

Phase-to-neutral = 120 V
Phase-to-phase = 240 V
phases A and B are
opposite polarity
neutral
phase A

etc.

phase B

phase A

phase B

15 A

black
white
safety
ground

circuit
breakers

5/16/2013

neutral

earth
ground

neutral/
ground bond

97

Why two phases?

0.25
4A

120 V

4A

0.25
0.25

120 V

4A

+
+

120 V

0.25
0.25

5/16/2013

- Vwire +

4A
240 V
receptacle
98

Power in a resistor
For all (2-terminal) devices,
P = (V)I
For resistors:
V IR

I V / R

P IR I I 2 R
P V V / R

2
V

Losses in a wire vary as the square of the current in

the wire
Less current = less loss
Its easy to know the current in a wire
But hard to know the voltage across it

High V low I low losses

5/16/2013

99

What is the power lost in the wires?

A
B
C
D
E

2W
4W
8W
16 W
32 W

What is the voltage

drop in the wires?

0.25
4A

wires
120 V

Tip: pick your reference

directions first:
What do the current
arrows look like?

4A

What percentage is that of

the supplied voltage?

0.25
5/16/2013

100

What is I2?
0.0 A
0.50 A
1.0 A
2.0 A
not enough information

120 V
5/16/2013

120 V

0.25

A
B
C
D
E

I2
0.25
0.25

4A
4A
101

What is the power lost in the wires?

A
B
C
D
E

2W
4W
8W
16 W
32 W

What is the voltage

drop?

120 V
5/16/2013

120 V

0.25

I2
0.25
0.25

4A
4A

What percentage is
that of the load?
102

What is earth?
What does the light bulb do?
Charges move to decrease potential
differences, then current stops

Essentially, earth is a big blob of

resistive material

steady state
I= 0
+

No steady-state current: bulb is dark

There can be transient current

Two stakes in the ground have a

resistance ~100s to 1000s
Try it!

This makes earth a convenient

reference point for voltages
The entire power grid is tied to earth
to avoid arcing (sparks)
5/16/2013

103

Which path does the current take?

A
B
C
D
E

Current takes the path of least resistance, R

Current takes the path of most resistance, 2R
Current divides equally between both paths
Current divides in proportion to the resistances
Current divides in inverse proportion to the
resistances
I
V

R
2R
5/16/2013

104

Electrical measurements

Measuring voltage is easy

R1

R3

R2

Just stick the probe between the points

Measuring current is harder

Must insert meter into the current path

Measuring resistance requires one end of resistor be

open (so its similar difficulty to measuring current)
+

R1

R1
+

V
5/16/2013

R2

R3

R2

open

R3
105

I disagree with the books quantitative

microscopic model of conduction
The (average) final speed of an accelerated electron
is:
F
qE
v f a

Which means the average speed is that

Book is off by a factor of 2

For their equations to work, we must define as the

mean time between collisions

All the books do the same thing

v(t)
vf
vaverage

5/16/2013

time since collision

106

Current-voltage relation for a resistor

What is the shape?
What is the slope?
Knight 2nd ed. p969b is wrong:
Ohms law includes signs of V and I
I

I = V/R, so
slope = 1/R
V

I
+ V
5/16/2013

107

Analyzing a reducible circuit: how are

the 600 ohm and 560 ohm resistor
related?
A
B
C
D
E

In series
In parallel
neither
both
not enough information

5/16/2013

400
800

560

12 V

600

108

Analyzing a reducible circuit

A circuit is reducible if we can use simple
resistor/capacitor combinations to reduce the circuit
to a single source and a single resistor and/or
capacitor.
Usually (but not always), a circuit with only one source is
reducible
600

800

5/16/2013

800

800

12 V

800

12 V

12 V

800

560

12 V

400
800

560

12 V

240

400

109

Space
The space station has
charge dissipators
Xenon ions carry away
built-up charge

5/16/2013

NASA says there is a

health risk if the ISS
charges to more than 40
volts, and a 2002 NASA
report says that voltages
as low as 60 volts could
cause cardiac arrest in a
spacewalking astronaut.
110

Sparks
Dielectric strength of air ~3e6
V/m
At ~100 V => 3e-5 m ~ 0.03 mm

electrical switch
5/16/2013

111

Drawing current
Nothing draws current
Devices allow current to flow if pushed by a
voltage (potential difference)

5/16/2013

112

Both bulbs are lit. When bulb B is

removed, leaving an open gap,
bulb A ...
gets brighter
stays the same
gets dimmer
goes out
not enough information

A
B
C
D
E

B
5/16/2013

113

Analyzing a 2-loop circuit: which

resistors can we combine?
A
B
C
D
E

300 and 100

300 and 200
100 and 200
All 3 at once
None of them
I1

5/16/2013

100
12 V

19 V

300

I2

200

114

Analyzing an irreducible 2-loop circuit

Can we reduce it?
How many unknowns are there?
What about the unlabeled current?
19 I1 300 I1 I 2 100 12 0

7 I1 300 I1 I 2 100 400 I1 100 I 2

12 I1 I 2 100 I 2 200 0

12 I1 I 2 100 I 2 200 100 I1 300 I 2

I1

5/16/2013

I2

33 1100 I1

I1 0.03 A

12 3 300 I 2

I 2 0.05 A

Or:

100
12 V

19 V

300

1200 I1 300 I 2

21

I?1 - I2

200

19 I1 300 I 2 200 0
19 I1 300 I 2 200
33 1100 I1

115

Current-voltage relation for a

capacitor: i(t) ? v(t)

Note reference polarities

What is relation between q and i?
What is relation between q and v?
Finally, what is relation between i and v?

C
q(t)
5/16/2013

i
+ v

i (t )

dq (t )
dt

q (t ) Cv(t )

i (t ) C

dv(t )
dt
116

What is the current?

A
B
C
D
E

64(-sin t) mA
10.(-sin t) mA
380(-sin t) uA
60.(-sin t) uA
not enough information

+ 170 cos(t), at 60. Hz

= 260 = 377 rad/s

5/16/2013

1.0 F

117