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ANCIENT INDIA
Indus Valley Civilization

Science & Technology
Astronomy
They were aware of directions given they had trade routes, their dead were buried in N-S directions,
their town planning made use of directions etc. So they must have used astronomical bodies to gauge
direction.
Recently observatories were excavated from Lothal and Dholavira.
Medical Science
They were aware of surgery as evidence of skull surgery has been found from Kalibangan and Lothal.
Chemical Science
They used different colors on their pots.
Mathematics
Weights and measures of specific standards were used.
The brisk trade indicates some knowledge of basic mathematics.
Metallurgy
Bronze working + copper, gold, silver and tin working.
Civil Engineering
They constructed public buildings, embankments, drains, used burnt bricks.
They knew the technique of water-proofing.
Arts & Crafts Techniques
Industry: Seal making, precious stone working, bead making and terracotta making were quite advanced.
Agriculture: They used to plough their fields with wooden ploughs as is evident from terracotta plough
figurines from Banwali. Plough furrows discovered in Kalibangan. They also had irrigation and water
conduits (underground in some areas) and small scale inundation canals (to lead the water where
desired) have been found.
Architecture (READ FROM NCERT ALSO)
Features
Used permanent material on a large scale: In villages mud bricks were used with stone being used in
foundations and drains. In cities, burnt bricks were used. In Kutch, stones were used on a large scale.
Planned: The bricks were laid in English bond style. The bricks had standard ratio. There is no correlation
between planning and size of the settlement.
Technical knowhow: They knew the technique of water-proofing. Houses had separate bathrooms near
the well and the bathing area was sloping towards the drain and water-proof.
Secular.
House structure: Houses sizes differ from large to small ones. People generally lived in houses with a
central courtyard and rooms surrounding it. Doors and windows opened in side streets not the main
street. There were double storied houses and staircases as well. Doors were sometimes painted or
carved.
Monuments
Cities were fortified. They had well laid out roads and drains.
Great bath, assembly hall, granaries.
Pillars
Remains of stone pillars have been found from Dholavira.
Paintings
They used to paint the outer side of their pots with geometrical designs, birds, animals etc. The outer
surface of their pots used to be red on which paintings were made in black.
Sculpture
They made use of metal, alloys, stones and terracotta figurines. Terracotta masks and faience bangles
were also made.
The images were both secular and religious in nature. Examples are numerous terracotta figurines of
mother goddess, animals etc., the bearded priest, the bronze dancing girl, the red torso etc.
Music & Dance
The statue of dancing girl shows they were aware of music and dance.
Images of a stringed musical instrument too have been found on some pots.
Pottery
The pottery was black-on-red ware where both inner and outer surfaces were red. On the outer red
surface, designs of birds, animals, geometry were painted in black color.
The rims of the pots are strong to help in lifting them and moving around. The bottom portion has
additional clay as well.
Vedic Age
Astronomy
Various astronomical bodies like sun, moon, jupiter, venus, mars, saturn are mentioned in Vedas but
perhaps their astronomical significance was missing and they were more for astrological / religious use.
Medical Science
The system of Ayurveda emerged in this age.
Chemical Science
They knew fermentation techniques and made somaras.
They knew tanning of leather.
They used different colors on pots.
Mathematics
Fire altars.
Metallurgy
Technique of bronze making and later iron making were present.
Industry: Carpentry and chariot making were advanced professions.
Architecture
Monuments
Vedic texts contain references of huge palaces of kings but no such imposing structures have been
found.
Wood, mud bricks and thatched roofs were used.
Stupas
The term stupa has been referred to in Rig Veda but not in the context as we know it. The term then
referred to the fire coming out of the sacrificial altar.
Paintings
They used to paint their pots. The outer surface of the pots was grey on which they painted floral and
geometrical designs.
On the grey surface, blue color was used to make the designs.
Dance & Music
Music witnessed progress in the form of the hymns of Sam Veda.
Pottery
PGW was the distinctive pottery. It was coarse with medium fabric. The outside surface was grey on
which blue floral and geometrical designs were made.
Pre-Mauryan Age
Astronomy
Astrological charts etc. were prepared.
Medical Science
Taxila was a famous centre of medical science. Aitraya was a famous teacher there.
Bimbisara's personal doctor Dhanvantri was a famous doctor.
Chemical Science
The polish of NBPW was very glossy. The method to make this polish is also described in detail in
contemporary works.
Mathematics
Sulvasutra is a text on geometry. It talks about circles, triangles, squares and rectangles. It tells how to
make a circle equal in area to a square or a rectangle.
Civil Engineering
We find evidences of fortifications and embankments.
Agriculture & industry: The use of iron became widespread.
Trade: Punched marked coins came into existence. They along with NBPW distribution help us in tracking
the trade routes of the age.
Architecture
Features
Wood, mud-bricks, thatched roofs etc. were used.
Stone fortifications were also used.
Monuments
We find evidences of wooden palisade in PP. Stone fortifications existed in Rajgir and Licchavi republic.
Dance & Music
They were patronized by the court which maintained courtesans. Amrapali was a famous courtesan in
Licchavi.
Sculpture
There is a reference in King Kharvela's Hathigumpha inscription that Nanda king took away a jina image
when he conquered Kalinga.
Pottery
The distinctive pottery of the age was NBPW. It was highly glossy, medium to fine fabric and would have
been used by rich.
Mauryan Age
Architecture
SEE THE TRIANGLES IN THIS MAP - MAJOR ROCK EDICTS
Features
Stone masonry reached new heights.
Shining polish of NBPW was also applied to the stone pillars.
Permanent material like burnt bricks, stone began to be used again along with wood. It enabled them to
construct larger and durable structure which made denser habitations possible and hence growth of
towns and spread of Mauryan culture.
Ring wells were another distinct feature. Water could be stored in these and also they could be used for
sanitation. Hence it became possible to have denser habitations farther away from the rivers.
It was both religious and secular in character.
It was pan-Indian in character.
Art and architecture received court patronage. Private merchants ad craftsmen also donated for religious
causes.
Large monuments show that architecture was technologically advanced.
Foreign (Iranian) Influence on Mauryan Architecture
(a) Similarities
There are similarities between CGM's palace and Darius'.
Both Asokan and Archimidean pillars use stone, glossy polish and have a bell shaped part. Because the
Archimidean pillars were older, the concept of pillars itself was borrowed by Asoka from Iran.
(b) Differences
CGM's palace was made of wood but Darius' palace was made of stone.
In pillars, the shaft of Asokan pillars is monolithic whereas the Archimidean pillars have joints.
The shaft of Asokan pillars tapers from bottom to top whereas Archimidean pillars are cylindrical.
The shaft of Asokan pillars is smooth whereas that of Archimidean pillars has got grooves.
Asokan pillars are erected without any support base whereas Archimidean pillars have a support base.
The bell shaped part of Asokan pillars is at top while that in Archimidean pillars is at bottom. In reality,
the so called bell shaped part of Asokan pillars is an inverted lotus.
The Asokan pillars were not a part of any other structure. The purpose behind their construction was to
engrave instructions and carry them fat. But Archimidean pillars were part of palace and their job was to
support the roof.
The Asokan pillars have capitals which have sculptures of lions, elephants and bulls. But the Archimidean
pillars have no capitals and only images of humans are engraved on their shafts.
The gloss polish was known to Indians from NBPW independent of Iran.
Monuments
Stone masonry was introduced on a wide scale. The palace of CGM at Kumrahar (Patna) had 80 stone
pillars.
During Asokan time, the tradition of wooden arch gave way to stone arch.
Pillars
Asokan pillars made use of white spotted red sandstone in Mathura and grey colored sandstone in
Chunar and were monolith in style. Only their capitals in form of lions, elephants and bulls were joined
from the top.
Stone polishing was as shiny as NBPW.
Caves
The practice of cutting caves into rocks began with the Lomarishi caves in Barabar hills and also
Nagarjuni Hills which were donated to Ajivika sect. These caves, however, were simple and without
much ornamentation. But their gates were carved out as if wooden.
Stupas
Initially stupas were Buddha's relic places. Then it got extended to his followers as well and gradually
stupa itself became an object of worship. According to Buddhist tradition, Asoka built 84K stupas.
Some stupas have been found in Sanchi, Sarnath, Deorkothar, Lumbini. Huen Tsang mentions seeing
stupas at Tamralipti, Karnasuvarna, Samtata.
Painting
63 rock shelters have been found in Deorkothar (Rewa, MP) with paintings. One of them had a painting
of stupa and a tree together enclosed in a railing.
Dance & Music
It was patronized by the court and courtesans were maintained by the court.
Nuts, acrobats, singers, musicians, dancers lived in the society and entertained the public specially on
fairs and festivals.
Sculpture
Multiple images of the folk deities such as yaksha and yakshini and animals such as elephants have been
found from Parkham (Mathura) and PP.
The capitals of Asokan pillars were beautiful carved images and were added later to the top of the pillars.
From Dhauli (Odisha), rock sculpture of front part of an elephant has been made. It looks like the
elephant is in forward motion and is coming out of the rock.
A naked and headless torso of a jina tirthankara has been recovered from Lohanipur (Patna). This is the
earliest Jaina image found.
Pottery
NBPW continued.
The Leisurely Activities
Fairs and festivals were organized where magicians, acrobats, dancers, musicians and actors performed.
Bull fights, chariot races, horse races and elephant fights, hunting were popular sport.
Both men and women wore ornaments.
Courtesans were maintained in the royal court.
Chemical Science
The glossy polish of NBPW continued. In addition, the glossy polish appeared on Asokan pillars.
Civil Engineering
Use of burnt bricks and ring wells.
Stone masonry reached new heights.
Palaces were constructed. Sudarshan lake was built.
Trade: There was great development in means of transport as is evident from the transportation of
Asokan pillars.
Post-Mauryan Age (North India)
Architecture
Features
Burnt bricks were now used for flooring and tiles for both flooring and roofing. This was of indigenous
origin.
Temples
Hindu temples followed 3 main architectural designs - oblong, apsidal or square. Examples of oblong are
Vishnu temple @ Besnagar, Siva and Vishnu temples @ Dangwada, Vishnu temple @ Nagari. Examples of
apsidal are Lakshmi temple @ Atiranjikhera, Matrikas and Naga temples @ Sonkh. Example of square
temple is Siva temple @ Gudimallam. Nagarjunkonda contains temples of all three types.
In the oblong temples, there were 2 ellipse. The main shrine was in the inner ellipse which was separated
from the outer ellipse by a gap which usually was the circumambulatory path. The outer ellipse had
rectangular projection leading out to the entrance. The temple usually had a plinth made of bricks or
mud or stones and the superstructure was made of wood and mud. The temples were usually east
facing.
The apsidal temples had apsidal rooms, plinths of brick or mud or stone and superstructure of wood and
mud.
The Nagarjunkonda temples apart from having all three designs, sometimes had multiple shrines in
which case each shrine had a mandapa (pillared hall) too. The pillars were made of stone and brick was
used for the temple superstructure.
Caves
(a) Evolution of Buddhist Cave Architecture
Phase 1: It began with the construction of Lomarishi and Sudama caves in Barabar Hills by Asoka. These
were simple caves and the cave ran parallel to the rock face after entry. There was one large rectangular
room followed by a smaller circular room.
Phase 2: The second stage (100 BC) showed up at Konditve. The cave was cut perpendicular to the rock
face and the inner room now contained a stupa and a circumambulatory path around it.
Phase 3: The next stage was when rows of pillars were built parallel to the walls creating a
circumambulatory passage right after entering. The central roof was high, vaulted and side roof was low
and half-vaulted. Bhaja, Pitalkhora, Bedsa caves are examples. Sometimes cells, rock cut beds were cut
around the central hall. An example is Bedsa caves.
Phase 4: During the Kshatrap-Satvahna kings, caves got royal patronage and became more elaborate and
ornamented. The basic features of previous phase continued. A variety of mithun couples were carved
on the gates, the pillars came to have elaborate capitals, the side roof became flat. Multi-storied caves
came up. Double storied viharas came up at Karle and triple storied at Ajanta. Other examples are Nasik
caves, Junnar, Kanheri caves, Pitalkhora.
(b) Jaina Caves vs Buddhist Caves
Jaina caves were cut in sandstone which is easy to cut but not good for sculpting. But Buddhist caves
were cut into hard rocks and were better for sculpting.
The Jaina caves had no congregation halls or rock cut shrines. Later, however, some cells were enlarged
into shrines. The Buddhist caves on the other hand had clear halls and the shrine area.
The Jaina cave cells were cut wherever the rock permitted. There was no planning. The Buddhist cave
structure on the other hand was well laid out.
The Jaina caves were simple and reflected the asceticism of jina monks. The cells were tiny (not tall
enough to stand, not long enough to stretch while sleeping, small entrances so as to bend very low). The
only luxury was occasional shelves cut into rocks and sloping floor acting as a pillow but actually
designed to keep of water from accumulating. Only the outer portions were carved sometimes. The
Buddhist caves on the other hand were an elaborate and spacious affair.
The Jina caves are of two types - those without pillars in verandah or those with pillars. Without pillars
had cells cut along three sides of the verandah. Pillars were square at top and bottom and octagonal at
middle.
In terms of similarities, the sculptures use similar motifs like animals, plants. The honeysuckle style is
similar too. Examples of such caves are Khandgiri and Udaigiri in Puri.
Stupas
New large stupas were built. The new stupas had a circumambulatory path, a stone railing around it, two
staircases leading up to it, the summit and a stone umbrella over it. The entire structure was enclosed in
stone railings and toran-dwars on all four sides. Sculpture decoration was found on the railings and the
gateways. Examples are the stupas at Sanchi, Bharhut, Nagarjunkonda, Amrawati.
Most earlier stupas used to have a solid core. However, a transition was made towards having a spoke
wheel plan at the centre made of bricks and the spaces filled with mud. Spoked wheel is a symbol of
Buddha's first sermon. Bhattiprolu stupa (200 BC) is from intermediate phase having central wheel plan
(no spokes).
In AP stupas, at the 4 cardinal points of the raised platform, 5 free standing pillars were erected. These
represent the 5 important events in Buddha's life - birth, renunciation, enlightenment, first sermon,
death.
Jaina stupa is
also found in Kankali @ Mathura which is called Devanirmit Stupa.
Pillars
The Besnagar pillar erected by the Greek ambassador Heliodorus is an example. He was an ambassador
to the Sunga king. Its shaft contains 4 parts and it has an inverted lotus and a capital.
Pottery
The pottery was red ware, both plain and polished with fine and medium fabric. The red pottery was of
Central Asian origin.
Sprinklers and spouted channels are the distinctive pots of this age.
Sculpture
Image Worship
The tradition of image worship became popular and numerous idols were made. Images of yaksha have
been found from Pawaya, Besnagar which represents Kuber. Colossal images of yakshas and yakshis
were built in Mathura which disappeared later as the religion got absorbed into the dominant religion.
Naga images have been found at Mathura and Karimnagar. Gaja-Lakshmi stone plaque from
Atiranjikhera and mukhalinga from Gudimallam are another examples. In Buddhism, earlier the tradition
of image worship was absent and instead symbols of Buddha were worshipped along with the stupa.
Now images began to be built.
Terracotta images were made and Chandraketugarh, Mathura emerged as great centers.
Buddhist Relief Sculpture
The railings and gateways of Buddhist structures were elaborately worked upon. Human bodies along
with animals, birds and others came up. The landscape didn't form a background but was very much a
part of the sculpture.
The sculpture was mainly meant to be seen from one side as against the Mauryan sculpture which was
same as viewed from any side.
The sculpture was narratory in nature. It narrated incidents from Buddha's life and Jatak stories.
Sometimes these narrations were just one single screenshot of a story or sometimes it was a continuous
narration of a sequence of events with one scene merging seamlessly into the next.
It made use of symbols to tell the stories. Example, wheel for first sermon, birth of buddha as Maya
sitting on a lotus, enlightenment as bodhi tree.
The Buddhist sculpture also drew heavily from other religious traditions. For example, anthromorphs (of
copper hoards), yaksha, yakshis, nagas, pipal, animals etc.
The Gandhara School
This school emerged from 1 cent BC onwards. It was not patronized by Indo-Greeks but by Sakas and
Kushanas. Hadda and Bamiyan were main centers.
This was a fusion of Greek and Indian styles from the very beginning. The subjects were Indians and the
style was Greco-Roman. Thus the mother of Buddha resembled a Greek goddess while Buddha himself
too had an Apollo like face. Greek gods were depicted as paying obeisance to Buddha.
The Buddha of this school is depicted with focus on bodily features such as muscular body, curly hair and
semi-transparent clothes.
Initially they used soft material such as wood and stucco. Later they began to use blue-grey stone.
The Mathura School
It was the oldest and flourished from 2 cent BC onwards. It was indigenous in origin and was patronized
by local rulers. But later with the advent of Kushanas, foreign influence was visible clearly.
Initial subjects were Buddha, Mahavira and Kanishka. Krishna was ignored before the Gupta period.
Beautiful images of Siva as ardh-nari-ishwar were built. Krishna, balram and Surya too were its subjects.
The images have a deep spiritual outlook. Buddha is shown in meditation mode. Focus is not on
highlighting the bodily features of Buddha but on his spiritualistic aura and content on face. Popular
depictions of Buddha are in the Padmasana-mudra (sitting crossed legged and meditating) and
Dharma-Chakra-Parivartana-Mudra (giving sermons).
They used white spotted red sandstone.
The Amrawati / Vengi School
It flourished from 1 cent BC onwards in Vengi, Nagarjunkonda, Kurnool and Krishna - Godavari region.
It was indigenous throughout and was patronized by Satvahnas, Ikshavakus and later Vakatakas.
It made images of Buddha and brahmanical deities.
These images are famous for their feminine beauty and sensuous appeal.
They used white marble in their images.
Drama
The Greeks introduced the curtain in Indian drama.
Painting
The cave paintings of Ajanta began in this period. They were Buddhist in character.
Astronomy
Indian astronomy and astrology drew a great deal from the Greeks including the term horasastra
(astrology in Sanskrit) itself from Greek term horoscope. The names of seven days and the zodiac signs
all come from Greeks.
Medical Science
Charak belonged to this period and was associated with Taxilla school of medicine.
We find many brahmanical texts on medicine written which could have obviously been written by those
who had a formal education and yet brahmanical literature places medical practitioners at low level.
Thus despite the theoretically low level the social utility of such professions was high enough to warrant
formal education and medical practice. Veterinary sciences developed and books on horses and
elephants were written (obviously driven by military needs).
Industry: Leather shoes, glass making (due to contact with Romans).
Trade: The Greek coins were a great improvement over the ill-designed punch marked coins. Pliny tells
us that Indian ships were 75 tonnes and some other sources tell us they could carry 700 persons.
Agriculture: A hydraulic lift has been found in Sringverapura which may not have been used for irrigation
per se but the technology for moving water by varying the water levels may have been derived from or
influenced irrigation. We also find the use of wheel to draw water from the well. The literature as well as
inscription provide ample evidence of tanks, wells and embankments.
Metallurgy
Indian iron and steel technologies made rapid advancements and large number of iron implements were
made which were even exported to Abyssinian ports.
Civil Engineering
The Sudarshan lake was repaired by Rudradaman.
Cave architecture progressed, highly ornamented multi storied viharas were built.
Post-Mauryan Age (Satvahnas)
Architecture
Use of Burnt Bricks and Tiles
From Peddabankur (Karimnagar), we have found use of flat baked bricks, perforated roof tiles and 22
brick wells. This facilitated dense habitation as it addressed the issues of sanitation, drinking water and
durability of structures.
Fortifications
The Satvahna towns were fortified. Pliny talks of over 30 walled towns.
Caves
The tradition of cutting into rocks reached new heights under Satvahnas. It became associated wit
Buddhism and many chaityas (shrines) and viharas (monasteries) were cut out in rocks. Famous chaitya is
at Karle and viharas at Nasik. Chaitya was a large hall with a number of pillars. Vihara was a large hall
which was entered by a door which separated it from the verandah in front.
Stupas
Famous stupas are at Amaravati and Nagarjunkonda.
Sangam States in Tamil Land
Literature
The Sangam texts are the most important pieces of work. They were composed by brahmans of
Prakrit-Sanskrit learning.
Tamil text Tolkkapiyam deals with grammar and poetics and Tirukkal with philosophy. Then there are
epics Silappadikaran and Manimekalai. Silappadikaran was written by a Jaina scholar and is a love story
of a dignitary preferring a courtesan over his wife. Manimekalai is the adventure story of his daughter.
These epics throw light on the socio-economic life of the Sangam age.
Gupta Age
Religious Practices
Idol worship reached its true popularity in this age. The agricultural festivals were also given much of
their religious color and fanfare in this age.
Paintings
The greatest specimen of Buddhist art in Gupta times is the Ajanta cave paintings. They were built from a
period spanning from 1 cent to 7 cent AD. But most work was done in Gupta age. They depict various
scenes from the life of Buddha and his previous births. They are life-like, natural and have brilliant colors
even after all these centuries. Ajanta paintings were dominated by buddha, bodhistava, jatak stories,
natural scenery, animals etc. But it cannot be said that Guptas patronized these paintings.
Even though the theme is religious in most paintings, we also find a glimpse of the lives of the princes,
kings, samantas etc. in them. But there is no reflection of the common man's life in these paintings. In
this way they reflect the contemporary society and its values as well.
Bagha paintings have a materialistic theme and tell us about the contemporary clothing style, hair styles,
makeup, ornaments etc. Bagha paintings were made in Gupta period only as against the Ajanta paintings
which were spread over multiple periods. So they have more uniformity. They also have more secular
theme and scenes and thus are more valuable as a historical source.
Both the fresco and the tempera styles were used. The fresco style paintings are made on wet plaster
and the tempera style paintings are made on dry plaster.
Kamasutra tells us that painting was an established form of art and was studied in a systematic way.
Sculpture
The Mathura, the Gandhara and the Amaravati schools continued and new school developed at Benaras
/ Sarnath. PP also became an important center.
Statues were made of both stone and metals and carved on caves, temples or free standing. The relief
sculpture showed scenes from religion as well as everyday life.
Statues of Buddha were built at Mathura and Sarnath. Buddha images now had more mudras and wore
transparent clothes. One bronze image of Buddha has been found from Sultanganj. The Buddha images
from east UP and Bihar show Buddha in a serene spiritual form (as against the emphasis on the body as
in the Gandhara form). The images had a large and clear prabhamandal as against the Gandhara images
where such a feature was not prominent. The Buddhist relief sculpture made an attempt to absorb the
yaksha, gandharva, apsara traditions by depicting them on their relief sculpture.
Images of Jina tirthankaras were also sculpted. Inscriptions at Udayagiri (Vidisha) and Kahaum
(Gorakhpur) talk about establishing tirthankara images.
For the first time images of Hindu gods were built. Sometimes these images were solo and sometimes
the image of the main god was accompanied with other minor gods. Vishnu images in human, varah as
well as anthromorphic forms. Shiva images came up in linga and anthromorphic forms. Images were
often more symbolic than representational - thus the gods and goddesses may have multiple hands each
holding a symbol.
Architecture
Features
Both religious and secular character was visible though religious was more prominent.
Temple architecture came up. The first style was the nagara style.
There was increasing use of re-used or broken bricks. Eg. Bhita in Allahbad.
Gupta period can be called the golden age of sculpture and image making. But the same can't be said for
architecture because the temple architecture form (nagara) just emerged in this phase and yet it peaked
only in the post Gupta age. Thus while impressive buddhist viharas and chaityas can be seen from the
Gupta age, we have to wait until the 8th century to see impressive temples.
Monuments
The Buddhist university of Nalanda came up in this age (5 cent AD). Its earliest structures were made of
bricks in this age.
Jina temples were constructed mostly in S India by Kadambas. The Hoskote (Bangalore) and Banavasi
inscription are examples which mention of land grants to such temples.
Temples
The first brick and stone temples were built in this age. They were of Nagara style.
The early temple was built on a raised platform. There was a main deity room called garbha-griha then
two rows of pillars leading to a smaller room in the front of the garbha-griha called the mandapa. The
mandapa was used to house the devotees. The garbha-griha had a flat roof and a pole on top. The entire
compound was like and enclosed courtyard and walled with gates for entry and exit. Temple walls were
plain but the doorways were profusely carved. Temples were generally built from rock.
Examples of such brick temples are Bhitargaon (Kanpur), Paharpur (Rajshahi, Bangladesh), Sirpur (Raipur,
Chattisgarh), Vishnu temple @ Deogarh and Tighwa, Shiva temple @ Bhumra and Koh, Parvati temple
@ Nachna. There are remains of a temple from Dah-Parbatia in Assam.
Later the influence of Dravidian style also became visible. The temple had a plinth and a shikhara. The
pillars of these temples have capitals in the form of kalash. Deogarh temple is one such example with a
vimana on top.
Caves
The Buddhist caves include Bagha caves, Mandargiri and Udaigiri. The pillars were richly carved and on
the stupa, a Buddha was carved. In the viharas, a shrine room was now introduced.
Shiva caves were built in Elephanta.

Pillars
The Mehrauli iron pillar.
The Bhitari stone pillar inscription of Skandagupta.
Stupas
The independent stupa building activity lost momentum. Few examples are Dhamekh stupa @ Sarnath,
Charsada, Taxila. However, the stupa building in Buddhist caves continued.
Drama
Two things are evident from plays of this age. First, the higher classes speak Sanskrit whereas shudras
and women speak Prakrit. Second, none of them are tragedies.
The Sanskrit drama Mrichchakatika (by Sudrak) was composed in this age. It was the love story of a
brahman in love with the daughter of a courtesan.
13 plays were written by Bhasa.
Literature
A different ornate style of Sanskrit was developed during this period which was different from the old
simple Sanskrit. Greater emphasis was laid on kavya than on prose. The audience of the kavya literature
was mainly an urbanite and it was played in goshtis and festivals. This literature was not for religious
purposes but focused on urban life.
The transition from Prakrit to Sanskrit in royal inscriptions was complete.
Patanjali composed Mahabhashya and Panini composed Ashthadhyayi. Amarsimha composed
Amarkosha. Kamandak wrote Nitisara and Vatsayan wrote Kamasutra.
The epics, the sutras etc. were compiled in this age. Panchatantra too was written under Vakatakas.
Various commentaries on philosophical schools were written in this period.
Plays were romantic comedies and tragedy was avoided. Mrichchha katika was written by Shudrak and
gives a description of urban life. Mudrarakshasha was written by Vishakhadutta.
Dance & Music
Gupta rulers patronized music and dance and some rulers themselves were indulged in it. Samudragupta
is depicted as playing veena in some of his coins.
The growth of temples led to growth of dance and music as well. The institution of devdasis began.
Metallurgy
Bronze and iron technologies advanced further as evident from the Mehrauli pillar and Buddha's bronze
statues.
Astronomy
Aryabhatta came up with Aryabhattika in 5 cent AD. He also gave true reason for the occurrence of
eclipses and measured the circumference of earth. He believed that earth was spherical and rotated on
its own axis.
Varhamira in 6 cent AD explained the movement of some heavenly bodies in his book Brihad-Samhita.
Previously the year was divided into 3 units of 4 months each. Now it came to be divided into 12 equal
lunar months. This was useful for agricultural operations. (Matharas of Odisha)
Mathematics
Aryabhatta came up with zero, three variable equations, concept of place value and the decimal system.
Medical Science
Benaras school was a famous school of surgery. Sushruta came from there.
Dhanvantri was a great physician and in the court of CGV.
Palkapya wrote Hasti-Ayurveda. Sialhotra wrote Asva-Shastra.
Nagarjuna discovered medicinal properties of certain metals and herbal juices.
Chemical Science
Varhamira and Kalidasa in their respective works talk about the method of preparing various colored
pastes.
The paintings in caves of Ajanta and Bagha use rich colors.
Civil Engineering
Brick temples began to be constructed in the Nagara style.
Trade: Ship building industry flourished. Large ships capable of carrying 500 persons were built.
An Estimate of Gupta Age
Aryabhatta's and Varahmihira's principles were not all indigenous. THey had also borrowed from the
Romans and the Greeks.
Kalidasa's work are not a symbol of any Hindu intellectual renaissance but they are merely a developed
form of an older style of writing. Even puranas and epics were composed in earlier age, Gupta scholars
merely compiled them.
Bhakti movement in Vishnu and Siva sects was not a new phenomenon. It was a mere continuation and
strengthening of an older strand.
Post-Gupta Age
The growing feudal order in the society limited inter regional mobility and gave a boost to the
development of regional cultural strands. Even the inscriptions are in all different scripts such that even
if we know Gupta brahmi script, it would be difficult to read various regional inscriptions.
Astronomy
Brahmagupta in 7 cent AD in his book Brahma-Sphuti-Siddhanta talked about various astronomical
instruments and suggests observation based astronomy.
Bhaskaracharya in 12 cent AD in his book Siddhanta-Shiromani explained the motion of heavenly bodies.
Medical Science
Vaghavatta in 8 cent AD wrote Ashtanga-Hridaya which explained the functioning of different parts of
heart. Dhanvantri wrote Nighantu.
Chemical Science
Indian chemists made great progress in alchemy (due to tantric and magic influence). They were trying to
convert metals like iron, copper etc. into gold. Obviously they didn't succeed in that but in the process
they made many acids and bases.
Mathematics
Bhaskaracharya's book had an elaborate chapter on mathematics called Leelavati.
Brahmagupta developed the concept of cyclical quadrilateral i.e. sum of the the opposite angles of a
quadrilateral is 180 if all its vertices lie on a circle.
Metallurgy
Large umber of fine bronze sculptures were made specially of the natraja theme.
Civil Engineering
Large embankments, canals etc. were built in this period for irrigational purposes.
Huge temples were also built.

Agriculture Technology: Irrigation increased, use of animals for threshing and milling sugar and oil,
persian wheel, and use of one-humped camel in dry areas.
Manufacturing Technology: Cotton gin came up in weaving.
Military Technology: Leather and wooden stirrups were there but iron stirrups, concave saddles and iron
horse-shoe were absent. Horse-archery was also absent. Use of fire-arms and mangonels was absent as
well.
Architecture
Features
Religious.
Court patronage.
Rock cut, shaped or use of permanent material.
They didn't use arch, vault, dome and mortar. So when they began to construct huge buildings there was
no way other than constructing tapering pyramidical tops or to install thick pillars to support heavy
beams. So larger and larger stones had to be used and this necessitated the need for sculpting them for
aesthetic appeal.
Highly ornamented, elaborate, massive and advanced technology.
Multi-dimensional i.e. many forms of architecture were pursued.
Indigenous.
The notion that the architect must remain anonymous was belied in the temples of this age and the most
famous architect was Kokasa. Individual enterprise and style was encouraged but at the same time texts
were written on architecture (vastusastra) which led to some standardization. It also proves that despite
the brahmanical literary rhetoric, architect caste was not held in low esteem in reality (otherwise why a
brahman would study architecture and write a text on it). Similarly shilpashastras were written on
sculpture. The sutradhara was an exalted position and he supervised the construction activity while the
stapathi was the master builder. Some of them even received land grants and were held as belonging to
the visvakarma lineage.
Styles
The dravida style temples: It was prevalent in the south of Krishna river. In the phase 1, the main feature
was building pyramidical shikhara above the garbhgriha (chief deity room). The shikhara had a dome at
the top and this entire structure was called vimana. Later in phase 2, in front of the vimana was a
pillared hall with elaborately cared pillars and flat roof called mandapa. A circumambulatory path was
provided around the garbhgriha and images of multiple gods were carved along this passage. The entire
structure was walled and had lofty gates called gopuram. In phase 3, additional structures began to
come up in the temple complex and they grew horizontally and became more massive. Ajanta and Ellora
are examples as well.
The nagara style was prevalent north of Vindhyas. It consists of (a) a square elevated platform with a
number of projections in the middle of each side giving it a cruciform shape, and (b) in the later age the
flat roofed temples gave way to a shikhara (which reflected the temple's plan) on the main shrine and
smaller shikharas on the secondary shrines.
The rath temple style: In the rath temples, entire rock was cut and shaped from outside to give it the
shape of a temple. Beautiful images were then carved on it.
The Chalukyas of Badami patronized the vesara style (prevalent between the Krishna and the Vindhyas)
which was a fusion of the dravidian style and the nagara style. Such examples are found @ Aihole and
Pattadakal. It was prevalent from Vindhyas to Krishna. Like dravidian style it had a vimana, a mandapa
and in some cases an additional open mandapa. Like nagar style the vimana was heavily sculpted. Like
nagara style its circumambulatory path was open. Like nagara style the outer walls had chariots carved
out on them. Other examples are Jaina temples in Dharwad and Kalleshwar temple in Kukanoor
(Hyderabad).
Caves
The Pallavas: They built the cave temples of 4th generation with elaborate pillars and ornamented
entries. This was under the Mahindra style (640-74 AD ) and the Mamalla style (640-74 AD). The cave
pillars are square from bottom and top and octagonal in the middle. These caves are less complex than
those @ Ajanta and Ellora.
The Chalukyas of Badami: They too patronized cave architecture. 4th generation caves were cut.
Ellora Caves
Political Dimension: They represent different dynasties. The famous Kailashnath temple was built by
Rashtrakutas.
Religious Dimension: They represent different different religions. Caves are there from Jaina, Buddhist
and Hindu traditions. Even in Hindu tradition, they represent multiple gods and multiple forms of the
same god as well. The Buddhist cages represent the last in the tradition of Buddhist cave cutting. It
shows a development over previous styles. They are multi-storeyed and highly ornamented. The
Kailashnath temple contains images of Shiva pantheon as well as Vishnu.
Architectural Features Dimension: They represent multiple styles of architecture. The famous
Kailashnath temple has a superstructure in Dravidian style. It is multi-storeyed and highly ornamented.
Temples
The Ganga rulers of Odisha: They patronized temples between 8-12 cent AD. The Lingaraja temple @
Bhubneswar, Jagannath temple @ Puri and Sun temple @ Konark were all built during this period. The
Odisha temples have pyramidical shikharas on their mandaps as well. They also typically have chariots
carved out on their outer walls. Moreover the main shikhara has multiple smaller shikharas at the top.
There is a gate in each direction. The sculpture of the Konark temple shows clear evidence of tantric
influence like the temples of Khajuraho.
The Solanki rulers of Gujarat: They patronized many temples in Mt. Abu. The Dilawara and Tejpala
temples are most famous Abu temples. White marble was used in construction. They also built the
Karnameru temple @ Anhilwara and Rudramallah temple @ Siddhpur. The temples of Gujarat are
immensely rich and were studded with semi precious and precious stones. Such a lavish temple building
was possible only due to immense prosperity brought by the trade. It also reflected the high level of skills
mastered by the guilds of sculptors in Gujarat. A characteristic feature of this style was the present of
bawris in the basement for water storage.
The Chandela rulers of Bundelkhand: They patronized the Khajuraho temples. These temples are built of
granite and red sandstone. Kanderiya temple @ Khajuraho is the only temple in Khajurao to have
shikhara (reflecting Dravidian influence). The central Indian temples are known for their extensive use of
richly carved pillars. Each mandapa has thin shikharas. The khajurao temples are in panchyatan style i.e.
there are smaller temples on the 4 corners of the plinth. All temples are built on a plinth. These temples
clearly show the influence of tantricism.
The Pallavas: Their architecture was divided into the Mahindra style (610-40 AD), the Mamalla style
(640-74 AD), the Rajsimha style (674-800 AD) and the Nandivarman style (800-875 AD). Cave temples
called mandaps were cut in Mahindra style. They were essentially chaityas and viharas of 4th generation.
Examples are @ Pallavaram and Mahendrabad. In the Mamalla style, rath temples were cut in addition
to the cave temples which became more ornamented. There are 5 Pandava rathas. Examples of both
styles are @ Mahabalipuram. In the Rajsimha style, cave and ratha temples were discontinued and
independent dravidian style temples emerged. Examples are the Shore temple @ Mahabalipuram and
Kanchi. In the Nandivarman style, the Pallava power was on a decline and this was reflected in the
temples as well which became smaller and less elaborate. Examples are @ Kanchi and Gudimallam.
The Cholas: They picked up on the the dravidian style and took it to new heights. The early Chola temples
were relatively small and superb in simplicity. One example is the Narttamalai temple of 9th cent - a free
standing temple facing some rock cut caves. From 11th cent AD the vimanas (pyramidical shaped) and
gopurams (which gradually overwhelmed the shikharas) became massive. The garbhgriha was entered by
one or more massive mandaps with multiple pillars. The balanced proportion of the structure gave it
aesthetic quality. The temple complex grew horizontally as numerous smaller structures came up. This
was linked to the military victories of the Chola kings. Examples are @ Padupattu & Tanjore. After there
decline we can see that no attempt was made to maintain the grandeur of the temples and this is a
reflection of the economic decline which had set in.
Kerala: Here the temples were made of wood instead of stone and many temples were circular in form the circular sanctum being surrounded by concentrically arranged areas.
The Chalukyas of Badami: The Chalukyan temples evolved from Gupta style and their architecture
developed into the Vesara style which is a fusion of dravidian style and nagara style. Examples are some
temples @ Aihole & Patdakal. The Durga temple @ Aihole is a continuation of the Buddhist chaitya plan.
Aihole had megalithic stone worship centers in the vicinity and thus emerged as a sacred town. Cave
temples are located @ Badami. The Ladkhan temple @ Aihole has a flat roof and a pillared mandapa. The
comparison of plans of Ladkhan temple and the Virupaksha temple show us the rapidity of the change in
architectural styles.
The Hosyals: They built elaborate temples in Halebid, Somnathpura and Belur. Their temples are known
for excellence in relief sculpture. Earlier they just picked up from the Chalukya style. Gradually they
became more ornate (they began to use soapstone rather than sandstone which is softer). The ground
plan of these temples was no longer rectangle but star shaped or polygonal and the whole complex was
built on a raised platform. There was not so much emphasis (as in Chola temples) on shikharas and
gopurams and thus the overall temples appear 'flat'. On the temple walls elaborate sculpting is done
using animal and floral motifs, musicians, dancers, battle scenes, and religious literature events. The star
shaped plan provided more space for sculpting. The wide, circular pillars are a distinctive feature.
Sculpture
Temple Relief
The temple walls were carved with images of gods and goddesses and their attendants, yaksha and
yakshis, kings and queens etc.
They show scenes of wars, love, dance and music. The Tiruparantik form of Diva is popular in the
Brihadeshwara temple @ Tanjore.
In N India the sculpture @ Khajurao, Odisha shows clear tantric influences. The sculptures are exquisitely
materialistic in appearance an reflect the contemporary society. We can see the cosmetics, clothing
style, hair styles etc. of women in the society.
The Pallava sculpture was inspired more from the Buddhist tradition of Amaravati school and remained
linear and avoided over ornamentation - something which was present in the Chalukyan sculpture.
Independent Sculpture
The bronze dancing figure of Shiva i.e. Natraja became a popular theme under Cholas and Rashtrakutas.
The dancing Siva has 2 types - angry and pacific symbolizing the creation and destruction of universe. The
snake is the ornament and Ganga in his hair locks. Two back hands hold a flame and a drum while the
front hands are in abhaya mudra and one points down towards feet.
The bronze images used lost-wax technique. These figures were solid from inside unlike the N Indian
sculpture which was hollow from inside.
Images of kings and queens were also built in this period and placed in the temples.
World's largest monolithic statue is the Jina statue of Gomteswar is present at Sravana Belgola (Hassan,
Karnataka).
In S India, there was a tradition of hero stones or viragals. They hold a sword in right hand, bow / shield
in left and arrows on shoulder. Usually there is an inscription recording the deeds of the hero.
In N India the images lack the grandeur of the Gupta age - probably because now they were mostly of
gods and goddesses to be used mostly for worship.
Painting
The Chalukyas of Badami: The cave paintings of Ellora and Elephanta belong to this period and contain
themes of secular nature, brahmanical religion, Buddhism as well as Jainism (Ellora). One cave painting
shows Pulakesin II receiving a Persian ambassador.
The Rashtrakutas: They continued the Ellora and Elephanta cave paintings. Kailash temple was built by
Krishna I.
Dance & Music
Temples played a vital role through the institution of devdasis, employing dancers, musicians, singers
etc. and also through multiple festivals from the Pallava period onwards. The devdasis initially also
composed poems and performed some temple rituals which were related to the idea of the special
power embedded in women (a S Indian original concept) and rituals and dance were an expression of it.
But gradually this was later misused to providing entertainment to influential priests and persons.
First books on music began to come up. Narad wrote Sangeetam Karanand, Someshwar wrote Manollas.
Literature
While Sanskrit was the language of the elites, a remarkable feature was the growth in literature of
regional languages. By the end of this age, regional languages had overtaken sanskrit.
The literature of this age also mentions brahmanical rituals less frequently indicating growth of bhakti.
Erotic mysticism also finds its way into the literature of the age reflecting the influence of bhakti.
Bilhana's Chaurpanchasika and Jayadeva's Geet Govinda are examples.
Medium of instruction of formal language was Sanskrit which shows its growing distance from day to day
life. Professional education was provided by the guilds. But in some professions we do find sanskrit
works being written indicating some confluence.
Jaina Literature
Sanskrit also began to be widely used by Jainas and Buddhists by this time. The jainas were prolific in
writing biographies, chronicles of kings and courts and texts on religion. Hemchandra (12th cent) and
Merutunga (14th cent) were famous scholars. An interesting aspect was writing stories on Rama from a
jaina perspective.
The jains insisted on literacy and thus preserved and re-copied their texts as a treasury in the jaina
temples. These developed into impressive libraries. By now a new sharda script was used which was
closer to devanagari than brahmi.
Sanskrit
In most sanskrit works of the age we find lack of original and innovative thinking. They were merely
commentaries on old subjects from epics etc. This age also lacks important texts on politics like
Arthasastra and Nitisara. Focus was more on linguistic proficiency. The spread of Sanskrit grew in S India
along with the spread of Brahmans and because of the proximity to kings much of the literature has
political motives.
There was a trend of growing ornate style in Sanskrit championed by Banabhatta. This was specially
because of the royal patronage scholars used to receive. This period witnessed the growth of kavya as
well as grammar.
There was a growing trend of writing histriographies like Kalhana and Bilhana (Vikramankdevcharit - a
historical epic but written to please a king who had usurped the throne from his elder brother). Attempts
were made to provide vanshavalis where descent was traced from mythological lines.
A new style known as "shlesha style" emerged. An example is Shrutikirti's Dwisandhan which when read
from left to right tells the story of Rama and when read from right to left tells the story of Kauravs.
Brahmagupta, Bhaskaracharya, Vaghavatta and Kalhana wrote in this age. Sanskrit dictionary was
composed in this era by Amarsimha (Amarkosha). Important plays were Mudrarakshah by Vishakhdatta,
Bal Ramayan and Bal Bharat by Rajshekhar.
Sanskrit texts on various professions like krishiparashar, shilpashastras, vastushastras, veterinary
sciences etc. were written reflecting social priorities.
Regional Languages
Prakrit: It gradually became very heavy and lost out to Pali and Sanskrit and even Jaina scholars began to
write in Sanskrit while buddhist scholars in Pali.
Tamil --> Alvars and Naynar saints popularized it from 6-9 AD. Their writings were collectively compiled
in 12th cent and called Tirumurais. Tamil literature witnessed great development. Sometime the subjects
were taken from Sanskrit works like Kamban wrote Ramayna in Chola period but it was not merely a
translation of the Valmiki ramayna as the style, treatment of gender and even the narrative was varied
according to the local tradition. Thus he treats Ravan in a much more sympathetic way than Valmiki. In
the Pallava age the tamil poems contain rich description of general country life as well as the town life in
Kaveripattnam. Confidence in Tamil can be seen in its use along with Sanskrit in inscriptions.
Kannada -->Amoghavarsha (Rashtrakuta king)wrote the first work in Kannada poetry. It was patronized
by Rashtrakutas, Chalukyas and Hosyals. Pampa, Ponna and Ranna (the 3 Kannada jewels) wrote in this
age.
Apbhramsha --> The Rashtrakutas patronized it and many poets in this language lived in their courts. The
doha style of writing began to come up in this age and specially popularized by the bhakti movement.
The bhakti saints also popularized other languages like Odiya, Bengali.
Telugu --> It was patronized by Rashtrakutas, Chalukyas and Hosyals. Mahabharata was written under
Chalukyan kings.
Vijaynagar
Architecture
Features
Religious as well as secular.
Court patronage.
Rock cut, shaped or use of permanent material.
Highly ornamented, elaborate, massive and advanced technology.
Multi-dimensional i.e. many forms of architecture were pursued.
In the 14th century, it was influenced by deccani style of Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas. During 15th
century, a typical Vijaynagar style called provida style emerged. Basically it was an advanced version of
the dravidian style. In 17th cent, the nayak style emerged (nayaks were the feudatories of Vijaynagar
kings).
Temples
In the provida style, the structures of the chief god and goddess were separated and the goddess
structure was called shrine of the "Amma". A new structure called kalyan mandap came up which was
used for the ceremonial union of the chief god and the goddess. A thousand pillar hall was created in the
temple complex for the devotees. The gopurams became bigger and more ornamented.
Examples are Viruprakash temple and Hazaraswami temple @ Hampi.
The nayak style temples were bigger and more ornamented. Example is Meenakshi temple @ Madurai.
Monuments
Palaces, queens' baths, stables etc. were constructed. Example is Lotus palace of Krishnadevrai.
Sculpture
Secular sculpture developed with bronze images made of kings and queens
MEDIEVAL INDIA
The 13th & 14th Centuries
Persian / Arabic Literature
Poetry was a popular form. Amir Khusrau and Amir Hassan were great poets. They also wrote qawwalis
and created a new Indian style of poetry and is the originator of Hindustani music.
History writing was another popular trend. Barni, Afif, Siraj etc.
Books we written, specially dictionaries, with painted illustrations.
Persian vs Arabic Historiography
2. analytical type. keep in mind that historiography is the study of how history is written. it is the study of
all aspects of writing history. going by this definition.....volume wise arabic history works are less
voluminous, persian more. reason, persian had been the court language of medieval rulers. what ever
was written in arabic was by travelers before delhi sultanate, by religious scholars, arab immigrants to
india. (list here famous examples)perspectives - arabic historians were not sympathetic to hindu
traditions and culture. most of the works written by religious scholars, immigrants carry that tinge of
fanaticism and superiority complex with respect to india in general and hindus in particular. persian more sympathetic as they were written by those who settled here and non-religious historians. content
and style - no differences that i know of. standard muslim style historical writing with plenty of allusions
to religious terms. very few were objective. most of them were written to praise their patrons. eulogies
and exaggerations. political history, cultural history, economic history, military history etc were the
genres.
methods of study - both relied on general observations, litterary sources written before them in their
languages. very less or no importance was given to numismatics, inscriptions, archaeological sources,
non-arabic and non-persian literature.
Al-Utbi's Kitab-i-Yamini
He himself was Secretary to the Sultan Mahmud. He thus played an important role in the government at
Gazni, and no doubt had first hand knowledge of many of the events he described, at least those that
took place in the capital. His work covers the entire reign of the first sultan of Gazni Nasiru-d din
Subuktgin, and of his son Mahmud up to the year 410 H. (1020 CE). As the founder of the Ghaznivite
dynasty, Subuktigin played an extremely important role in the history of India and Central Asia.
Despite his proximity to Sultan Mahmud, Al Utbi seems to have little or no direct knowledge of India. He
seems to have little knowledge of Indian topography and his statements regarding localities and place
names are unreliable. No Indian words appear in his text aside from Rai.
His numerous incursions into India were largely raids designed to capture spoil in material wealth, slaves
and livestock. He is portrayed as a zealous Muslim eager to destroy "idol temples", but this was probably
justification for pillage, since these activities contravened the earlier Arab policy of granting Hindus and
Buddhists protected dhimmi status.
Minhaj-us-Siraj's Tabakat-i-Nasiri
(a) Motivation behind writing
Minhaj served in very high posts in his career. He was very close to the sultans. Thus his interests were
completely aligned with the interests of the sultanate i.e. to preserve and establish strongly the Turkish
rule.
Another motivation definitely would be to please the sultan and he worked under many sultans. But this
was a minor motivation only as he didn't depend on writing to earn his livelihood.
By glorifying the western connections of Islam he sought to inspire the muslims as well which was
needed as they were facing a number of challenges in that age.
(b) Importance
Due to his proximity to the sultans the value of his work goes up because it reflects the thoughts of a
person whose interests were completely aligned with that of the Turkish rule and who was actively
helping the sultans in preserving and establishing the rule.
The sultanate was in a nascent and insecure stage then. The sultan was trying to establish his legitimacy
and authority and for this he had even sought investiture from the Caliph. In his work Minhaj tries to
establish the historical links of the Sultanate with Western Asian Islam and covers this in his initial
chapters itself.
By glorifying the western connections of Islam he sought to inspire the muslims as well which was
needed as they were facing a number of challenges in that age.
His interests were in the preservation and propagation of Turkish rule and his writings reflect the
insecurity of the age. He didn't care who was the sultan so long as the rule was preserved. Thus he
praised each and every sultan very highly despite the fact that he may have violently replaced the
previous sultan. For the same reason he keeps a balance between all sultans.
Where he departs from the other writers of his age was he covered not just the history of his sultan but
also the entire history of Islam.
Because he was writing a history of a long period it was necessary for him to draw upon the works of
other scholars. Wherever he finds 2 conflicting opinions he mentions both with sources along with the
one he accepts and the reasons for doing so. For his own period he relies on his own experiences or
those of witnesses.
He gives an indiscriminate religious tone to his work. He almost absent minded uses terms like Islamic
armies and devil's armies to describe wars even if they were between two muslim rulers only. By doing
this he merely showed where his sympathy lay. This tells us about the educational system of the day
because he was a product of an educational system which was highly religious and used only religious
terms.
His bias against Hindus can be seen only when he describes the conflicts. Otherwise he ignores it when
they pose no threat to the sultanate. This clearly reflects the attitude of the sultanate rulers as well who
used religion to achieve their goals in the conflict situations only and otherwise were indifferent in all
practical purposes. In many instances Minhaj goes ignores the uncomfortable religious aspects of a
problem as well if it ran counter to his objectives. This attitude was reflected in the sultans as well.
(c) Limitations
He remained confined to the ruling and elite class only. But this tells us about the nature of state system
in those days.
(d) Comparison with Barani
Minhaj comes across as a scholar who lived in a turbulent phase - one where the rulers' concern was the
preservation of their rule and for which they had to make many compromises and even shift goalposts
i.e. be practical. We cannot expect him to be driven by any particular ideology or political leaning.
Institutions were fluid and situation was dynamic and one had to be very careful. By Barani's time the
institutions had stabilized, self preservation was no longer the overriding objective and one could stick to
an ideology. Tensions were emerging between these institutions and this is reflected in Barani's writings
as well.
Minhaj writes in detail about different amirs in different areas and thus many of the events are repeated.
Barani on the other hand focuses on the events of only one area and writes period wise. Thus there is no
repetition in Barani.
Minhaj mostly chronologically lists various events and doesn't analyzes the trends, elements of
continuity / discontinuity and the reasons thereof. Barani tries to analyze some aspect or the other at
the end of each chapter for instance how each sultan viewed punishment as.
Minhaj doesn't tell us about the problems faced by the sultans. Barani tells us how Balban strengthened
his position, how sultanate changed under Khaljis, how mongol threat changed the nature of sultanate
under Ala-ud-din.
Zia-ud-din Barani (Tarikh-i-Firuzshahi & Fatwa-i-Jahandari)
(a) Motivations behind writing
Barani himself writes that he hoped that his work will help others learn from past mistakes. He claims he
was repentful for not criticizing MbT when it mattered. By this work, he hoped, people will learn and not
commit the same mistakes.
But in reality he had fallen out of favor of the new sultan Firuz and was even imprisoned. Firuz had
outlook which ran contrary to MbT in many ways and hence Barani was writing to please him and earn
favor.
(b) Importance
His work doesn't just reflect his own thinking but tells us about the views of the educational system and
the particular section of maulvis. These maulvis relied on extremist form of Islam to preserve their
existence in polity. They expected the sultan to consult them on even political matters and this kept their
importance intact. But under MbT the dominance of maulvis had reduced drastically as he had to make
many compromises to propagate and strengthen his rule in India which included appointment of even
Hindus to high offices and not consulting the maulvis in political matters. They were thus fearful of losing
power in the politics of the age. This is reflected in the work.
Thus he prescribes that the sultan must take steps to propagate Islam, punish non muslims, impose
shariat and give more authority to men of (muslim) religion.
By his time the sense of insecurity in the sultanate was over and the sultans were well established. There
was no need to draw legitimacy form the western connections any more (in fact delhi was the sole
surviving muslim sultanate). Sultanate had no connections left with the west. So Barani makes no
attempt to draw origin from west and merely carries forward from Minhaj. He focuses only on India.
Barani's work and views expressed reflect the insecurity of his class in that age. Being a Turk or a high
born was no longer considered enough to qualify for a high post! This class was facing competition from
the educated Indians. One had to have qualities also to succeed. Barani and his class obviously resented
it and in his work he criticizes the low born, prescribes they shouldn't be given education neither
employed in state service. In an ideal muslim world all higher born will have assured hereditary high
offices.
Barani represented a class of nobles who depended on land and the surplus extracted for their well
being. Thus he was also very critical of merchants and traders and prescribed that the state should
ensure they don't accumulate wealth.
He obviously hated Hindus because of both his education and the fact that many of them were
employed in higher posts and were richer than him (who was languishing in jail). So he is very critical of
highly placed hindus and ignores the poor hindus as he ignores poor muslims.
Barani tries to analyze some aspect or the other at the end of each chapter for instance how each sultan
viewed punishment as. He tells us how Balban strengthened his position, how sultanate changed under
Khaljis, how mongol threat changed the nature of sultanate under Ala-ud-din.
(c) Limitations
His work Fatwa-i-Jahandari is not a historical work at all. Barani has presented his own views in form of
Mahmud Gazni's lessons to his sons. Moreover the historical events presented (from Gazni's tongue) are
of doubtful historic nature. The book is just a reflection of Barani's own thoughts on how things should
be.
Barani tries to mention many sources but fails to bring them out clearly. Moreover if any fact was
convenient for him and supported his views he would claim it had come from a god fearing muslim and
he could thus take it on its face value.
In Tarikh-i-Firuzshahi he rarely mentions any chronology and wherever he does that it is of doubtful
nature. Perhaps it was due to the fact he was writing from jail and thus had to rely mostly on his
memory.
His book is a bundle of exaggerations and he contaminates many characters.
Shams-i-Siraj Afif: Tarikh-i-Firuzshahi
(a) Motivations behind writing
He was clearly not trying to please Firuz because Firuz had died by the time. He was writing in a time
when sultanate had disintegrated, anarchy prevailed all over and Timur had plundered Delhi. So he was
trying to recollect the old glorious days. He misses the past in light of his present and that is why he tries
to paint a prosperous and peaceful picture of old days.
(b) Importance
His writing reflects the anarchist state of affairs of his time and how he tried to justify each and every act
of Firuz in order to portray a past that was glorious and sorely missed.
In his attempt to portray Firuz's reign as one of total peace and prosperity and under a great king, he
tells unintentionally us about Firuz's weaknesses. On his part he merely focuses on positives and
presents the weaknesses as if they appear his strength. He didn't try to hide facts because had this been
the case he would have not even mentioned the weaknesses. Examples are the famous bribe case and
the military defeats.
He didn't come from a very well to do family like Barani. So he is free from his biases. He didn't have any
strong ideological leanings Moreover he writes in a very simple language.
He is also free from the anti-hindu biases of Barani and Minhaj (probably because he was free from the
extremist atmosphere in his upbringing like them and also because the muslims of the age didn't face
any threat from hindus - they were ravaged by mongols). Though he praises Firuz's act of burning a
brahman and imposing jiziya but that is a part of his general attempt to portray Firuz as a great king and
his reign as a golden age.
Coming from a commoner background we find he moves beyond the sultan and his durbar in his work
and talks about the problems faced by the commoners.
Ibn Batuta's Rehela
It is not a reliable source at all. It is interesting only because it throws some light on the socio political
events of the age. But the writer is completely biased against MbT.
Moreover his description of places and things doesn't have any depth and he simply briefly describes
thins without doing any research.
Amir Khusrau
Amir Khusrau took the literature from elites to the commoners. He wrote numerous popular puzzles in a
form which is enjoyable to common people. This was perhaps because he was very close to sufis and
hence influenced by them and also contributed to their cause. Thus his writings are a reflection of sufi
movement.
He was a poet and not a historian. Whatever history he wrote was either on instance of the sultans (who
even told him the topics on which to write about) or to please them. Even while writing history his focus
was on the poetic aspect and not historical truth.
His first work was Kiran-us-Saden (1289) which was written to please Bugra Khan and his son Kaku-i-Bad.
In this he tells us about delhi, its buildings, durbar, social life of amirs etc. and his hatred towards
mongols. Naturally his focus was on the poetic aspect.
His second work was Miftah-ul-Futuh (1291) in which he praised Jalal-ud-din and his military campaigns
against Malik Chajju, against Ranthambore etc.
Khwajain-ul-Futuh or Tarikh-i-Alahi was written in a highly ornate style and described the first 15 years of
his reign. Although it is again more of a poetic work its historical significance comes from the fact that it
is the only contemporary source we have. This book describes military campaigns of Ala-ud-din and
Malik Kafur and presents a beautiful description of the physical and cultural geography of India.
His next work is Ashika which talks of Ala-ud-din's son Khijr Khan's desire for princess of Gujarat
Devalrani. Ge describes the campaigns launched to get her and also the geography of India.
In his work Sipihar he praises Mubarak Khalji.
His strong point is that he has given a lot of dates and in general he is more trustworthy than Barani. His
writings also highlights the social conditions prevailing in the age - something most historians of the age
couldn't do. He tells us about the people, their dances, songs, settlements, professions etc.
Al Berouni's Kitab-ul-Hind
(a) Motivation behind writing
Some scholars believe that he sympathized with Indians because Mahmud had plundered his native
place too like India. Hence he was so sympathetic to Indian cause.
In reality he was motivated by pure scientific and intellectual curiosity. He wanted to understand Indian
philosophical, religious and scientific thought. He analyzed everything that came across him in a critical
and scientific manner and presented his analysis in an unbiased manner.
(b) Importance
In his quest he found that most of the information he came across about India is based on secondary
sources only. He realized that second hand information is invariably corrupted as it passes from people
to people. Hence he was driven to find the original sources and hence he began to learn Sanskrit and
collect ancient Indian texts. He referred to works of Varahmihira, Aryabhatta, Brahmagupta, Patanjali as
well as Bhagwad Gita, Vishnu Purana, Vaayu Purana.
For this he also consulted many brahmans of the age whenever he needed some help in proper
interpretation.
He had a completely scientific outlook and an unbiased opinion. So religious conventions couldn't
corrupt him.
Wherever he feels his understanding and knowledge is lacking he accepts it without hesitation. He
mentions it clearly wherever he had to rely on sources without testing for their authenticity or secondary
sources.
He describes Indian society, culture, festivals, dress, food, entertainment, scientific thought,
philosophical thought etc. in great detail. He describes the weights and measures used in India,
distances, geographical features, alphabet etc. prevailing in India. Not only does he merely describe
them but also critically analyzes them. He talks of the legal system as mentioned in the scriptures and
highlights how the prevailing system differed from it. Weavers were low even among the outcastes who
lived only outside the villages and towns. He tells us that Buddhism was not to be seen anywhere and he
had only heard about it. He tells us about the influence of Bhakti by recognizing a firm monotheism in N
India.
He expresses regret that Indians had abandoned the scientific outlook of their ancestors and had
relapsed into stagnation in mind and in thought. Instead of keeping their minds open and learning from
others as their ancestors did they now relied only on traditions.
(c) Limitations
His work is mostly limited to the intellectual class of the age which was obvious given his methodology.
He holds ignorant people in very low esteem.
Hindi Literature
Parochial / feudal outlook: After the fall of the Gupta empire the political landscape had become
increasingly fragmented and the land based feudal system which developed encouraged a local parochial
outlook. We can see this clearly in the literature of the age.
Stagnation in the society: The society had shut its mind towards embracing new ideas and encouraging
original thinking. We find a similar trend in the literature as it became void of fresh outlook and
continued on established themes only.
Phases of hindi literature: (a) ancient phase (adi kaal): reflects the feudal order of the day, (b) bhakti
phase (bhakti kaal): reflects the impact of bhakti movements of the day, (c) reeti kaal: after the bhakti
phase when the zamindari and jagirdari systems returned with new vigor along with the presence of
romanticism.
Phase 1: Ancient phase / Adi Kaal / Veer Gatha Phase (8 - 14 cent AD)
(a) Raso Literature
It was called veer gatha phase earlier because the first literature found comprised almost exclusively of
the writings of the court poets glorifying the bravery of their ruling masters in order to praise them. They
often were full of exaggerations. Examples are Prithviraj Raso, Parmal Raso (Alha and Udal), Beesaldev
Raso (love affair of Ajmer ruler Beesaldev and Malwa princess Rajmati). In addition to glorifying their
bravery the poets also glorified their love affairs with beautiful princesses of the age.
Reflection of feudalistic order and parochial outlook: The literature was full of praise for the local rulers
and how they fought other local rulers. They left no words unwritten in the praise of their local lords and
ridiculing the other chiefs. Their aim was not to present historical facts but to glorify their masters. By
glorifying wars and feuds they played an important role in promoting regional rivalry and disturbed
national unity.
Reflection of cherished ideals in the society: Bravery and love. Fighting wars was noble. These wars were
fought solely for personal reasons of the rulers be it vengeance or to get a princess or simply to display
one's bravery and never for the interests of the state. They consider a brave warrior to be the most
noble person.
Reflection of poor status of women in the society: The way they focus solely on the beauty of the
princess while glorifying the love affairs of their masters tells us that women were treated merely as an
object of consumption. Women were expected to perform jauhar and sati. They had no existence of
their own.
Reflection of lack of law and order and peace in the society: They glorify wars on the other chiefs. They
glorify violence and mention the insecurity of common people specially if they had any valuables.
Reflection of the state system: The rulers had no concern whatsoever with the welfare of their subjects.
They merely collected taxes and fought wars and were concerned with their own glory and welfare only.
Reflection of growth of regional dialects: Many of these works use a mixed form of regional Rajasthani
dialects - a style often called pingle style.
(b) Siddh Literature
It reflects the contemporary religious and cultural life very well. It was written for the propagation of
Vajrayan buddhist sect in eastern India in the local languages. This literature tells us about the changes
which had occurred in the buddhist religion over the ages.
They criticize complex rituals, traditionalism, extremism and advocate a simple life. They show a
dominance of mystic ideas in their thoughts. At the same time they also advocate continuation of
grihasta life.
(c) Jain Literature

It flourished in western India in the form of poetic literature in local languages. For the poetic form it is
also called Raas literature. It comprises of the poems which were sung in the jain temples by the
worshippers.
They told us about the contemporary feuds etc. but their main aim remained to emphasize the principles
of non violence enshrined in the Jain religion. Chandan Bala Raas is a famous work.
(d) Nath Literature
It emerged in eastern India as a reaction to Siddh literature. While the Siddh literature believed in
continuation of normal married life the Nath sect opposed consummation. It was advocated by
Gorakhnath and Matsyendranath.
They believed in austerities and self control. They idealized a man who doesn't get deviated from his
path despite being surrounded by all temptations. It has elements of mysticism in it.
(e) Material Literature (Laukik Literature)
Romantic literature: Its main works are Jaichandra Prakash, Jai Mayank Chandrika and Vasant Vilas. Their
main emphasis was on expressing the feelings of heart, description of women etc.
Literature for commoners: Amir Khusrau took the literature from elites to the commoners. He wrote
numerous popular puzzles in a form which is enjoyable to common people.
Phase 2: Bhakti Phase (14 - 16 cent AD)
Different provincial rulers began to patronize music. Due to the fusion of Indo-Islamic music, khyal style
emerged. Texts were written on this music which formed a part of the bhakti literature.
This period was a period of growing regionalism and declining central authority. This was reflected in the
rapid growth of regional languages as well which became fully developed in this period. Similarly new
styles of literature emerged in different parts and attained maturity. This trend is reflected in the bhakti
period literature.
Bhakti movement sought to involve more people with it and to awaken them. This led to the
development of literature for people instead of the literature for the elites as in the previous raso
literature.
Bhakti and sufi movement led to spread of communal harmony. This effort can be seen in the literature
as well.
Bhakti movement drew from the basic tenants of upanishads and vedas but was progressive in its
outlook and humanist in character. This can be directly seen in its literature as well.
The nirgun literature can be divided into two - one emphasizing knowledge (like kabir, nanak, dudu
dayal) emphasized on the greatness of the teacher. It was more radical, egalitarian, assimilatory, vocal in
their criticism of traditional rituals and closer to the masses. The other type of nirgun literature
emphasized on love (sufis, chandayan, mrigavati, padmavat) which preached monotheism and tried to
bring hindus and muslims closer. It was romantic in nature with God as the love object. They believed by
loving God we can eliminate all differences. They portray God as a woman and soul as a man.
The sagun literature can be divided into two - one devoted to Rama (tulsidas, ramanand) and other
devoted to Krishna (mira, surdas). They use a highly poetic literature which could be sung in the temples.
Phase 3: Traditional Phase / Riti Phase (Mughals)
Under the Mughals we saw the emergence of a truly composite ruling class which included Hindus as
well. We can see the impact in the literature of the time as it came closer to the Islamic literature. We
can see the descriptions of the dresses, attitude and practices, subjects etc. all in a way which indicated
that both communities had come closer to each other. Thus the protagonists of hindi literature now
freely wore dresses made of fine silk and muslin, used arabic perfumes, engaged in entertainment like
the mughal rulers, their durbars, various practices became more like mughals. Even the religious subjects
like Krishna and Radha are portrayed in an intensely romantic and playful manner and wearing muslim
costumes. There is a clear departure from the traditional focus on spiritualism and devotion towards
worldly pleasures. There is increased focus on wealth, wine and women.
Under Akbar we find many muslim writers like Rahim, Ras-khan composing in Hindi while many Hindi
works being translated into Persian. A new upanishad called Allah-o-upanishad was even composed. We
see that the writers who tried to preach communalism could not find any popularity in this age.
With respect to women, the literature clearly shows them as an object of to be enjoyed as against their
depiction as goddesses, mothers etc. earlier. Even characters like Sita and Radha were no longer objects
of worship but the focus was on their body and makeup and they were treated as objects of
consummation.
Thus we can see a clear decline of bhakti spirit in the literature of this age and instead being replaced by
consumption which was also the social undercurrent as the ruling class (who were the audience of such
literature) believed in consumption only. Thus this literature can also be called as class literature. In
opposition to this there was a minor strand of mass literature specially coming from sufi saints of the age
like Mira etc. which opposed worldly consumption. We can also see a strand of literature emphasizing on
morals in the form of dohas of Rahim etc.
Just like the ruling class was separate from and unmindful of the problems of the masses the class
literature also ignores the masses and focuses only on the lifestyle of the rulers. We can also see a clear
movement towards attributing divine association to the emperors and kings as was emphasized by the
Mughals.
Sanskrit Literature
Kalhana's Rajtarangini
(a) Why was such a work written only in Kashmir?
Some scholars believe that Kashmir because of being cutoff from rest of India and its distinct
geographical setup was able to maintain a separate cultural identity. Thus regional loyalty was very
strong in Kashmir. Moreover it had constant interaction with the Buddhists in Tibet and China as well as
with Central Asia. Such places had a strong tradition of historiography and hence the work was written in
Kashmir.
But it must be recognized that in that period entire India was fragmented into numerous localities and
under feudal system. Regional outlook was strong everywhere. Such attempts to write on regional
histories came up everywhere but what make Kalhana's work unique was its sense of history.
Kalhana was different from other raso writers in the sense that he probably didn't have the patronage of
any ruler. Thats why his work could rise above the petty nature of his contemporaries.
(b) Motivations for writing
He writes in the kavya style in order to make it interesting to the reader. Though he ensures creativity in
his writing yet he never loses sight of his main goal vis to write historical truths as seen by him. Thus he
maintained his objectivity in most matters.
He was writing in a very turbulent period. Harsha's reign had ended and there were lots of wars and
struggles around. He wanted to write impartially so as to present facts before people and make them
learn from their mistakes.
(c) Importance
He mentions his sources in detail. He mentions the 11 scholars who gave him the family tree of Kashmir
rulers. He mentions the legends, myths, folklore etc. wherever he had to rely on it. But his strongest
point is he relies on inscriptions in the temples, land grant inscriptions etc. and mentions them clearly.
His work is divided into 8 parts. First 3 cover history of more than 3000 years which mainly rely on
Puranas and legends. His real historiography begins from 4th part and in 4 - 6 he covers the Karkota and
Utpal rulers. For these parts he relies on inscriptions as well as buddhist texts. In 7 and 8th part he covers
the Lohara dynasty.
In the beginning he comes across as a mere presenter of various folklore. There was no attempt of any
analysis. But as we come closer to his period we can clearly see the critical analysis done by him. This
expresses his views clearly on matters as well as contemporary realities. For instance Kashmir went
through a very turbulent phase post Harsha. Local feudal elements had become very strong and there
was anarchy. So he says that a king should be strong so that he can control the affairs of the kingdom
efficiently. He should make sure that no one in even the remotest village has sufficient wealth left with
him so that he could even think of posing a challenge to the king. He writes that the feudal elements
derive their strength from the vast amount of land they hold. He criticizes kayasthas and bureaucrats and
accuses them of harboring treacherous intentions against the kings. He never paints anybody in full
white or black and impartially tells us about his strengths as well as weaknesses.
It tells us about other realities of the social life as well. He mentions very proudly that he belonged to a
brahman family. The society had rich who fed on fried meat and drank perfumed cool wine. While the
poor had to live on wild vegetables. It says Harsha introduced a general dress in Kashmir of long coats.
He gives us a whole lot of other information like geography, family trees of important people, economic
activities like coin moulding etc.
It contains a striking description of the engineering works supervised a minister of Avantivarman.
Landslides and soil degradation led to a great amount of rubble and stone being deposited in the Jhelum
river which impeded the flow of water. This was cleared, embankments were constructed to prevent the
landslides, dams were built and lakes were drained. The minister even managed to divert the course of
the Jhelum and the Indus rivers slightly which led to reclamation of land for cultivation. This has been
supported by archaeological evidences and subsequent economic prosperity of Kashmir and it led to
withdrawal of Kashmir from the plains politics since the need to move there was lessened.
(d) Limitations
His analysis is not entirely free from his biases. Thus while he criticizes bureaucracy (because it was made
of mostly kayasthas) and says the bureaucracy had corrupted the kings and persuaded them to follow
anti - people policies, he says that the king should consult brahmans instead. This perhaps reflects his
personal grudge.
Architecture
Features
Before the advent of Turks, Rajput architecture belonged to the trabeate style and had flat roofs, false
arches and stone / mud based. But Turks brought with them the Islamic style vis true arches, domes and
used lime mortar and brick based.
Turkish architecture was technologically superior as it used true arches, domes, lime mortar, headers
and stretchers brick outlay, was massive.
It also left enough space for the circulation of air.
How the architecture reflects contemporary socio-politico-economic realities?
Urbanization: Turks were urban dwellers. Their monuments are in urban areas and promote urbanism.
Concentration of wealth: The turkish rulers extracted all the agriculture surplus in their hands. This
surplus had to be put to use and it happened in the form of grand monuments.
Reflects the distance between the rulers and the ruled, the despotism of the sultans: Each monument
reflects the tastes of the sultan as because of their scale each sultan tried to build according to his likes
to expand his glory. Ala-ud-din built Alai Darwaza which was majestic in scale. This reflects the despotism
of the sultan and his ability to extract surplus from the peasants.
Communal composition: Most of the monuments were Islamic which showed the distribution of power
in the urban society. Islam doesn't permit images of birds and animals so floral designs, geometric
designs and calligraphy came up.

They can be divided into 3 phases - (a) During and immediately after Turkish conquest when many hindu
temples were destroyed and new islamic monuments were sought to be created in their place quickly.
(b) Exchange of skills and traditions between Indian and Islamic architecture forms but at the same time
also shows lack of mastery of Indian craftsmen over the new Islamic form, (c) evolution of a special Indo Islamic form.
During and immediately after Turkish conquest: Turkish rulers had not yet established themselves. They
needed to create an awe among the ruled. Thus Iltutmish created many monuments in Delhi so that the
public could be awed. Qutub Minar was built as a symbol of Turkish victory. Further the monuments of
the age can't be divided exclusively into secular and religious monuments. This is because the rulers
needed monuments which could be used for huge public gatherings of the nascent Muslim society in
India. Thus they were often located in the middle of the town and had large open garden in them,
pillared verandahs on 3 sides and the praying site facing west. There was a raised platform where imams
and sultans could address the public. First such monument of the kind was Kuwwat - ul - Islam in Qila
Pithora. They had come to India as conquerors. So they didn't bring along any masons. So the initial
monuments have a deep influence of Indian architecture. The buildings of this phase were built by
demolishing parts of existing hindu temples and converting them according to muslim needs by
destroying the images, putting a wall in garbhgriha and inscribing Quranic verses. Also the flat roof had
to be converted into a dome and flat windows into arch. The Indian craftsmen were used to their
traditional style only. One of the earliest monuments is Adhai Din Ka Jhopda which was built by
Qutub-ud-din which has false arches.
Expanding muslim population in India and subsequent rise of Indian muslim class: A mosque's area is
often proportional to the Muslim population living in the area. Thus Quwwat - ul - Islam mosque was
expanded by Iltutmish and Ala -ud -din. As Indian muslim class grew stronger it also got its fair share in
the ruling class in the form of Khaljis. So the expansion of the mosque also symbolizes rising power of
Indian muslim class.
Exchange of skills and traditions between Indian and Islamic architectural forms: Gradually we see pure
form of Islamic architecture coming as Indian craftsmen began to master the new form. Balban's tomb
had the first True arch. Jamat-i-khana mosque of Alauddin is the first true Islamic monument. Alai
Darwaza can be construed to be the first monument which symbolizes the end of the initial phase of
insecurity and the Indo-Islamic architectural form.
Tughluq age: The monuments built were inferior in grandeur and beauty compared to the Khalji phase.
Perhaps they represented a reaction to the excessive ways of the Khaljis or the economic problems
facing the sultan. Under Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq we can see the continuation of the fusion of Indo-Islamic
forms. Thus in his mausoleum we can see a kalash kept on top of the dome. The construction work in
Tughluqabad may also reflect the haste and commotion in the face of impending Mongol threat. Firuz
constructed many monuments but none matched the grandeur of earlier sultans. Specially under Firuz,
sloping walls called salami were prevalent to give an impression of solidity to the monument. True
domes were constructed but they were somewhat small. Pentagonal designs came up.
Lodi age: Lodis believed in the kingship theory of being first among the equals. This is also reflected in
the architecture as we find that the monuments built by many Amirs were equal in scale and grandeur to
those built by the sultans. By their time, the octagonal designs, double domes and headers and
stretchers brick layering styles came up. Char-bagh style also came up.
Painting
These paintings also show many musical instruments like various forms of veena.
Evidences of Growth of Paintings Under Sultans
It was generally considered that the sultans didn't favor paintings. But recent evidences firmly establish
that paintings flourished under the sultans, under the provincial rulers of the age as well as under the
elite elements of the society.
Contemporary writer Taj-ud-din Raja says that paintings were quite popular under Iltutmish's reign. He
explicitly talks of paintings involving human and animal figures while the Caliph's envoy was welcomed at
the port. Other contemporary writers confirm what he says.
We find both direct and indirect evidences of paintings being used as illustrations in books during
Ala-ud-din's rule. Amir Khusrau writes in detail how these designs were prepared.
Shams-i-Siraj Afif in his Tarikh-i-Firuzshahi writes clearly that Firuz banned the living portraits of humans
in the palace galleries and bedrooms of the sultan. This tells us that such a practice was followed right in
the heart of sultanate.
Similarly Barani writes in Tarikh-i-Firuzshahi that Jalal-ud-din finished the work of construction of a
palace started by Sultan Kaku-i-bad and decorated it with paintings.
Regional Paintings
Jaunpur paintings: Various plays and other literary works in the Avadhi language make liberal use of
illustrations and/or talk explicitly about paintings. Prominent are the romantic works of Chandayan and
Mrigavati. The subjects of such works were often derived from Ramayan and Mahabharat. Another
Persian manuscript has been found which is heavily influenced by Persian painting style.
Paintings under Jain merchants: Since 9 - 10 cent AD we find miniature illustrations in religious works of
Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism under the Palas. In the 13 - 15 cent AD such a tradition emerged very
strongly under the patronage of rich Jain merchants and spread to central and northern India as well. In
Ahemdabad many secular as well as religious Jain works were created which had illustrations in them.
Mandu paintings: We have found 4 major manuscripts here which give evidence of flourishing painting
art here. A manuscript found here (Niyamatnama) has many miniature portraits of Sultan Nasir-ud-din
Khalji. These paintings show clear fusion of Indian and Persian art. They use bright and lively colors and
reflect the liveliness of the durbar of Mandu. Another manuscript is Miftah-ul-Fuzala which is a
dictionary. The manuscript Vostan shows heavy influence of Persian art. The 4th one is Ujaib-ul-Sannati.
Bengal paintings: A manuscript Sharafnama has 9 paintings. Sikandarnama has beautiful paintings on its
opening page itself. They show clear fusion of Indo-Islamic forms.
Composite Culture
The fusion of Indo Islamic culture began with the Turks in 13th century. Before that Arab merchants
were residing in India in the Malabar and Rashtrakuta empire and Arabs had also conquered Sind. But
still not much exchange happened. This fusion reached greater heights under the Mughals.
Music
Despite the opposition of religious extremists, music flourished under the Sultans. Amir Khusrau
developed a new Indian style of poetry. MbT and Zain-ul-Abedin were big patrons of music. Then under
Mughals it reached its zenith. Abul Fazl tells us about the prominent musicians in Akbar's court which
included both Hindus and Muslims. Under Bijapur's sultan Ibrahim Adil Shah many texts were written in
poetry. He himself was a poet. Bahadur Shah and Muhammad Shah also encouraged music.
Language and Literature
One of the major steps which promoted the fusion was the complete Persianization of the administrative
work. This encouraged Hindus to take up Persian learning and they also began to contribute to the
Persian literature.
Regional languages also began to liberally exchange with Persian due to this move. Though they kept
their basic grammar and syntax but incorporated many words from Persian (specially Marathi for
instance Peshwa, Avadhi, Bengali). We can see the influence of Persian in Nanak's work as well as Tulsi's
Ramcharitmanas. Regional languages also developed as the Muslim rulers in provinces also patronized
them (for instance Zain-ul-Abedin encouraged compilation of Rajtarangini, he also encouraged Kashmiri
literature. Sanskrit works came up in Muhammed Begara's reign, Gujarati works were encouraged by
Ahmedshah. Similarly Bengali, Telugu etc. were encouraged by the local rulers). Many works were
translated from Persian and Sanskrit into these regional languages.
Akbar was very fond of literary works and had a big library of works in many languages. He also got many
works translated into Persian.
Urdu Language
The Turkish invaders came here and settled here. With time their links with Central Asia broke
(specifically due to Mongol invasions) and hence they had to recruit for their armed forces from among
Indians. Naturally there was a barrier in communication between the Persian speaking central asians and
hindi speaking Indians. Thus urdu came up as the camp language. Amir Khusrau was one of the first
prominent writers to also take up Urdu.
When the sufi saints and subsequently the sultans went to deccan they faced the same language barrier
again. So the language which subsequently came up after exchanges with the regional languages is called
Deccani language which evolved into the more formal / classical form of Urdu. With the expansion of
Mughal empire in 17th century in Deccan the spread of Deccani increased.
In 18th century Urdu emerged as the leading language of the gentry and symbolized the revolt against
the Persian dominance.
Provincial Architecture
Gujarati style represents the clearest influence of Hindu style of architecture. We can see this in the
Jama Masjid @ Ahemdabad, Khambat and Badi Masjid @ Champaner etc. where they resemble Hindu
and Jaina temples closely. The dome was supported by slender minarets. Influence seen in Fatehpur
Sikri.
In Golconda fort we can see that the arches were ornamented with Hindu motifs like cranes, parrots,
lions, peacocks etc. Similarly in Bijapur's Jama Masjid we can see sculptures of Pipal trees on the walls
which is a sacred tree for Hindus.
Under the Bundelas @ Orchha and Datia we can see arches along with Hindu style. Under Marathas we
can see Islamic features lime minarets, domes etc. which are even used in the construction of temples.
Marathas also had gardens constructed in their palaces along with fountains, canals etc.
Religion and Philosophy
Bhakti and Sufi movements influenced each other and the popular thought. Din-i-ilahi was a
manifestation of the fusion. Dara Shikoh was also a great assimilatory character and influenced by
sufism.
Still the exchange couldn't take place beyond some popular practices and beliefs. At the philosophical
level the fusion was not visible except for the above mentioned instances. There were some sufi saints
who incorporated some practices of hindu saints like yoga etc. A particular sect of Muslims believed
Prophet to be an avatar, Muin-ud-din Chisti to be a demigod. We can see people of both community
celebrating many festivals together. This communal harmony was encouraged by the provincial sultans
as well.
Evolution of a Composite Ruling Class
With time the domination of Turks ended and we can see Indian Muslims rising in the rank of the ruling
class. Then there were many Hindus who were exploited in the Hindu society, they sought to take
advantage of the new situation for their advance. Slowly even the better off hindus aligned themselves
with the sultans and even though they didn't get a share directly in the upper echelons of power they
were quite important for the sultanate.
When Sikandar Lodi ordered for the adoption of Persian as the official language many learned Hindu
classes like Kayastha, Kashmiri brahmans etc. learnt Persian and took advantage. The ruling class at the
village and local level still comprised predominantly of hindus. Yet before Mughals a truly composite
ruling class couldn't emerge.
Amir Khusrau in Music
He was very much influenced by Indian music and gave many new ragas (like tilak, sarpada, saajgiri) and
taals by fusing Indian and Islamic music. He is said to have popularized Qawwalis and invented tabla and
sitar.
Sufis in Music
They contributed in the form of gazals and qawwalis. Gazal is a romantic form of music where the object
of love is a person in this world only. Qawwali is the romantic music where the object is God. As such
gazals became very popular in the durbars of sultans.
Culture in Mughal Empire
Persian History Writing
Nature and Character
In N India land records were kept in Persian only. In S India however, both local and Persian languages
were used. This gave a great boost to the spread of Persian.
The histories were written within the confinement of Islam i.e. criticism of Kuran, Hadi, Sunna etc. is not
possible and it must remain within the confines of the religion.
The rising might of the emperor had an influence on the historiography as well and now the history of
the age became the history of the emperor. The completed works now came to be dedicated to the
emperor. The earlier Arabic tradition of giving sources was also discontinued here. Divine association
of the kings was emphasized upon to establish their sovereignty. We find the tradition of history writing
spreading to the provinces as well.
We find extensive use of religious terminology in the texts which might appear to the extent of outright
communal at the first glance. But it must be kept in mind that in those days religion and education were
intricately linked. The scholars were invariably men of religion and they knew no terminology other than
religious. Thus they make indiscriminate use of such terms. For instance using such terms lashkar-i-kufra
and lashkar-i-islam even when both sides fighting each other were Muslims.
We must also keep in mind that the interest of much of the history writing section differed from those of
the sultans. The history writing section mainly came from the religious ulemmas class and wanted sultan
to be bound by the shariat and kuran so that he would have to consult them on all matters and their
importance in the politics grows. Sultans on the other hand were not willing to accept any sovereignty
above them. So to please the ulemmas and to show their complete loyalty towards shariat whenever it
was possible they tried to give religious color to actions otherwise necessitated by politico-economic
considerations. The historians naturally used to give lot of importance and communal color to such
events.
The political stability and economic prosperity of the age can also be seen in such works.
Differences from Sultanate Era History Writing
The completed works now came to be dedicated to the emperor.
The earlier
Arabic tradition of giving sources was also discontinued here.
The emperors used to pay a lot of attention to history writings themselves as is evident from the
tradition of autobiographies in the mughal age. When they couldn't they appointed highest scholars for
the task and gave them full access to all government records (including the classified ones) and gave
them other privileges as well. But as usual this means these writings were often biased.
In the mughal works we can see events presented chronologically year after year along with all the
dates. But in Barani's work we see lack of such chronology.
The techniques of paper making and binding showed marked improvement over the sultanate era and so
we have larger amount of sources of mughal era with us.
Zahir-ud-din Muhammed Babur and Tuzuk-i-Babri
(a) Importance
Its importance is that its an autobiography and this is where Mughals differed from sultans. The work is
from someone who was shaping the India of the age and brought a revolution. He divides his work in 3
parts - first part runs from his accession to the throne of Fargana and ends with leaving Samarkand for
the final time, second part tells us about his struggles and wars in India and the third part tells us about
the state of affairs in India.
He describes the political situation of the country in great detail. He talks about different provincial rulers
like Gujarat, Malwa, Bijapur, Golconda etc., Vijaynagar, Bengal, Rajputana. He talks about the difficulties
faced in keeping the conquered areas firmly under his control. He talks about the difficulties faced in
collecting land revenue.
Being a foreigner he tells us in detail about all things which struck to him and which may have been
ordinary to a resident here. He was a keen observer and describes people and geography in great detail.
He writes about their clothes, food, habits, behavior, profession, social structure, festivals, art forms,
architecture, technologies etc. in great detail. Thus he produces a rich account.
He also writes very frankly about his own mistakes. It also gives a good account of the conditions
prevailing in Humayun's initial years and tells us about his strengths and weaknesses as well.
(b) Limitations
He can be accused of distortion of facts also specially while highlighting his military victories.
He forms a negative stereotype of Indians based on his observations of certain backward sections of the
society.
He also leaves out certain provinces like Sind, Kashmir, Odisha, Khandesh. He neglects Portuguese as
well.
His is also a broken account - sometimes it had long breaks.
Humayun's Historiography
Tarikh-i-Rashidi by Hussain Mirza: He was a senior commander in Babur's and then Humayun's army and
hence the importance. He talks in detail about Humayun's period. He writes about character and habits
of Humayun. He gives a different and detailed account of circumstances leading to the battle @ Kannauj
and Kamran's role in it. He said that some revolts had emerged in Punjab and Qandhar so Kamran had to
return immediately but he left 5000 sawars with Humayun.
Kanun-i-Humayuni by Khond-Mir: The writer was a senior official under Humayun and thus gives us a
good account of the events and conventions of the durbar.
Humayunnama by Gulbadan: She was a step sister to Humayun and tells us in detail about the life of
royal ladies and Humayun's exile and conquering Kabul.
Akbar's Historiography
It had 3 strands - (a) the official version i.e. Akbarnama written by Abul Fazl and which was sponsored by
Akbar, (b) neutral version i.e. Tabakat-i-Akbari written by Nizam-ud-din Ahmad, and (c) anti-Akbar
version Muntakbh-ut-Tarikh written by Badayuni.
(a) Akbarnama by Abul Fazl
Abul Fazl was a liberal person like Akbar and consequently had come very close to him. In 1590 he was
entrusted with the task of writing history of Akbar. The first part starts with Akbar's birth and ends in
1572 where he talks about creation of the universe, other religions and their prophets, Akbar's ancestors
etc. In the second one he covers the period till 1588. The third part is Ain-i-Akbari. The 4th part talks
about the geography, people, climate, indian saints, sufi saints etc. of India. In the final part he gives his
brief autobiography.
He studied all relevant Arabic and Persian history books, he used all relevant official records, farmaans
etc., he interviewed a lot of people including the amirs and Akbar himself, he knew intricate details of
many things being a high amir himself and whenever there was a dispute regarding anything he used to
take opinion of maximum possible number of people conversant with the matter and if there was still
any dispute left then Akbar used to take a decision.
Abul Fazl was a great supporter of Akbar's liberal religious ideas and he wanted to strengthen his
position further. So he highlighted the divine aspect of Akbar's kingship and also praised sulh-i-kul policy
of Akbar. He supported his claim to mustajir. Various religions generally associate births of prophets or
great men with some divine signs. Abu Fazl tries to link Akbar's birth with some divine signs as well. If he
was not given formal education during his childhood, Abu Fazl links it to such a tradition among the
prophets. He wanted people to believe that Akbar had an element of divinity in him so that they follow
his orders without any issues.
He rejects the highly ornamental style of Persian writing of previous historians and instead writes in a
very simple and yet lovable language. Unlike other Persian historians he doesn't use any such language
which can even hint at religious intolerance. This was a big break from the history writing tradition of the
age.
Ain--i-Akbari reflects the liberal religious views and sulh-i-kul thoughts of Akbar. It tries to give a
harmonious portrayal of hindus and hindu philosophy and presents them as being tolerant, liberal and
assimilatory. Although it must be noted that he didn't know Sanskrit like Berouni and thus suffered from
this handicap. He tries to portray the apparent differences between various religions as a result of
different languages, ignorance of the religious heads and interpreters, their traditional and fanatical
outlook, use of religion by them and the rulers to serve their personal ambitions etc. In reality there is no
difference between any religion. He rejects the claim of old historians that in India there is an inherent
conflict between the muslims and hindus. He also rejects any fanaticism be it in hindus or in muslims.
Thus he praises Todarmal for his qualities but criticizes him for his lack of tolerance.
(b) Tabakat-i-Akbari by Nizam-ud-din Ahmad
Nizam-ud-din was a high ranking officer under Akbar yet wrote in a neutral way. His book covers the
history of sultanate and Akbar and other provinces like Bengal, Malwa, Jaunpur, Kashmir, Sind etc. He
didn't write to gain favors from the emperor and was a man of high integrity.
He uses other works like Tuzuk-i-Babri, Akbarnama and numerous other historical texts of his age.
(c) Muntakbh-ut-Tarikh by Al Badayuni
Badayuni represented the traditional fanatical ulemma class. He had grown up and received education in
a very orthodox and fanatical environment. He hated Akbar for his religious tolerance which he believed
had led to the ignorance of learned scholars like him. He believed that all the high posts and influence
should be exclusively reserved for muslims and that too for learned scholars like him. This was his biggest
limitation but at the same time also lets us know the impact of Akbar's policies on this section.
Badayuni had been invited to ibadatkhana affairs of Akbar. But he soon found out that his orthodox
views would have no impact on the emperor. He was also jealous of Abul Fazl (who not only influenced
Akbar's policies but also was involved in implementing them) whom he accused of poisoning the
emperor's mind and this hatred shows in his work. He believes himself to be a soldier of Islam and
brands both Akbar and Abul Fazl as enemies of Islam. He was also dissatisfied from Akbar for his
regulations imposed on madad-i-mash (the tax free land grants made to muslim ulemmas).
His work has 3 parts - first one begins from Subuktgin and lasts till Humayun's death (this can be
considered as a summary of Tabakat-i-Akbar), second relates to Akbar and third relates to some sufi
saints, poets and muslim scholars.
His work is full of religious intolerance and hatred for hindus. But it must be kept in mind that he was
jealous of rich hindus as they were richer than him and focuses his venom on them. At the same time he
ignores poor hindus just like he ignores poor muslims as this reflects the typical mindset of the privileged
class of the age.
His research and analysis was shallow as he was not really interested in describing any event of the age.
He merely wanted to pour venom on both Akbar and Abul Fazl.
Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri by Jahangir
This is an autobiography and describes in detail his campaigns including failures, factionalism emerging
in the high noblery, transfers of mansabdars and how he himself turned away from his responsibilities.
The work reflects his desires, his efforts, successes, failures everything. He describes how he wanted to
be like his father. He writes in detail about his daily life, his thoughts very honestly.
He doesn't stay limited to his life only. He also describes his officers, his perception about their thoughts
and factional fights etc. This makes it a very good source. He also describes the geographical details of
his journey to Kashmir, Malwa, Ajmer, Gujarat and Punjab.
First 15 years of his reign were very good but from the 16th year onwards problems begin and he starts
to retire from active life. This is reflected in the form of irregular entries in the book. In the alter years he
delegated the responsibility of history writing to Motmid Khan who writes in the name of Jahangir till the
19th year. From then on he writes Ikbalnama-i-Jahangiri in his own name which again is a very reliable
source.
Padshahnama (for Shahjahan)
This has 3 versions. First was written by Kazwini which covers the first 10 years of his reign. Next was
written by Abdul Hamid Lahori and covers first 20 years of the reign. The third version was written by
Muhammad Waris which covers the last 10 years of his reign. This work covers in detail the princes,
amirs, scholars, sufis, poets, campaigns, political events, transfers etc.
Aurangzeb's Historiography
(a) Alamgirnama by Kasem Shiraji
He covers the first 10 years of his reign. Like other official historians, he too had access to all the
governmental records. Where he needed more information he could investigate anyone and was also
free to consult the emperor. He liberally praises Aurangzeb and criticizes his brothers and even
Shahjahan. He praises those amirs who sided with Aurangzeb in his succession war.
(b) Muntakbh-ul-Lubab by Khafi Khan
This is a critical work of Aurangzeb's reign and he writes how the peasantry was oppressed by the
mughals and always lived in fear. He also criticizes the handling of deccani affairs and his work contains
the elements pointing towards the decline of mughal empire.
(c) Futuhat-i-Alamgiri by Isardas Nagar
This covers his reign up to 34 years and talks in detail about his relations with rajputs. He writes how by
1691 Aurangzeb's policies had failed and his noblery had hatched ambitions to carve out independent
principalities.
European Sources: Jean Taverner
He was a merchant and hence was interested mostly in economic activities of the country. But a
difference between him and other writers is that he didn't remain confined to the court activities. He
travelled across India and also wrote about the people, social life (whatever he could understand) and
economic life. Thus he becomes an important source albeit one which should be interpreted with proper
caution. He thus writes about the production activities in India, the merchants, the sarafs, the
involvement of amirs in trade, various temples etc.
One limitation is that he travelled through forests so he could have written about the tribals there but he
didn't. Then his writings on religious and cultural lives are at best shallow.
European Sources: Francis Bernier
He had stayed in India for a long period. So he came to understand the circumstances here in a better
way. He had access to the royal courts and hence writes about the lives of the ruling class including the
princesses. He writes about the rajputs as well.
He also throws sufficient light on the economic life. He writes about the craftsmen, the peasants etc. But
he incorrectly asserts that the emperor was the owner of all land here.
On amirs he writes that they lived a very consuming life. Despite large incomes they were always
indebted. He talks about the transportation means, the mughal army, the brahmans and their narrow
mindset and superstitions, the sati system, devadasi system and craft production processes in India.
Mughal Architecture
Features
Change & Continuity: Double dome, char-bagh style were elements of continuity. Influence of provincial
architecture, kalash, petra dura style were elements of change.
Due to the central asian origin of the emperors the architecture was characterized by fusion of
Hindu-Islamic architecture specially under Akbar. One such influence is the kalash placed on top of the
domes which was borrowed from Hindu temple architecture. In SJ's time, greater emphasis was placed
on Islamic character of buildings. Thus during Akbar's period we can see a fusion of regional styles into
Mughal buildings. In Red Fort we can see distinct Gujarati and Malwa influence. The use of domes was
avoided and instead replaced by chatris. Domes were used only in the mosque. We can see the use of
colorful and glazed tiles on the external walls in Sikri which resemble Persian style. On the other hand
the internal walls and chatris were ornamented with motifs of different animals and human beings in the
Rajput style. Fatehpur Sikri too saw huge influence of Gujarat and Rajput styles. Rajput influence is
witnessed in the doors and windows and in Jodhabai's and Birbal's palaces while Kashmiri influence is
visible in Mariam's palace. In Birbal's palace we can see the arches were decorated with motifs of lotus,
rose and other flowers. In the Diwan-i-Khas we can see the influence of Jain, Buddhist as well as Hindu
styles.
It used the char-bagh style. Initially the monument was constructed in the middle of the garden on a
raised plinth and flowing water. Humayun's tomb is the first example. Shahjahan changed it to placing
the monument in one corner of the garden.

Many beautiful gardens with flowing canals were created. It began with Babur who got a garden created
in Agra when he began to live there. Example are Shalimar @ Lahore, Nishat Bagh in Kashmir.
Double dome was another feature. Humayun's tomb is the first example.
Red sandstone from Dhaulpur was extensively used by Mughals. Examples are Shahjahanabad and
Fatehpur Sikri. Marble was also used. From Jahangir's time a visible shift was made towards use of
marble.
Some new cities like Din Panah by Humayun and Shergarh by SSS were built.
Pietra dura style was used for ornamentation. Floral designs were carved in walls and semi-precious
stones were fitted in these engravings for entire design.
Last example of Mughal architecture is Safdarjung tomb.
The architecture was suited to the climatic conditions of the land. The rooms were large and airy. There
were big gardens around the building and many fountains as well. The roofs had the khus-khus grass to
keep them cool.
Mughal Architecture as a Reflection of Contemporary Life
It symbolizes the great power of the ruling class and the great divide between the rulers and the ruled.
Mughals brought a vast area of the country under their administration. They had elaborate machinery to
extract the agriculture surplus and this surplus was concentrated in few hands only. This gave them the
ability to provide for best of the resources from all over the country in their monuments. This shows in
the superiority of their architecture. The elite and privileged class used burnt bricks, mortar and stones
(because stone cutting and polishing was costly) and arches, domes and vaulted roofs in their
constructions. They also made use of glasses for their windows and Jahangir even used colored glasses
which were very expensive. Commoners used mud bricks or kuccha houses.
They reflect the increasing power of the emperor even in respect of his amirs. Thus while in the Lodi rule
we find that the monuments of his amirs were as good as those of the sultan, in mughal age monuments
of the emperors were way above anybody else's. While the emperors had the resources and capacity to
obtain best of material and labor from any part of the country his nobles and provincial rulers /
governors clearly couldn't do so.
We can see the impact of Akbar's desire to be the religious leader of Indian muslims as well. In
Diwan-i-Aam @ Sikri we can see that the emperor's throne was placed in the western direction which
gave him religious supremacy as well. The use of many provincial styles in the buildings can be seen to
reflect Akbar's desire to be the emperor of whole India and not just a part of it. But this innovative and
assimilative character was replaced by a traditional character in Shahjahan's monuments.
The monuments clearly show the state of the empire in those days. For instance the majestic fusion and
smooth construction of Sikri shows the stability and the strength of the empire. By Shahjahan's time a
stagnation had occurred which we can see in the lack of variety in the construction. The freshness and
cultural fusion of the buildings gave way to artificial grandeur. The innovative and assimilative character
of Akbar's time was replaced by a traditional character in Shahjahan's monuments. It appears that this
was an attempt to hide the growing problems of the empire. By Aurangzeb's time the architecture
declined due to his personal indifference as well as economic condition of the state. Whatever
monuments are there show traditional style only and lack of creativity. Instead the monuments of the
regional principalities began to grow in their attraction. This shows the decline of the empire.
These majestic projects reflected the cultural currents and tastes of the age in the ruling class. The
emperors often personally paid attention to the plans and construction of the monuments. Thus we have
paintings of Akbar observing the construction of Fatehpur Sikri personally.
After 300 years of liberal exchanges and changes, Indian architecture style had stabilized. The craftsmen
had become masters of their art and this shows in the buildings which show a style that is more mature
and uniform than its predecessors. Architecture during sultanate period was heterogenous and more like
a collection of different styles.
The construction made use of labor intensive technologies which indicate the abundance of unskilled
and skilled labor of the age and that it had become an important industry. Large amount of labor was
employed. For instance Akbarnama tells us 4000 workers were employed everyday for the construction
of Agra fort. Jama Masjid of Delhi employed 8000 workers and Taj Mahal employed 20000 workers
working everyday.
The architecture was suited to the climatic conditions of the land. The rooms were large and airy. There
were big gardens around the building and many fountains as well. The roofs had the khus-khus grass to
keep them cool.
The architecture clearly shows a fusion of Indo-Islamic styles and shows the prevailing undercurrents of
communal harmony and liberal exchange in the society.
The mughal amirs used to construct their buildings close to the buildings constructed by their ancestors.
The foundation of any major project was laid only after consulting the astrological charts.
Mughal Painting
How they reflect the contemporary life?
Painters were both Hindu-Muslims as well as lower caste hindus.
Court patronized. Book illustrations played an important role. Karkhanas were established for painting.
Painters were paid monthly salaries + bonuses.
It was un-islamic yet liberal interpretation of islam allows it.
Painted portraits of Akbar showing despotism.
Specialization absent.
Mughal paintings show the construction scenes of the big monuments and also tell us about the used
technologies. For instance some paintings show us how stones were cut and polished to be used in
Fatehpur Sikri.
Court scenes, hunting scenes, wars were painted. Indian colors were developed.
Mughal Paintings under Akbar
In the initial phase during Akbar, paintings used to draw heavily from persian style though we could see
some influences of Indian style occasionally. One of the first important paintings was the miniature style
Dastan-i-Amir-Hamza or Hamzanama. It had 1200 paintings and used bright colors. Amir Hamza was a
Persian mythological hero and Akbar used to enjoy his stories. Hamzanama depicts foreign plants and
flowers. We can also see influence of Hindus style in the painting of women in it. In Anwar-i-Suhaili we
can see that the birds and animals are painted in a very natural style whereas in persian style animals are
painted in a very artificial way (they appear more like masks than alive animals). It shows Indian trees
and flowers but paints hills and clouds in persian style. These painters were mostly Persians.
In the next phase Akbar's policies had become much more assimilatory and the resulting fusion culture
had become mature. Akbar was becoming more interested in analysis of different religions. So he
wanted many books of different religions to be translated into Persian. Such translations would also
include miniatures. This gave a big boost to the fusion process. We can see the same impact in the
paintings as they now included various provincial styles like Gwalior, Gujarat, Rajputana, Lahore, Kashmir
etc. This was possible as their painters were now drawn from all over India and not just Persia.
Tootinama is an important painting from this phase and we can see Indian influence in both subjects as
well as style. The most famous painting of this age was Razmnama which worked as a milestone for
other paintings.
With time we can also see the European influence in the paintings. It began when in 1580 Akbar invited a
missionary to his durbar. They brought many paintings with them. The mughal princes were impressed
and the painters tried to incorporate its features in their own paintings. In the beginning they just copied
the outlines and filled it in their own colors and style. Later on we can see the european influence both in
the subjects and style. A popular feature now was that the front objects were put in a perspective by
changing their size.
During the final years Akbar was besieged with many problems including the revolt of prince Salim and
death of princes Murad and Daniyal. We can see the corresponding decline in the paintings as well
specially miniatures. This decline was evident not only in quantity but also quality as they now lacked
creativity.
Mughal Paintings under Jahangir
During Akbar's reign the painting was bound by the subject of the manuscript of which it formed a part.
Jahangir freed it from this limitation and encouraged free paintings (on subjects dictated by him)
including portraits. Initially he got some of the paintings redone from the royal library. Then he turned
towards life size portraits and other scenes from royal life. It must be kept in mind even Akbar got
portraits done but under Jahangir they became the dominating theme. Jahangir was eager to have
important events of his life and reign recorded and asked the painters to paint his durbar scenes, festival
celebrations, flowers and animals which interested him etc. There is one painting which shows Jahangir
aiming for a lioness's eye and a Rajput prince is pointing towards it.
The paintings of the age elevated Jahangir's aura and showed him in a majestic form. Maybe they are an
attempt to take his mind away from the dissonance of his failures to tackle some of the problems he
faced or some of the desires he could never fulfill. They were just an attempt to show him as a great, all
conquering, merciful and just ruler. For instance we can see him greeting the persian ruler on equal
terms though he never met him. The one painting shows him presiding over (as a great great emperor) a
meeting of many kings and princes from far off lands. In another he is seen as kicking Malik Ambar's
head.
Thus gradually in his reign we can see miniatures declining and getting replaced by free style paintings
including the portraits.
The paintings also show the animals and birds in a very natural way and focus on their bodily features
with a preciseness which is amazing. We can see signs of scientific study of such subjects before the
paintings.
Mughal Paintings after Jahangir
For some years Shahjahan let them work as they were working under Jahangir. But later on he began to
have himself painted in association with some divine powers like for instance the angels themselves are
descending on earth to keep the crown on his head, or they are standing holding flags in their hands and
praying for his victory and long life. He also had himself painted in most imposing forms. In one painting
we can see Akbar, Jahangir and Shahjahan with Akbar directly giving the crown to Shahjahan.
Perhaps all this was an attempt to hide the decline in the fortunes of the empire. That is why there is too
much of glorifying the emperor. The decline in mughal painting had clearly set in and creativity had given
way to traditionalism.
European influence can be clearly seen in these paintings as there is generally an illuminated circle
behind his head radiating light as in the european paintings of Jesus. Further we can see that the
background is generally painted blur in light colors.
Rajputana School of Painting
Rajputana paintings can be broadly divided into - (a) court paintings which depict as usual the lifestyle of
the feudal lords. We can see clear mughal influence here in the form of dresses, symbols, background,
scenery etc. The influence grew as the painters returned from the delhi court due to the decline of the
empire. (b) literary paintings which typically draw their subject matter from hindu religion. They also
show less influence of islamic art and more of rajput traditional art only because the interaction with
mughals was more in the ruling class. (c) folk paintings which typically show festivals, celebrations, daily
life events etc.
Mewar School
It mainly flourished in Chittor, Udaipur, Nathdwara, Deogarh, Sirohi, Saawar under Sisodias. It shows
comparatively lesser influence of mughal style due to distant political relations with the mughals.
Under Rana Amar Singh we can see that the men clothing is triangular in the bottom part of the body
which indicates mild mughal influence only. Under his successor Rana Jagat Singh we can see an increase
in the religious paintings as well as court paintings. These paintings depicted men and women in a mix of
mughal and traditional wear, birds, flowers etc. all in their natural state but the hills were painted in
mughal style.
In the first half of 18th century the court paintings flourished further as lot of painters came back, but
after that we can see a decline under the influence.
Amber School
It flourished under Kachwahas in Amber, Jaipur, Alwar.
Here the folk painting and literature related religious painting flourished more. It flourished under Man
Singh, Sawai Jai Singh and his successors. But by 19th century it lost its appeal.
Marwar School
It flourished under Rathores in Jodhpur, Bikaner, Jaisalmer, Pali. With time we can see growing mughal
influence in the Jodhpur school as the traditional rajput elements were replaced by refinement and
adornment. It portrays men and women in stocky bodies and men with mustaches.
Bikaner school was the one most closely affiliated with the mughal style as it had very close political
relations with mughals. Instead of bright colors or beautiful scenery work like other rajput schools it uses
soft lines and color assortment like the mughals. It appears that when mughal painters were neglected
under Shahjahan they came to Bikaner. Apart from the mughal influence we can also see deccani
influence here because Rana Anup Singh stayed in deccan for long under Aurangzeb. They too focus on
the bodily beauty of women who are light and slim.
Bundi School
It flourished under the Hadas in Bundi and Jhalawar. Bundi was located between Amber in north, Mewar
in south and Kota in west. So Bundi used to attract painters from all these schools and hence developed
its distinct style.
It typically used bright lively colors, focused on the bodily beauty of women and added to their beauty by
using sceneries including hills, rivers, forests, trees, fruits, flowers etc. in very natural sense. It used a
special mixture of colors to show the sky in background.
In 18th century the subjects were mostly hunting scenes, durbars, portraits of the feudal lords and their
entertainment (examples of mughal influence). It too declined in the later half of 18th century.
Kota School
Although it is close to Bundi, it still developed a unique style. Bundi passed through a turbulent phase in
the 18th century. So many painters from there came to Kota and worked here. Thus it came closer to
Bundi.
The subjects were mostly hunting scenes, portraits of the feudal lords and their entertainment (examples
of mughal influence). It too declined in the later half of 18th century.
Kishangarh School
The Rana here was very interested in art forms and was influenced by sagun bhakti. The famous Bani
Thani painting is from Kishangarh. The paintings here depict Radha and Krishna in gardens or celebrating
festivals etc. It was very much influenced by bhakti and the focus is on the bodily beauty of Radha.
Pahadi Schools of Painting
Kangra School of Painting
This school reflects the closeness to nature and uses natural scenes to express human emotions. For
example dry trees to symbolize separation, bright flowers to symbolize meeting etc.
It has many regional variations which can be seen in Bilaspur, Jammu, Mandi, Garhwal, Chamba, Nurpur
etc.
Basauli School of Painting
We can see a clear fusion of folk art of Kashmir, Mughal school and Rajput school here. Its chief centers
were Jasrota, Mankot, Bandharlata, Jammu, Nurpur, Chamba.
Initially we can see the traditional art forms clearly with people wearing traditional dresses and
ornaments etc. After the turbulence in Delhi due to invasions and throne games, many painters came
here and we see the influence of mughal style growing. This we can see in the form of changes in
dresses, expressions of women, ornamentation etc.
Guler or East Kangra School of Painting
One of the reasons for its development was that due to disorder the route between Delhi and NWFP and
Kashmir changed from passing via Lahore to via Jammu. So with time this came under mughal influence.
Differences with Mughal and Rajput Schools
While mughal school has focused on the splendor of the emperor and his court, pahadi school expresses
the emotions, nature, religious sentiments etc. Thus pahadi school could focus on life outside the royal
sphere as well.
Pahadi school tries to portray common life style and clothing style through krishna as it happened in
European renaissance. Thus krishna is depicted as wearing pahadi dresses and among pahadi women
wearing traditional dresses. The scenes are depicted in the original state of nature.
Apart from krishna, pahadi paintings also depict common girls playing the common games of the day or
playing music or depicts animals and birds in their natural settings. Women are shown as well like
mughal paintings. the paintings of the princes and their families are very much mughal styled. The
difference here though is that while such mughal paintings focused on some political events like battles,
surrender by the enemy, receiving an ambassador etc. pahadi paintings on such events are few.
Provincial Architecture & Painting
Lucknow School of Painting
Deccani School of Painting
It flourished in Bijapur, Golconda and Ahmadnagar. There was a lot of exchange between the three
centers due to the upheavals of the age so it is often difficult to distinguish which painting belonged to
which place. There were exchanges with Rajputs as well as Mughals. Nizamshahi sultans also welcomed
the painters from Vijaynagar empire. Thus the paintings show a good fusion with hindu style as well.
These paintings show openness as against the traditionalism which crept into mughal paintings during
Shahjahan. The most famous painting is that of a yogini (or princess) from Bijapur. Adil Shah I and
Ibrahim Adil Shah of Bijapur were great patrons of art including paintings. Their paintings are clearly
influenced by western romantic school.
Patna School of Painting
Lucknow School of Architecture
Rajputana School of Architecture
Classical Music
Originally there was only one system of music but in medieval age, north India came under the influence
of Persian music leading to formation of 2 schools - Hindustani (north) and Karnataka (south). They have
common basic features like raga, taal, performance includes a soloist (either vocal or on instrument), a
drummer and a tanpura.
Initially Dhrupad style was popular which used veena as the instrument. Another music style which was
popular among people in those days was Dhamar style which focused on describing krishna along with
the country girls, krishna playing holi in Braj, celebration of festivals etc. Mughal court couldn't remain
uninfluenced by Holi and Tansen et al composed many Dhamars as well and thus this folk music style
found its way in the mughal courts. Apart from these two there was the bhakti music specially from
Kabir, Mira etc. which was sung. Then Akbar also gave patronage to musicians from southern india as
well as north west. Thus an all encompassing music evolved in his period. Jahangir was a patron of music
as well specially gazals. This continued under Shahjahan but declined under Aurangzeb.
In the 18th century under Muhammed Shah (court musicians Adarang and Sadarang) and under ruler of
Jaunpur, the khyal style emerged dominant. It differed from dhrupad in the sense it allowed for more
freedom of the musician as well as was was light and full of life. It has only two parts (sthayi and antara)
as against the 4 in dhrupad. It is more suited to the female voice and this helped in its spread. In khyal
style as well there were two types - chota khyal and bada khyal. Bada khyal has slow tempo while chota
khyal has medium and high and hence became more popular among the two. Khyal was difficult to play
on the traditional veena and hence new instruments like sitar and tabla came up.
Carnatic Music
In contrast to Hindustani music, the main emphasis in Carnatic music is on vocal music; most
compositions are written to be sung, and even when played on instruments, they are meant to be
performed in gayaki (singing) style.
It peaked under Vijaynagar empire @ Tanjavur in 16 - 17 century. Purandar Das is known as the father of
Carnatic Music. Bhakti movement and folk music traditions contributed a lot to the development of
Carnatic music.
Shruti
It refers to musical pitch, the note from which all the others are derived. It is also used in the sense of
graded pitches in an octave. While there are an infinite number of sounds falling within a raga in Carnatic
music, the number that can be distinguished by auditory perception is twenty-two.
Swara
It consist of seven notes, "sa-ri-ga-ma-pa-da-ni". Every member of the swara has 3 variants (like ra, ri, ru)
except for sa, pa, ma. It refers to a type of musical sound that is a single note, which defines a relative
(higher or lower) position of a note, rather than a defined frequency.
Raga
In Carnatic music, it prescribes a set of rules for building a melody. It specifies rules for movements up
(aarohanam) and down (avarohanam), the scale of which notes should figure more and which notes
should be used more sparingly, which notes may be sung with gamaka (ornamentation), which phrases
should be used or avoided, and so on. In effect, it is a series of obligatory musical events which must be
observed, either absolutely or with a particular frequency.
Tala
Taals are the repeating succession of beats or claps like on a dholak (dhik-dha-dhik-dhak-dhin). They
have cycles of a defined number of beats and rarely change within a song.
Hindustani Music
Fusion of Vedic and Persian music as well as sufi tradition. Names like Amir Khusrau and Tansen are
associated with this school. Sufi tradition brought religious assimilation in the music as Muslim singers
sung praising Hindu deities and vice versa.
It is traditional for performers who have reached a distinguished level of achievement to be awarded
titles of respect; Hindus are usually referred to as pandit and Muslims as ustad.
Dhrupad Style
Its name is derived from the words "dhruva" (fixed) and "pada" (words). This tradition can be traced back
to Vedas. But it saw a decline from 18 century onwards. A newer genre, khyal, gained popularity at
dhrupad's expense as it placed less constraints on the singers and also the new instruments being
developed the sitar and the sarod were not suited to dhrupad.
Dhrupad as we know it today is performed by a solo singer or a small number of singers in unison to the
beat of the pakhavaj or mridang rather than the tabla. The vocalist is usually accompanied by two
tanpuras.
Dhrupad styles have long elaborate alaps and gradually accelerates. The alap is derived from a mantra, in
a recurrent, set pattern: a re ne na, t te re ne na, ri re re ne na, te ne to ne. In most styles of dhrupad
singing can easily last an hour. It is broadly subdivided into the alap proper (unmetered), the jor (with
steady rhythm) and the jhala (accelerating strumming) or nomtom, when syllables are sung at a very
rapid pace. Then the composition is sung to the rhythmic accompaniment: the four lines, in serial order,
are termed sthayi, antara, sanchari and aabhog.
Khyal Style
Khyal bases itself on a collection of short songs of two to eight lines each called a bandish. Khyal
bandishes are typically composed in a variant of Urdu / Hindi, and sometimes in Persian, Marathi or
Punjabi, and these compositions cover diverse topics, such as romantic or divine love, praise of kings or
gods, the seasons, dawn and dusk and they can have symbolism and imagery. The bandish is divided into
two parts the sthayi and the antara. The sthayi often uses notes in the lower octave, while the antara
uses in upper octave.
Every singer generally renders the same bandish differently, with only the text and the raga remaining
the same. A typical khyal performance uses two songs the bada khyal in slow tempo comprising most
of the performance, while the chota khyal in fast tempo used as a finale. The songs are sometimes
preceded by improvised alap.
The singer uses the bandish as raw material for improvisation, accompanied by a harmonium or sarangi,
tabla and a tanpura in the background.
Tarana Style
It is a type of composition in Hindustani classical vocal music in which certain words and syllables are
used in a medium tempo and fast tempo. It was invented by Amir Khusrau.
Tappa Style
Tappa originated from the folk songs of the camel riders of Punjab and developed as a form of classical
music by Mian Ghulam Nabi Shori @ Oudh.
Thumri Style
It is a semi-classical Indian music. It developed @ Oudh and deals mainly with Krishna

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ANCIENT INDIA

Indus Valley Civilization

also found in Kankali @ Mathura which is called Devanirmit Stupa.

Shiva caves were built in Elephanta.

Arts & Crafts Techniques

(c) Jain Literature

designs and calligraphy came up.

Arabic tradition of giving sources was also discontinued here.

the monument in one corner of the garden.

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