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LUSAS
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Table of Contents
Table of Contents
1 Introduction ..................................................................................................1
1.1 General....................................................................................................1
2 Analysis Procedures ...................................................................................3
2.1 Basic Finite Element Equations ..............................................................3
2.2 Linear Static Analysis And Equation Solution .........................................8
2.3 Nonlinear Static Analysis ......................................................................22
2.4 Linear Step By Step Dynamics .............................................................48
2.5 Nonlinear Dynamics ..............................................................................65
2.6 Eigenvalue Extraction ...........................................................................67
2.7 Natural Frequency Analysis ..................................................................79
2.8 Eigenvalue Extraction For Buckling ......................................................83
2.9 Eigenvalue Extraction Including Damping ............................................84
2.10 Modal Analysis ....................................................................................86
2.11 Steady State Field Analysis ................................................................95
2.12 Transient Field Analysis ....................................................................100
2.13 Thermo-Mechanical Coupling ...........................................................107
2.14 Fourier Analysis ................................................................................113
2.15 Analysis With Superelements ...........................................................118
2.16 Activation and Deactivation Of Elements..........................................126
3 Geometric Nonlinearity ...........................................................................129
3.1 Introduction..........................................................................................129
3.2 Virtual Work Equation .........................................................................130
3.3 Lagrangian Geometric Nonlinearity ....................................................130
3.4 Eulerian Geometric Nonlinearity .........................................................136
3.5 Co-Rotational Geometric Nonlinearity ................................................147
3.6 General Comments .............................................................................154
4 Constitutive Models.................................................................................157
4.1 Linear Elastic Models ..........................................................................157
4.2 Elasto-Plastic Models..........................................................................162
4.3 Plasticity Models For Beams And Shells ............................................199
4.4 Interface Models..................................................................................206
4.5 Damage...............................................................................................213
4.6 Viscoelastic Models.............................................................................216
4.7 Multi-Crack Concrete Model................................................................222
4.8 Resin Cure Model ...............................................................................235
4.9 Shrinkage ............................................................................................240
4.10 CEB-FIP Creep and Shrinkage Model ..............................................241
4.11 Generic Polymer Material..................................................................252
4.12 Joint Models ......................................................................................268
4.13 Field Models......................................................................................277
4.14 Composite Models ............................................................................280
4.15 Rubber Models..................................................................................283
ii
Notation
Notation
Standard matrix notation is used whenever possible throughout this manual and the
expressions are defined as follows:
Basic Expressions
Vector
Matrix or second order tensor
Fourth order tensor
| |
|| ||
Determinant of a matrix
Norm of a vector
b g Trace of a matrix
b g Transpose of a vector of matrix
b g Inverse of a matrix
d b g Variation
b g Virtual variation
c h Rate
b g Increment
b g Summation
tr
ch
Subscripts
cr
Component i
max
Maximum value
x,y,z
X,Y,Z
Zienkiewicz constants
,x
Superscripts
i
Iteration I
Values at time t
aR
Bulk modulus
bR
C0
neo-Hookean constant
C1 , C2 Mooney-Rivlin constants
iv
Notation
c
Wave speed
Da
Youngs Modulus
fi
Yield surface
Shear Modulus
Gf
I1
I1,I2,I3
Strain invariants
J2
J3
Bulk modulus
Thermal conductivity
Kc
K1
lo
ln
Moment
Stress resultant
Axial force
Qhg
Hourglass constant
Q1,Q2
rz
Sd
Sv
Sa
Torque
Axial stretch
Element volume
Work
vi
Notation
Lodes Angle
Angle of orthotropy
Load factor
Eigenvalue (ith)
Principal stretches
Friction coefficient
vii
p , p Ogden constants
Poissons ratio
Mass density
Effective stress
Potential energy
ei
Vectors
viii
Notation
q~
Euler parameters
ri
t i , qi
Pseudovector of rotation
d J
i , i Eigenvector
ix
Matrices/Tensors
A
Matrix of slopes
Strain-displacement matrix
B0
B1
Stiffness matrix
KT
Mass matrix
Notation
Ni
Rotation tensor
bg
S$
Matrix of eigenvalues
Density matrix
$$
Matrix of eigenvectors
xi
xii
Introduction
1 Introduction
1.1 General
The objective of this manual is to outline the theories on which the LUSAS finite
element analysis system is formulated.
The manual aims to provide sufficient information for the user to understand the basic
concepts of the procedures and to provide references to more detailed information.
Therefore, by itself, the manual does not provide comprehensive coverage of all
topics, and in this sense it is only a reference volume.
The manual also supplies many useful hints on how to select the best options for each
analysis type e.g. the most effective element and load incrementation scheme. As
such, the manual should also be a useful aid to a reader who is unfamiliar with a
particular area of finite element analysis.
Analysis Procedures
2 Analysis
Procedures
2.1 Basic Finite Element Equations
This section provides a brief introduction to the formulation of the equations of both
static and dynamic equilibrium. These equations form the basis for the evaluation of
the response of a structure using the finite element method.
T dv = uT f dv + uT t ds + duT F
(2.1-1)
(e)
=N a
(e)
(2.1-2)
where N
is the displacement interpolation or shape function matrix and a
vector of nodal displacements.
(e)
The strains
( e ) = B( e ) a ( e )
(e)
(e)
is the
by
(2.1-3)
( e ) = D( e ) ( ( e ) (oe ) ) + (oe )
where D
(e)
(2.1-4)
o( e )
and
o( e )
e =1
B( e )T D( e ) B( e ) dv a =
LM z N f dv + z N t ds OP (2.1-5)
PP
a M
MM
z B ( D )dv + F P
N
Q
n
e =1
( e )T
(e)
e =1
e =1
( e )T
( e )T ( e )
(e)
o
(e)
(e)
o
(e)
where N s are the interpolation functions for the surfaces of the elements and n is
the number of elements in the assemblage.
By using the virtual displacement theorem, the equilibrium equations of the element
assemblage becomes
Ka = R
(2.1-6)
K = B
e =1
( e )T
(e)
(e)
(2.1-7)
D B dv
Analysis Procedures
and
and
(2.1-8)
Rb = N
e =1
( e )T
(e)
(2.1-9)
dv
Rs = N s
e =1
( e )T ( e )
(2.1-10)
t dv
Ro = B
e=1
( e )T
(e)
(e)
(e)
( o D o ) dv
(2.1-11)
(2.1-12)
Equation (2.1-6) may be utilised for situations where the applied loading is
independent of time or when the load level changes very slowly. If rapid changes in
the load level occur, inertia and damping forces must be included in the equilibrium
equations.
(2.1-13)
acceleration
(e)
(e) (e)
u&& = N a&&
(2.1-14)
Rb = N
e=1
( e )T
(e)
(e)
(e)
( e ) N a&& c( e ) N a& dv
(2.1-15)
where is the density and c is the damping constant for the material.
Substitution of (2.1-15) in (2.1-6) leads to the dynamic equilibrium equations
M a&& + Ca& + K a = R( t )
(2.1-16)
M = N
e =1
( e )T
( e ) N ( e ) dv
(2.1-17)
C= N
e=1
( e )T
(e)
c N
(e)
(2.1-18)
dv
Note the influence of geometric nonlinearity on the basic equilibrium equations will
be considered in Section 3.
M = Pi x x i + M i
(2.1-19)
i =1
Analysis Procedures
where x i is the vector connecting the origin and node i. Pi and M i are equivalent
nodal forces at, and moments about, node i respectively. n is the number of problem
nodes. The discrete form of the equation is only approximate, the accuracy of which
is determined by the type of loading.
The following assumptions have been made when processing nodal loads:
1. For axisymmetric analyses (except Fourier) the nodal forces do not contribute
towards the moment at the origin. In addition, the forces on one radian of
revolution are processed. This is required to give meaningful results as
consideration of the full revolution will lead to radial components summing to
zero.
2. For Fourier analyses forces/moments for the complete revolution are processed
and forces are considered to contribute towards moments at the origin.
3. Forces applied to degrees of freedom which represent a departure from linearity
are not considered to contribute towards the static equivalence of the applied
loading [C10].
2.1.3.2 Mass properties
The mass of the structure
me =
dvol
(2.1-20)
volume
G=
m x
i
i =1
(2.1-21)
Ms
I o = mi S ( x i )S ( x i )T
(2.1-22)
i =1
LM 0
S(x ) = M z
MN y
i
zi
0
OP
P
0 PQ
yi
xi
xi
(2.1-23)
Io
LM I
=M
MN
xx
I xy
I yy
SYM
I xz
I yz
I zz
OP
PP
Q
(2.1-24)
The parallel axes theorem is used to compute the moments of inertia about global
directions with the origin at the centroid of the structure, I G .
I G = I o M s S ( G )S ( G )T
(2.1-25)
moments of inertia (the eigenvalues) and the directions about which they act (the
eigenvectors). Note that for axisymmetric elements the mass properties are computed
for the complete revolution.
Ka = R
where the load vector
(2.2-1)
cases.
Analysis Procedures
These equations can be solved directly using Gaussian reduction [H6] or iteratively
using a conjugate gradient technique [M6],[C10] and [H3]. The frontal solver utilises
Gaussian elimination to invert the stiffness matrix K , followed by a back-substitution
process to evaluate the displacements a . This technique may be performed on
several load cases simultaneously, reducing the analysis costs. The iterative solver is
effective for extremely large and comparatively well conditioned problems where
only one load case is to be solved. The success of this method depends very much on
the condition of the stiffness matrix and the preconditioning stage is an imperative
part of the solution process.
LM ( K ) OP
N
Q
D =
m
( j) 2
ii
j =1
(2.2-2)
K ii( m )
where
9
This optimiser is based on the minimisation of the growth of the element front. The
following steps are used to optimise the frontwidth
10
Analysis Procedures
1. For each element, form a vector containing all elements which are neighbours to
the current element.
2. Use each element in turn as a starting element. The current front then contains one
element
Update the current front by
adding to the front the neighbours of the elements that form the front,
removing elements that are no longer active from the front.
If the current frontwidth for this starting element exceeds the maximum
frontwidth obtained using a previous starting element, the algorithm
selects the next starting element (return to step 2.). Otherwise return to
step 2.a unless the complete mesh has been considered.
If the maximum frontwidth for the current starting element is less than the
previously obtained value, update optimum starting element and
maximum frontwidth.
3. Form element assembly order using the starting element that provides the smallest
frontwidth.
The procedure is illustrated for a simple example in fig.2.2-2. As the algorithm uses
element rather than nodal data, it is computationally efficient. Also, the simple rules
utilised to choose the starting element and update the front, ensure that the algorithm
is very stable, i.e. it will always produce reasonable element assembly order.
However, for certain cases the element order may be significantly greater than the
true optimum. This is illustrated by the examples in fig.2.2-3. For the long, thin mesh
the algorithm produces a maximum frontwidth close to the optimum value. Whereas
for the square mesh, the maximum frontwidth is significantly greater than the
optimum value.
(ii) AKHRAS AND DHATT OPTIMISER
10 11
11 12
10
10 7
11
11
11 7
12
12 8
11
Sum
10 11 12
10 12
TABLE 2.2-1
12
Ponderation
Span
12
21
3.5
16
27
4.5
45
10
33
5.5
11
45
7.5
15
72
16
51
8.5
17
36
18
57
9.5
19
40
10
20
Analysis Procedures
Note that this optimiser will function with two or more unconnected meshes (e.g. in a
slideline analysis).
(iii) REVERSE CUTHILL-MCKEE OPTIMISER
Cuthill and McKee [C15] noted that the ordering of a sparse symmetric matrix for
minimum profile and wavefront is equivalent to the labelling of an undirected graph.
The terminology of 'graph theory' provides a means of assessing various node
ordering schemes [J3]. The Reverse Cuthill-McKee optimiser works by re-ordering
node numbers directly (rather than element numbers) in an attempt to optimise the
element solution order. The optimiser may be used to minimise any of the following
criteria (see figure 2.2-5 for descriptions of terms):
Maximum wavefront
RMS wavefront
Bandwidth
Profile
Element label
Node labels
2
597
1
3
832
2
4
796
3
Element number
13
7
8
352
257
4
5
element 1
element 2
element 3
element 4
element 5
element 1
element 2
element 3
element 4
element 5
element 4
2,5,1,4,3
10. The list in 9. is sorted into ascending order while the solution order in 3. is also
sorted as a dependent list:
list 9. => 1,2,3,4,5
list 3. => 3,1,5,4,2
11. The final sorted list in 10. is used with the list in 2. to give an optimised solution
order for the elements: 4,2,8,7,3
(iv) SLOAN OPTIMISER
The Sloan optimiser works in a similar way to the Cuthill-McKee optimiser in that the
algorithm seeks to optimise the element solution order by firstly re-ordering the node
numbers. A much more sophisticated method is used to find the node order which
provides the optimal profile and wavefront. Full details of this procedure are given in
[S12]. After the optimal node sequence has been established the element solution
order is computed in the same manner as that described for the Cuthill-McKee
optimiser. Both the Cuthill-McKee and Sloan optimisers will function with two or
more unconnected meshes.
14
Analysis Procedures
2.2.2.2 Constraints and slidelines using the Frontal Solver
When the finite element analysis contains constraint equations and/or slidelines the
solution frontwidth is affected since these are included into the solution in the form of
constraint and/or contact elements. These elements are inserted into the frontal
solution according to the following steps
1. If frontwidth optimisation is required then
obtain optimised solution order with all elements (normal, constraint and
contact).
obtain a list of normal elements in optimised solution order otherwise
obtain a list of normal elements in presented/numbered solution order
2. Insert contact elements into the solution order after the elements to which they are
connected.
3. Insert constraint elements into the solution order only when the constraint
equation can be eliminated (i.e. after all the required variables have been
assembled).
Penalty slidelines with constantly changing connectivity will constantly be generating
new contact elements and removing old ones. Therefore
with SOLUTION ORDER AUTOMATIC (optimisation is required) the
frontwidth will be re-optimised when necessary following the procedure
described above.
with SOLUTION ORDER the contact elements will be inserted
immediately after the normal elements as appropriate (as 2. above).
with SOLUTION ORDER PRESENTED, the contact elements will be
inserted at the end of the normal elements according to their higher
element numbers. This would cause an un-optimised order when slidelines
are in use.
Note that LUSAS Modeller does not set up the connectivities required to include the
constraint elements or the contact elements - hence differing frontwidths may be
obtained when computed in LUSAS Solver.
15
f (a ) =
1 T
T
a Ka R a + c
2
(2.2-3)
where the first term on the r.h.s. of (2.2-3) is the strain energy, the second term the
potential energy of the applied loads and c is an arbitrary constant corresponding to
some reference value. The gradient of f(a) is the vector:
f ( a ) = K a R = ( a )
(2.2-4)
where (a) is called the residual. In structural finite element applications the residual
can be viewed as the out of balance force vector which should be zero at equilibrium.
Since the functional f(a) decreases most rapidly in the direction opposite of the
gradient, it is advantageous to search in this direction for the minimiser of f(a). A
first-degree iteration is commonly written:
a k +1 = a k + k p k
where
(2.2-5)
p k is the search direction for the kth iteration and k >0 is a step length.
k = 0,1,..., kmax
K =
TK K
(2.2-6)
pK K pK
a k +1 = a k + k p k
(2.2-7)
k +1 = k k K p k
(2.2-8)
16
Analysis Procedures
|| k +1||
T
|| R||
k =
Tk +1 k +1
(2.2-9)
Tk k
p k +1 = k +1 + k p k
(2.2-10)
2.2.3.2 Preconditioning
In the analysis of structural problems very ill-conditioned equations may arise. The
condition number of a symmetric matrix K can be related to its extreme
eigenvalues
(K ) =
N
1
(2.2-11)
and approximations make the solution a unreliable if the condition number is very
large. A further disadvantage of a large condition number is that it usually reduces the
rate of convergence of iterative methods.
Preconditioning is a method of clustering the eigenvalues more closely together and
thereby improving the efficiency of the iterative procedure. The basic idea of any
preconditioning method is to replace the system
Ka = R
(2.2-12)
~
~
K a~ = R
(2.2-13)
by
where
~
1
T
K = H KH ,
T
a~ = H a ,
~
1
R=H R
17
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
10
13
16
19
22
25
28
11
14
17
20
23
26
29
12
15
18
21
24
27
30
18
Analysis Procedures
1
Current front
Non-assembled
elements
Assembled elements
3
Neighbours of element 1
added to front
9 12
8 11
7 10
19
10
31
11
32
12
33
49
48
47
46
45
44
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
12
11
10
20
Analysis Procedures
wavefront
1
2
.
.
x
x
.
.
.
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
maximum wavefront
1 2 n
The root mean square of the wavefront =
1 2
1 x
2 x x
x
.
x
.
. x
x
.
.
n
LM 1 wavefront OP
Nn
Q
2
n
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
bandwidth
The profile is given by
bandwidth
21
In this analysis the changing effect of structural deformation on the structural stiffness
and on the position of applied loads is considered. A simple problem that illustrates
this is a simply supported beam with uniformly distributed loading (fig.2.3-3). The
linear solution would predict the familiar simply supported bending moment and zero
axial force. However, in reality, as the beam deforms so the angle of inclination of the
beam at the supports introduces an axial component of force. This force may become
significant if the deformations and consequently the angle of inclination become
large.
22
Analysis Procedures
Stress
Yield
point
Yield
Stress
Hardening
Loading
Elastic unloading/reloading
Strain
Force
Bar 2
Problem Definition
Force
Bar 1 Yield
stress
Displacement
23
Force
Bar 2
Yield
stress
Displacement
Force
Bar 2 yields
Ultimate
load
Bar 1 yields
Displacement
24
Analysis Procedures
Another simple example is the bar assemblage of fig.2.3-4. As the load is increased,
the response exhibits softening until 'snap-through' occurs, after which the response
shows stiffening.
Another form of nonlinearity often associated with large deformations is that of
follower forces (or non-conservative loading). With large deformations, some loads
vary in both their spatial location and orientation. Failure to represent these changes
may lead to errors with certain load types, e.g. pressure loading on a surface, where
the pressure should always act normal to the deformed surface. Non-conservative
loading is modelled in LUSAS by continuously updating the load vector (Updated
Lagrangian or Eulerian formulations only [Section 3]).
(iii) DEFORMATION DEPENDENT BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
In this analysis the boundary conditions are modified during the course of the analysis
depending upon the deformed shape of the structure. This is illustrated by the
example shown in fig.2.3-5. The mass is subjected to a pressure P and is initially
supported by a single spring. As the load is increased, contact is established with a
second spring, which alters the load-deformation response of the structure.
Nonlinear boundary conditions are imposed by using joint elements or via the
slideline facility. In the above case a joint element with an initial gap and zero
stiffness is used to connect the mass to the spring. Once the gap has been closed the
element is given a stiffness so that it forms a rigid link.
Load
25
Elastic
response
Displacement
at apex
Geometrically nonlinear response
Gap
K1
Spring
Supports
K2
26
Analysis Procedures
Load
K1 + K2
Contact
K1
Displacement
( a )= t + t P t + t R
t + t
P = BT
v
and
t +t
t + t
(2.3-1)
dv
(2.3-2)
a i 1 + a i = a i1 +
i
i 1 a + K
a
27
i1
(2.3-3)
then
L OP
a = M
N a Q
i
i 1
( a i 1 )
(2.3-4)
a i = K T1 ( a i 1 )
(2.3-5)
a =a
i
i 1
+ a
(2.3-6)
28
Analysis Procedures
Load (R)
R
y(a2)
K 2T
y(a1)
K1T
P2
P1
Displacement (a)
Da1
Da2
29
Load
t+tR
No stiffness reformulation
tR
Displacement
Load
t+tR
tR
Stiffness reformulation
Displacement
30
Analysis Procedures
Load
t+tR
tR
Stiffness reformulation
Displacement
a =a
i
i 1
+ i a
(2.3-7)
where is the step length and is selected to minimise the potential energy.
corresponds to the parameter ETA output in the nonlinear logfile. The stationary
value may thus be obtained as
i
i ( i ) i ( i ) a i
=
=0
i1
a i i
(2.3-8)
The first term is the gradient of the potential energy, and partially differentiating
(2.3-7) with respect to enables (2.3-8) to be written as
i ( a i )T a = 0
(2.3-9)
i ( a i )T a < toline i 1 ( a i1 )T a
31
(2.3-10)
i1
L a OP
= M
MN a ( ) PQ
i 1
i
j +1
i
j
i
j
(2.3-11)
i 1
The process is repeated until the convergence criterion (2.3-10) is satisfied or until a
preset maximum number of line searches per iteration (corresponding to nalps) is
exceeded. Line searches are not carried out if the computed length is close to unity or
close to zero. If the step length is close to unity, little would be achieved by the line
search. If the step length is close to zero, little progress would be made with the
solution, and the new iterative direction provided by re-solution would be beneficial.
Potential
energy
Satisfactory zone
Step
length
32
Analysis Procedures
Load
t+2tR
t+tR
Displacement
33
is
|| ||2
|| R||2
100
(2.3-12)
where R contains the external loads and reactions. Owing to the inconsistency of the
units of displacement and rotation, usually only translational degrees of freedom are
considered although all freedoms may optionally be included. For problems involving
predominantly geometric nonlinearity, a tolerance of
< 0.1
(2.3-13)
(2.3-14)
is suggested.
(ii) EUCLIDIAN DISPLACEMENT NORM (dpnorm)
d =
|| a||2
100 d
|| a||2
(2.3-15)
As in the residual norm, usually only translation degrees of freedom are considered
but all freedoms may be optionally included. The criterion is a physical measure of
how much the structure has moved during the current iteration. However, if
convergence is slow then false convergence may be obtained with this criterion.
Typical values are
01
. < d < 10
.
0.001 < d < 01
.
( reasonable )
( tight )
34
(2.3-16)
Analysis Procedures
(iii) EUCLIDIAN INCREMENTAL DISPLACEMENT NORM (dtnrm)
dt =
|| a||2
100
|| a||2
(2.3-17)
As in the residual norm, usually only translation degrees of freedom are considered
but all freedoms may be optionally included. The criterion is a physical measure of
how much the structure has moved during the current iteration with respect to the
incremental displacement. Typical values are
01
. < dt < 10
.
( reasonable )
(2.3-18)
( tight )
The work measure is defined as the work done by the residual forces on the current
iteration as a percentage of the work done by the external forces on iteration zero, i.e.
for iteration i
w=
where
( i )T a i
R a
T
100
(2.3-19)
is the current residual force vector, R is the external force vector for the
1
ai
is the
10
. e 3 < W < 10
. e 1
( slack )
10
. e 6 < W < 10
. e 3
( reasonable )
10
. e 9 < W < 10
. e 6
( tight )
i T
(2.3-20)
ai
2.3.2.2]. Therefore, convergence of the work norm may occur to a local minimum for
iterations when line searches are used. Therefore, the work norm is normally
supplemented with an alternative norm when line searches are used.
35
This criterion evaluates the root mean square value of all the residuals in the problem
=|| ||2
(2.3-21)
= max | |
(2.3-22)
The criterion is dependent upon the units of the problem. It is an extremely stiff
criterion, which may be useful near bifurcation points of sensitive geometrically
nonlinear problems where large residuals may pollute the solution.
36
Analysis Procedures
for example, a small increase in load is matched by a large increase in displacement
and the solution, if one exists, will very often fail to converge.
The most common limit point occurs at A and may be crossed using displacement
control. In this approach, a known displacement pattern is incremented and the load
obtained from the reactions. However, if the displacement pattern is not known, such
as with pressure loading, then this method cannot be used.
Load
t+tR
A
B
tR
Iterative
procedure
diverges
Limit
points
Displacement
Spherical path
constant
Load level
reduction
t+tR
tR
Displacement
Fig.2.3-11 Modified Arc Length Load Incrementation For A One Degree Of Freedom
Response
37
A general method that may follow the solution path through both types of limit points
is the modified arc length method [R1,W1,C2]. The algorithm implemented in
LUSAS follows that proposed by Crisfield [C2] but has been modified to allow for
combinations of proportional and non-proportional loading.
The salient characteristic of the arc length method is that the load level does not
remain constant during each load increment, i.e. during the iteration procedure the
load level is modified so that convergence near limit points may be achieved (fig.2.311). A further benefit of the arc-length constraint is in stabilising the iterative process.
This is of particular importance when using the modified Newton iteration [Section
2.3.2.1]. The arc-length method may therefore improve the efficiency of the solution,
even when no limit points are involved.
(ii) THEORY
( a, ) = P R = 0
(2.3-23)
where is the load level and R is the load vector and P is the vector of internal forces.
For a small change in load level D (2.3-23) becomes
( a, + ) = P ( + ) R
(2.3-24)
( a, + ) = ( ) R
(2.3-25)
1
(2.3-25)
becomes
a = a + a T
where
(2.3-26)
is the usual iterative displacement vector due to the residual forces and
i 1
+ i a
(2.3-27)
38
Analysis Procedures
where
In order to determine the change in load level , an arc length constraint equation is
utilised (fig.2.3-11). A circular arc is used and the constraint equation is derived using
the Pythagoras theorem as
( a i )T a i + 2 ( i1 )2 qT q l 2 = 0
(2.3-28)
A difficulty exists in selecting values for the scalars a and b due to inconsistency of
units. Since the aim of the constraint equation is to prevent the displacements from
becoming too large, Crisfield [C2] proposes that should be taken as unity and as
zero. This has been adopted in LUSAS, i.e. (2.3-28) becomes
( a )T ( a )T l 2 = 0
i
(2.3-29)
k12 + k2 + k3 = 0
where the constants
(2.3-30)
k1 = ( i )2 a T a T
T
(2.3-31)
i 1
k2 = 2 i a T a T + 2( i )2 a T a
T
i 1
k3 = ( a )T a
(2.3-32)
i 1
T
+( i )2 a a + 2 i a a
i 1
l 2
(2.3-33)
Note For a general iteration i, the terms in square brackets cancel out.
Equation (2.3-30) may be solved for and the total load level for iteration i is then
updated as
i = i1 +
(2.3-34)
i = f ( a i ) q 1 qT
(2.3-35)
39
If the roots to equation (2.3-30) are imaginary, then no intersection between the arc
and solution path is implied. This is caused by the iterative displacement vector a
being too large.
Various options are available in order to recover from this situation. If the tangent
stiffness matrix was not formed for this iteration (MNR), then the stiffness matrix is
automatically reformed. This usually alleviates the problem, at least temporarily. If
the tangent stiffness matrix was formed for this iteration (NR), then the increment is
restarted with a reduced arc length, since the problem may be due to the load
increment being too large. However, if no real roots occur on the predictor, reducing
the arc length will be of no benefit, since the arc length must be large enough to
accommodate the iterative displacement vector a .
In this case, the solution should be manually restarted from the penultimate increment
with an alternative arc length. The value chosen is dependent upon the phenomenon
that is creating the convergence difficulties. Typically if a bifurcation is possible in a
geometrically nonlinear problem, increasing the arc length may cause the solution to
jump over the problem area and proceed along the required or a complementary path.
Alternatively, for a materially nonlinear problem, structural collapse may be
occurring near this load level, and a reduction of arc length will be required.
Therefore, assigning an alternative value is a matter of experience or trial and error.
Note Failure to find real roots may also be associated with structural problems such
as poor idealisation, element mechanisms or approximations in the nonlinear
formulations.
(iv) SELECTING THE CORRECT ROOT
Normally (2.3-30) has two real roots. In this case the correct root must be chosen
since one root will take the solution forward and the other backward. To move
forward, the angle between the old incremental displacement vector and the new
incremental displacement vector must be acute [C2]. This can be enforced by
selecting the root for which the cosine of is given as
i 1
( a )T a
cos =
i
i 1
|| a || || a ||
i
(2.3-36)
is positive. If both roots yield a positive value of Cos , then the root chosen is that
which is closest to the linearised solution
lin =
k3
k2
(2.3-37)
40
Analysis Procedures
where
(2.3-28)
RS+ve loading
T -ve loading
sign(| K T | )
(2.3-38)
If the structure is loading, then the numerically larger root of (2.3-30) is used, whilst
if the structure is unloading, the numerically smaller root is used.
This criterion is generally a reliable criterion, however near bifurcation points the sign
of the determinant can become obscured by negative eigenvalues. If either a suitable
structural imperfection or a suitable loading perturbation is not present, the solution
will be unable to snap onto the alternative equilibrium path, and the use of (2.3-38)
will cause the solution to oscillate. An alternative criterion is
sign( a T qT )
T
RS+ve loading
T -ve loading
(2.3-39)
which is an unscaled version of the current stiffness parameter [B2]. This criterion is
not affected by bifurcation points but will always fail in situations where snap-back is
occurring. In this case both the loads and displacements become negative and hence
(2.3-39) is positive.
Selecting the incorrect root is more detrimental than finding no real roots as it is more
difficult to detect and will often manifest itself in the form of a rather jagged load
deflection curve or a looping finite element system.
Note The selection of an incorrect root, or failure to find real roots, is usually
associated with structural problems such as poor idealisation, element mechanisms or
approximations in the nonlinear formulation.
2.3.3.3 Arc length control (Rheinboldt's method)
The arc length method may be thought of as a generalised form of displacement
control which can be applied even though, physically, the problem does not involve
displacement control. This has effectively been achieved by Crisfield's arc length
method where the Euclidean norm of the incremental displacement has been
constrained to a fixed value.
Instead of this, it is possible to constrain the displacement increment at a particular
variable k to a specified value so that (2.3-29) is replaced by
aki = aki1 = D
(2.3-40)
41
D aki1 iak
aT ,k
(2.3-41)
Note that, in contrast to standard displacement control, the variable k would be one
where physically there would be no real displacement control and hence no reaction.
Rheinboldt's method uses this approach with the variable k being changed for each
increment so that it relates to the variable with the largest predictor component.
2.3.3.4 Line searches with arc length methods
A mathematically rigorous implementation of the line search method with the
modified arc length method is quite complex, as the adjustment of the step length
causes the constraint equation to be violated. An approximate method is used in
LUSAS which iterates between the line search equation (2.3-5) and either of the arc
length equations (2.3-30) or (2.3-41) to seek values of and that satisfy both
equations.
Whilst the method is effective, it fails to account for the fact that an adjustment in the
load level during the line search actually changes the iterative direction in which the
minimum of energy is being sought. Furthermore, line searches should be used with
care when tracing unstable equilibrium paths, since the equilibrium position may not
coincide with the minimum energy state.
2.3.3.5 Automatic load adjustment
The incremental arc length (deltl) is adjusted for each increment, so that large load
increments will be used for load levels with little nonlinearity, and small load
increments will be used for load levels where the response is highly nonlinear.
This is achieved by attempting to maintain a constant number of iterations during
t +t
1 evaluated by
each load step. Typically, for increment t the arc length is
comparing the number of iterations required to converge on the t previous increment
t
L N OP
l = l M
NN Q
1/ 2
t + t
(2.3-42)
A criterion to limit the maximum change in the arc length is also available. If the load
level at time t is
42
Analysis Procedures
|t |
< |t + t | < max |t |
max
(2.3-43)
This criterion is automatically converted from a load level limit to an arc length limit
using (2.3-30) giving
t + t
where
a T = ( K T ) 1 R T
(2.3-45)
43
Load
limit point
Cstiff<0
Pivmin<0
Cstiff>0
Pivmin>0
Displacement
Fig.2.3-12 Nonlinear Solution Path For One Degree Of Freedom Showing Limit Point
Load
Cstiff>0
Pivmin<0
Bifurcation point
Cstiff>0
Pivmin>0
Displacement
Fig.2.3-13 Nonlinear Solution Path For One Degree Of Freedom Showing Bifurcation
Point And Secondary Path
44
Analysis Procedures
2.3.4.1 Bracketing a critical point
A critical point is characterised by a change of sign of either the first eigenvalue or
the determinant of the tangent stiffness or the smallest pivot which is the method used
here [S10]. Assuming that we have started from a stable path the bisection method is
initiated once the smallest pivot becomes negative. The previous increment is then
halved and the new solution point is computed. This process is continued until the
smallest pivot obtained is reasonably small (note that too tight a tolerance will lead to
ill-conditioning of the tangent stiffness matrix).
The performance of the bisection method is greatly improved if the magnitude of the
smallest pivot is used as a guide to the 'distance' between the present solution and the
critical point. To avoid complicated and possible dangerous extrapolation a simple
linear interpolation is adopted: the interpolation is always done between a pair of
solutions closest to, and on either side of, the critical point.
For materials whose properties and behaviour depend upon loading history, this
technique has to be modified since artificial unloading, when the increment size is
halved, must be avoided. Under such circumstances the critical point must be
approached from one direction only (i.e. the stable solution). This is called nonreversible bracketing.
2.3.4.2 Branching onto a bifurcated path
Once the bifurcation point has been located it is possible to follow the secondary
solution path rather than the primary one using the branching algorithm based on a
predictor/corrector algorithm [S10]. The predictor which is adopted in this case can
be formed by one of two methods
Eigenmode injection
Here, a small perturbation is added to the current displacement field
a predictor = a current + c
(2.3-46)
where c is a specified constant and is the first eigenvector of the tangent stiffness
matrix at the bifurcation point. It can be shown [S10] that, in the case of symmetric
bifurcation, is the exact tangent to the secondary path. However, numerical
experience [S10] has confirmed that it is often a good predictor for asymmetric
bifurcations as well. This branching method is used in conjunction with the Crisfield
arc-length control method (see section 4.3.3.2).
Artificial force method
Here, a specified displacement perturbation is applied to the degree of freedom that
corresponds to the smallest pivot. This branching method is used in conjunction with
the Rheinboldt arc-length control method (see section 4.3.3.3).
45
Analysis Procedures
will provide some indication of the nonlinear response and will aid the choice of a
suitable solution scheme, without incurring excessive computer costs.
5. The solution and load incrementation scheme suitable for the present analysis is
chosen and the nonlinear analysis or series of nonlinear analyses is performed. At
this stage, the solution may indicate that re-meshing of areas of the structure is
required. In this case the analysis process would return to 1.
6. The accuracy of the nonlinear analysis is then assessed by performing further
analyses with refined data, e.g. smaller load steps or finer discretisation in areas of
high stress. If no significant differences in the solution are observed, then the
solution is close to optimal for the given modelling assumptions.
Problem
definition
Point load
Infinite stress /
displacement as the
mesh is defined
Finite element
model
47
Problem
definition
Finite element
model
M a&& + Ca& + K a = R
t
(2.4-1)
In order to reproduce the complete time history response of a structure to the t forcing
function
The theoretical basis for direct integration, using either implicit or explicit schemes, is
outlined in the following section together with guidance on the applicability of the
methods to certain classes of problems.
48
Analysis Procedures
2. The variation of displacement, velocity and acceleration within these time
intervals is postulated, giving rise to a series of direct integration schemes, each
possessing different accuracy and stability characteristics.
These assumptions transform the set of second order differential equations into a set
of simultaneous equations at each time interval t. Direct integration proceeds by
t
&& ,
advancing the solution in time from known conditions a
t +t
t +t
t
a& and a at time t to
t +t
unknown values
a&& ,
a& and
a at time t+t. If the solution at time t+t is
obtained by considering equilibrium conditions at time t then the integration scheme
is termed explicit. However, if the solution at time t+t is obtained by considering
equilibrium at time t+t then the scheme is termed implicit.
Explicit algorithms permit de-coupling of the equilibrium equations removing the
need to invert the stiffness matrix. However they are only conditionally stable, which
implies that the time step length t must be smaller than a critical value tcr , in
order for the solution process to converge.
Implicit algorithms require inversion of the stiffness matrix at every time step. They
are unconditionally stable, i.e. convergence to a solution is guaranteed, with the
maximum time step governed by accuracy considerations alone for linear elastic
material behaviour.
2.4.1.1 Explicit or implicit algorithm
The matrix inversion required at each time step of the solution for the implicit
algorithm, make the cost of each solution step very expensive relative to the explicit
method. However, the time step length may be significantly larger thereby reducing
the overall number of time steps. Therefore, both techniques have advantages and
disadvantages and the choice of algorithm will depend on the problem being solved.
Explicit algorithms are generally used for problems which require small time steps
irrespective of the stability requirements. These problems are classed as wave
propagation problems because the behaviour of the wave front, dominated by high
frequency components, is of engineering importance. This category includes the
shock response from explosive or impact loading.
Implicit algorithms are generally used for inertial problems where the response is
governed by the low frequency components. This category includes seismic response
and large deformations of elasto-plastic structures under ramp or step loading.
2.4.1.2 Selecting an accurate integration scheme
For explicit analysis the central difference scheme should be used with lumped mass
matrices (permitting the decoupling of the equations). The central difference method
is particularly effective with a uniform discretisation of low order elements.
49
d n = d ( tn ), v n = v ( tn ), a n = a( tn ) and f n = f ( tn )
where
tn = nt
M an = f n
V n +1/ 2 = V n 1/ 2 + 12 a n ( tn + tn1 )
d n +1 = d n + v n+1/ 2 t
(2.4-2)
Analysis Procedures
M a n +1 + (1 + )C v n +1 C v n
+(1 + ) K d n +1 K d n
= (1 + ) f n+1 f n
t 2
d n+1 = d n + t v n +
(1 2 ) a n + 2 a n +1
2
v n +1 = v n + t (1 ) a n + a n +1
(2.4-3)
where , and are free parameters which govern the stability and numerical
dissipation of the algorithm. If =0 this family of algorithms reduces to the Newmark
family. If the parameters are selected such that
13 0,
= (1 )2 , = (1 2 ) 2
(2.4-4)
K * d n +1 = f *
where
*
K =
1
(1 + )
M+
C + (1 + ) K
2
t
t
51
f * = (1 + ) f n+1 f n
LM 1 d + 1 v + (1 2 ) a OP
2
Q
N t t
L (1 + ) d + (1 + ) v + (1 + )t(2 ) aOP
+C M
2
N t
Q
+M
+ K d n
so that
a n+1 =
(1 2 )
1
( d n+1 d n t v n )
an
2
t
2
v n +1 = v n + t (1 )a n + a n +1
(2.4-5)
When a conditionally stable integration scheme is used, the user has no choice but to
use a time step t tcr , where
tcr =
Tmax
max
(2.4-6)
and max is the maximum circular frequency of the system ( is the corresponding
eigenvalue). If the time step is larger than this value the higher frequencies will not be
integrated accurately and the errors will tend to grow, polluting the solution. For wave
propagation problems, uniform meshes of low order elements must be used, and the
time step length may be chosen as t < S/c where S is the shortest distance between
two nodes and c is the maximum wave speed of the material.
Note, however, that LUSAS will automatically compute an appropriate t if this is
not specified. It is computed automatically as follows.
At each time increment a time step value is computed for all elements using the
following equation based on a linear application of the Courant stability criterion
where
52
Analysis Procedures
DKK is the trace of the velocity strain tensor and Lc is the characteristic length of
the element which is related to the smallest element diagonal (see section 7.3.3.6 for
2D elements and section 7.4.3.5 for 3D elements).
The smallest value of t cr is then taken as the time step for use in the next time
increment (this may be larger or smaller than the current time step).
There is no restriction on the decrease of the time step between each increment but
there is a restriction imposed on the increase of the time step according to
Implicit algorithms are unconditionally stable, i.e. the solution for any initial
conditions does not grow without bound for any time step t. To accurately integrate
all the higher modes the time step would need to be less than the critical value (2.4-6).
However, for inertial problems only the lowest p frequencies significantly influence
the solution, where p << n the number of degrees of freedom. Therefore, we wish
only to integrate the first p equations accurately, provided that the effects of the
inaccurate integration of the p+1 to n equations does not significantly affect the
overall solution.
When postulating the number of frequencies p that may influence the solution the
frequency content of the loading should be considered [B1]. If a single degree of
freedom structure with frequency of oscillation is excited by a harmonic load of
frequency , the influence of the / ratio may be examined (fig.2.4-2). This shows
that if << then the static response is recovered and if > 4 then the dynamic
53
1
20
(2.4-7)
Tmax
where Tmax is the period of oscillation of the highest mode which influences the
solution. This should ensure all the lower modes are integrated accurately. Note that
with the HHT scheme set to the default parameters, the amplitude decay will be zero
for all t.
54
Analysis Procedures
Hilber-Hughes-Taylor
( =-0.1, =0.3025, =0.6)
1.0
0.9
Spectral Radii
0.8
0.7
0.6
Wilson- (1.4)
0.5
0.4
Houbolt
0.3
0.2
10-2
10-1
10
102
103
t/T
Fig.2.4-1 Spectral Radii For Common Explicit Schemes Without Structural Damping
55
=0.0
3
=0.2
2
=0.5
=0.7
1
=1.0
p/
Fig.2.4-2 Dynamic Load Factor For A Single Degree Of Freedom Analysis [B1]
56
Analysis Procedures
19
Newark =0.25, =0.5)
15
Wilson- (1.4)
11
7
5
Houbolt
AD
PE
1
0.02
0.06
0.14
0.10
0.18
t/T
Wilson- (1.4)
7
5
Houbolt
AD
PE
1
0.02
0.06
0.10
0.14
0.18
t/T
57
=
2
n
d Tn K n d n
(2.4-8)
d n Md n
T
where:
Kn
Tn =
(2.4-9)
| 2n |
It is worth noting that the current period changes with time for a non-stationary
response of a multi-degree of freedom system. Tn relates to the current stiffness and
58
Analysis Procedures
response and is not generally a measure of the time elapsed between zero amplitudes.
Knowing the current period, Bergan and Mollestad [B5] suggest using the following
formula to adjust the time step:
tn = Tn
(2.410)
size. This is particularly important for transient problems for which the most
important dynamic events take place at the beginning.
depends on the particular time integration scheme and accuracy
requirements. Good accuracy can normally be achieved with =0.05,
corresponding to about 20 time steps for one full characteristic period. For
linear dynamics using the trapezoidal rule, this corresponds to a period of
elongation of about 1%.
It may also be necessary to prescribe bounds for the step size. For instance, the
loading may be changing very rapidly, while the dynamic response is
relatively slow, e.g. for earthquake problems. In such cases it may be
necessary to limit the step size by an upper value t max in order to ensure that
the load intensity is sampled at sufficiently close intervals. In other situations it
may be necessary to ensure that the step size does not go below a prescribed
lower limit t min in order to prevent excessive computational costs.
d0 = 0
v n1/ 2 = v
f0= f
a0 = M
(2.4-11)
f0
These equations indicate that the initial velocity and force vectors need to be defined.
The initial acceleration will then be automatically computed.
For the Hilber-Hughes-Taylor implicit procedure these are
d0 = d
v0 = v
f0= f
a0 = M
( f 0 C v0 K d 0 )
(2.4-12)
These equations indicate that the initial displacement, velocity and force vectors need
to be defined. The initial acceleration will then automatically be computed if the
vector on the right hand side of equation (2.4-12d) is non-zero, otherwise the initial
accelerations will be assumed to be zero.
60
Analysis Procedures
Impulse loading may be approximated by applying the load pulse during one time
step and then removing it in the next time step. This is illustrated in fig.2.4-4d.
Alternatively, if the pulse is applied during the first time step then the structure may
be initially fully restrained with the pulse load, and then released with the load
simultaneously removed (fig.2.4-4e).
2.4.3 Damping
One of the most common models of damping used in finite element systems is
proportional damping. In this model no attempt is made to construct damping
elements, but instead the arbitrary assumption is made that the damping is a linear
combination of the mass and stiffness matrices. This is usually called Rayleigh
damping and defines the damping matrix C as
C = a R M + bR K
(2.4-13)
There is no real physical justification for this and in reality this assumption is made
for mathematical convenience as it simplifies the solution procedure [N2]. It should
be noted that the damping distribution is rarely known in sufficient detail to warrant
any other more complicated model. Proportional damping will serve to give each
mode of vibration the correct order of magnitude of damping and, provided that the
component of the response of interest is not controlled by the damping, it is often
sufficient. It ceases to be reliable when the damping within the system becomes
significant, say above 10% critical, or where the damping is concentrated in a small
region of the structure. This is especially the case if some damping has been included
into the structure with the specific purpose of controlling the dynamic response.
The values a R and bR may be chosen to give the correct order of magnitude for the
damping at two frequencies [N2]. If the required damping ratio at a circular frequency
of r is r and the required damping ratio at a circular frequency of s is s
then the values of a R and bR are
aR =
2 r s ( s r r s )
2r 2s
(2.4-14)
bR =
2( r r s s )
2r 2s
(2.4-15)
Figure 2.4-5 indicates how proportional damping varies with frequency for various
values of specified damping. Figure 2.4-5(a) shows that for the case where r < s
the damping increases rapidly with frequency. This assumption is often used when
proportional damping is being employed to provide numerical damping since it gives
61
62
Analysis Procedures
63
Damping
Frequency
Damping
Frequency
Damping
Frequency
64
Analysis Procedures
(k )
d n+1 = d n+1 + d
( k +1)
(2.5-1)
with
(0)
d n+1 = d n
where (k) indicates the iteration number and n the time step number as before.
Substituting equations (2.5-1) into equations (2.4-3) and rearranging we obtain the
equations that are to be solved at each iteration. The non-linear solution process and
equations are given below.
For each timestep n=1,...N-1:
For each iteration k=0,1,... solve:
K *( k ) d ( k ) = f *( k )
where
*( k )
(1 + )
1
M+
C + (1 + ) K
2
t
t
65
f *( 0 ) = (1 + ) f n +1 f n
LM 1 v + (1 2 ) a OP
2
N t
Q
L (1 + ) v (1 + )t(2 ) a OP
+CM
2
N
Q
+ M
int
+ fn
f *( k ) = R( k 1)
int
here f
Then compute:
( k +1)
(k )
d n+1 = d n+1 + d
( k +1)
a n+1 =
(k )
1
(1 2 )
( k +1)
d n +1 d n t v n
an
2
t
2
( k +1)
v n +1 = v n + t (1 ) a n + a n+1
(2.5-2)
The residual vector and reaction computations are closely linked in nonlinear
analysis, consequently a dynamic force vector can be computed as
( k +1)
( k +1)
f n+1 = M a n +1 + (1 + )C v n +1
dyn
k +1)
C v n (1 + ) f int(
n +1
+ f int
+ f n
n
and an external force vector (summation of applied forces and reactions) is computed
as
( k +1)
f n+1 = f n +1 + r n +1
ext
(k )
= (1 + ) f n +1 f n+1
ext
dyn
(2.5-3)
66
Analysis Procedures
K = M
(2.6-1)
67
th
column of the i
convergence rate
th
the first p eigenvectors. However, the computer effort per iteration increases with an
increase in q so that a balance is required.
It is also important to note that the number of starting iteration vectors cannot exceed
the number of free degrees of freedom of the system. Bathe [B1] suggests that q
should be determined from
q = min (2p, p+8, N)
(2.6-2)
68
Analysis Procedures
remaining vectors - unit vectors with a unit value located by searching M for
the largest mii kii ratio.
The algorithm also utilises a simple procedure to prevent poor spacing between the
unit entries of the starting vectors in uniform meshes.
Guyan Reduction vectors. The starting iteration vectors can be obtained
from a Guyan reduction analysis (see section 2.6.2). This allows greater
flexibility in selecting the starting iteration vectors; all the vectors may be
determined by specifying "master" freedoms or a combination of "master" and
"automatic master" freedoms which are determined by the program.
2.6.1.2 Iteration process
The first step of the iteration process is to perform one step of simultaneous inverse
iteration using q iteration vectors, i.e For k = 1,2,.... iterate from Ek to Ek +1
K X k +1 = M X k
(2.6-3)
where X k +1 are effectively Ritz basis vectors. The projections of K and M onto
(2.6-4)
T
$
M
= X k +1 M X k +1
k +1
(2.6-5)
K$ k +1 Q
where Q
k +1
k +1
$
=M
Q
k +1
k +1
k +1
(2.6-6)
which is then solved using the generalized Jacobi method (this is ideal as K$ k +1 and
$
tend to become diagonal as the solution converges because the iteration
M
k +1
vectors, X k +1 approach the full system eigenvectors).
The eigenvectors Q
k +1
iteration vectors
X k +1 = X k +1 Q
(2.6-7)
k +1
69
| k+1
ki |
i
k+1
i
i = 1, p
rtol
(2.6-8)
i =
|| K Q i - i MQ i ||2
(2.6-9)
|| K Q i ||2
where i and i are the ith eigenvector and eigenvalue of the solution. This
estimate effectively states that, for an accurate solution, the norm of the out of balance
forces divided by the elastic nodal forces should be small.
70
Analysis Procedures
This characteristic may be utilised in the condensation of the full discrete model to a
reduced system in which the remaining equations adequately encompass the required
vibrational modes. Such a procedure is often termed Guyan Reduction or Guyan
Condensation [G1], and may be used to significantly reduce the overall problem size.
In typical Guyan reduced eigenvalue extractions, the mass contribution of those
freedoms whose inertia effect is considered relatively insignificant (designated slave
freedoms) is progressively condensed from the system, leaving the reduced equation
system dependent on those remaining freedoms (designated masters).
The effective selection of the master freedoms is therefore central to the accuracy of
the simulated structural response.
2.6.2.1 Theory
The Guyan reduction procedure [G1] is utilized in natural frequency, linear buckling
and field analyses to solve generalized eigen-problems of the form
K = M
(2.6-10)
( K M )a = 0
(2.6-11)
F LK
GH MN K
mm
T
ms
OP LM
Q N
K ms
M mm
T
K ss
M ms
M ms
M ss
OPI RSa UV = 0
QJK T a W
m
(2.6-12)
where the subscripts (m) and (s) refer to the "master" and "slave" degrees of freedom
respectively.
For Guyan reduction/condensation it is assumed that, for the lower frequencies, the
inertia forces on the slave degrees of freedom are insignificant compared to the elastic
forces transmitted by the master degrees of freedoms. Hence we may discard all mass
terms except that relating directly to the master freedoms
F LK
GH MN K
mm
T
ms
K ms
K ss
OP LM M
Q N0
mm
OPI RSa UV = 0
0QJK T a W
(2.6-13)
K Tms a m + K ss a s = 0
(2.6-14)
71
a s = K ss1 ( K Tms a m )
(2.6-15)
a=
RSa UV = X~ a = RS I UV
Ta W
T K K W
m
ss
ms
(2.6-16)
~T
to be written as
K c m = c M c m
(2.6-17)
where the condensed stiffness and mass matrices are given by the expressions
~T ~
Kc = X K X ,
and
~T ~
Mc = X M X
(2.6-18)
Hence progressive condensation of the equations associated with the slave freedoms
results in a reduced equation system in terms of the master freedoms which has the
solution
( K c M c )a m = 0
(2.6-19)
The fully condensed stiffness and mass matrices are (m*m) symmetric and are
generally full. The condensed system is solved using either implicit QL or Jacobi
iteration for the master eigenvalues.
2.6.2.2 Manual selection of master freedoms
The master and slave freedoms may be selected by hand. The selection of these
master freedoms is central to the accuracy of the solution and consideration should be
taken of the following points
The master freedoms must accurately represent all the significant modes of
vibration.
Master freedoms should exhibit high mass to stiffness ratios, hence rotational
freedoms are usually inappropriate masters.
Master freedoms should, where appropriate, be as evenly spaced as possible.
The ratio of master to slave freedoms should generally be within the range
1:10 to 1:2.
Poor selection of the master freedoms will have a detrimental effect on the
accuracy of the solution.
72
Analysis Procedures
2.6.2.3 Automatic master selection
The manual selection of master freedoms has a number of disadvantages
For large structures the data input is laborious.
Poor selection of the master freedoms will detrimentally affect the accuracy of
the solution.
The automatic masters selection procedure utilised follows the algorithm of Henshall
and Ong [H8]. Since it is required to retain only those equations which have a high
mass to stiffness ratio, the diagonal components of the stiffness and mass matrices are
scanned, and the equation with the highest K ii M ii ratio is condensed out.
Scanning of the progressively condensed matrices is repeated until the fully
condensed matrices contain only those components associated with the specified
number of master freedoms. Furthermore, since the remaining equations will have
been automatically sorted they will contain only those components associated with
the lowest stiffness to mass ratios as required.
matrix
Further, for certain special cases, Guyan reduction and the first subspace iteration are
equivalent and provide identical solutions [B1].
The major advantage of the subspace iteration technique is that the starting basis is
improved with each update of the subspace, whereas the Guyan reduction procedure
is a "one off" solution. Consequently, a poor choice of initial master degrees of
freedom may only necessitate more iterations to convergence in subspace iteration,
whereas it would be detrimental to accuracy in Guyan reduction. Therefore, subspace
iteration is, in general, the more effective algorithm.
73
2.6.4 Shifting
An important procedure that may be used in eigenvalue extraction is shifting. If rigid
body modes are present in the system the stiffness matrix will be singular and cause
numerical problems in the inversion of the stiffness matrix of (2.6-6). This may be
overcome by applying a shift to form a modified stiffness matrix. Let
(2.6-20)
(K + M ) = M
(2.6-21)
The calculated eigenvalues will then all be positive. To obtain the actual
eigenvalues the shift is subtracted from the calculated eigenvalues (2.6-18). This is
done automatically within LUSAS.
The value used for the shift should ideally be between 1/2 to 1/10 of the fundamental
eigenvalue. If is too small K will still be almost singular and if is too large, the
convergence of the eigenproblem will be slow. In a LUSAS analysis, singularities
will cause solution failure with negative or zero eigenvalues. If the approximate value
of the fundamental frequency is not known, it is suggested that a shift equal to 1/2 of
the lowest non-zero frequency is used.
i =
i
max( ij )
j=1,m
(2.6-22)
i =
i
M i
T
i
(2.6-23)
1/ 2
74
Analysis Procedures
Eigenvectors must be normalized to the mass if a spectral or harmonic response is to
be performed using the eigenvectors from a natural frequency analysis.
M = K
(2.6-24)
max( i ) =
1
min( i )
i , where i = 1 i
and
(2.6-25)
mK M ru = 0
(2.6-26)
75
= 0 +
(2.6-27)
where 0 is a defined constant called the shift point, equation (2.6-26) can be
rewritten as
nc K M h M su = 0
(2.6-28)
which can be solved for and hence can be extracted. Using this equation with
inverse iteration only allows a single eigenmode to be extracted for each shift point
and it therefore becomes an inefficient and cumbersome process if many modes are to
be extracted within a desired frequency range without knowing approximately where
the eigenvalues exist within the range defined.
The inverse iteration method also has known defects that include:
Awkwardness of procedure in the presence of zero eigenvalues.
Slow convergence rates for closely spaced eigenmodes.
Deterioration of accuracy in the higher modes as more eigenmodes are found.
This method has thus been modified to overcome these problems and to enable
eigenmodes within a defined range to be extracted efficiently. The method utilised
here is based on the Inverse Power Method using an iteration algorithm from [B1].
This method is general enough to extract a nominal number of eigenmodes in the
region of a defined shift point.
There is a possibility that the inverse power method may miss eigenmodes
particularly if they are clustered in groups within a small frequency band. This
problem has been overcome in the LUSAS implementation by the use of Sturm
sequence checks in order to make sure that this is not the case. Additional passes over
the shiftpoints are also carried out which will also alleviate this problem.
2.6.7.1 Inverse iteration algorithm
The inverse iteration method utilises the following iterative algorithm to compute one
eigenvalue and eigenvector. It is used in the general algorithm described above to
compute the eigenmodes.
Start with an initial u0 and compute f = M u0 .
0
76
Analysis Procedures
( K 0 M )w n = f n1
(2.6-29)
u n = wn i M wn i
(2.6-30)
f n = Mun
(2.6-31)
i =1
n
n
eu f j
=
eu f j
= eu f j
fn=
Here
T
n
n 1
T
n
T
n
(2.6-32)
1/ 2
(2.6-33)
fn
(2.6-34)
shown that
converges to
un = w n 1T M w n 1 T2 M w n 2
(2.6-35)
77
(2.6-37)
< 0.55 *
( max - min ) / Ns
(2.6-38)
The value 0.55 allows the range of each shiftpoint to overlap the neighbouring range
by 10%.
3. For each shiftpoint a maximum of Nn eigenmodes are computed. If less
eigenmodes exist near a shiftpoint then the process moves onto the next shiftpoint.
If more modes exist near a shiftpoint then the process automatically updates the
shiftpoint so that further eigenmodes can be computed as efficiently as possible.
4. The process is terminated only when the desired number of eigenmodes have been
computed or when Ne eigenmodes have been located, whichever occurs first.
2.6.7.3 Computing multiple Eigenmodes
The method of computing multiple eigenmodes from a particular shiftpoint is as
follows:
1. Find the first eigenmode from an arbitrary starting vector (e.g. a vector of 1's).
2. Use the second last trial vector obtained during step 1. as the starting vector for
the second eigenmode. This vector will be swept as in equation (2.6-30) and
provides a good starting point because it will be quite "rich" in the eigenvector
that is next closest to the shiftpoint. Two iteration vectors are required for the
convergence checks so that this information will always be available.
3. Continue until an eigenvalue is found that lies outside the computed range of the
shift point.
4. At this stage use a new arbitrary selected starting vector and compute one
eigenmode.
5. If the eigenvalue found in step 4. lies outside the range of the shifting point go to
a new shifting point since all eigenmodes within the range have been computed.
If the eigenvalue does not lie outside the range repeat steps 2, 3 and 4. until the
eigenvalue found in step 4. does lie outside the range. This ensures that all
eigenvalues within the range are computed even for eigenmodes that have the same
eigenvalue. The maximum number of times that steps 2., 3. and 4. will be repeated
is equal to the maximum number of eigenvectors that have a common eigenvalue.
2.6.7.4 Convergence checking
A number of convergence checks are utilised in order to enhance the efficiency of the
algorithm. These convergence checks determine if:
78
Analysis Procedures
The inverse iteration algorithm has converged; in this case the eigenvalue and
eigenvector have been computed to sufficient accuracy.
The inverse iteration algorithm is converging rapidly; in this case the iteration
sequence is continued and a simple convergence check is applied until a
converged solution has been attained.
The inverse iteration algorithm is not converging; in this case tests are carried
out to determine if the shift point should be moved to enable a better
convergence rate to be achieved. If this needs to be done then the inverse
iteration algorithm must be restarted utilising this new shift point in order to
compute the eigenmode.
2.6.7.5 Recommendation on usage
The major advantages of this method are obtained when a few eigenvalues of higher
frequency are required for a well-banded structural system; these higher modes can be
extracted without computing all the lower modes (although some are computed and
swept from the solution). In many cases too many lower modes would have to be
computed with subspace iteration and the method will therefore become
uneconomical. Another advantage that inverse iteration has over the subspace
iteration method is that only the frequency (or eigenvalue) range of interest needs to
be known and there is no need to estimate how many eigenmodes lie below that
range.
Inverse iteration does not require that the matrices are non-singular. This is important
for buckling analyses since it is possible that the stress-stiffness matrix may be
singular. If this is the case then a special alternative buckling procedure is utilised
with subspace iteration to ensure correct results. With inverse iteration this is not the
case and therefore knowledge of what these matrices may be like is not required.
M a&& + Ca& + K a = R( t )
(2.7-1)
For natural frequency analysis, we consider the damping C and the external force
R(t) both to be zero. Each freedom is assumed to excite harmonic motion in phase
with all other freedoms
a = a sin t
and
a&& = 2 a sin t
(2.7-2)
(K - i M ) a = 0 where i = 2i
79
(2.7-3)
K = M
(2.7-4)
corresponding eigenvectors i .
Neglecting the trivial solution = 0 the values of
are defined as the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the problem respectively, which
are evaluated using subspace iteration [section 2.6]. The eigenvalues and eigenvectors
are the resonant vibration frequencies and the corresponding mode shapes of a
structure respectively.
M = N T t N dv
(2.7-5)
where
LM
MM
=M
MM
MMN
0
0
0
0
h 2
12
sym
h 2
12
OP U|
0 V translational DOF
P|
0P W
(2.7-6)
P
0P
U
0 P | rotational DOF
PPQ V|
W
0
h 2
12
80
Analysis Procedures
mii =
N iT t N i dv
n
i =1
dv
(2.7-7)
N N i dv
Tt
i
mii =
N iT
m
i =1
h3
12
N i dA
T t h3
i
12
h 3
12
A
t
dA
(2.7-8)
N i dA
where n and m are the number of translational and rotational degrees of freedom
respectively.
Neither consistent or lumped mass matrices are ideal for all applications. It is known
that if the finite element mesh correctly represents the volume of a structure, the
elements are compatible and not softened by low order integration, so that consistent
mass matrices will provide an upper bound to the natural frequencies. On the other
hand diagonalised matrices generally yield natural frequencies less than the exact
values. In general, consistent mass matrices are usually most accurate for flexural
problems and lumped mass matrices are usually more effective for wave propagations
problems.
For linear analysis, once the eigenpairs have been obtained, the stress distribution
for each mode shape
i is evaluated using
i = D B i
(2.7-9)
81
E = Bo a + B1 ( a ) a + 12 A
(2.7-10)
S = D E
(2.7-11)
= D Bo a
(2.7-12)
K = BT D B dv + G T S$ G dv + N T N dv
v
(2.7-13)
82
Analysis Procedures
Notes
d K + K i a = d K + K i ba + a g = R
(2.8-1)
Subtraction of the first equation from the second yields the generalised eigenproblem
dK + K i = 0
(2.8-2)
where
are the eigenvalues which are used as multipliers to evaluate the buckling
loads and are the eigenvectors which give the associated buckling modes shapes.
The critical loads,
Rcrit = 1 R
(2.8-3)
where 1 is the smallest eigenvalue of the system and R is the initially applied load
vector. The eigenvalue problem is solved using the subspace iteration method
[Section 2.6].
83
K =
If a shift of 1
= 1
(2.8-4)
is applied, then
dK + K i = K
(2.8-5)
where now we seek the smallest positive eigenvalue g. The critical load
given by
1 =
1
(1 1 )
factor is
(2.8-6)
Notes
is large then
M a&& + Ca& + K a = R( t )
(2.9-1)
84
Analysis Procedures
where a is the displacement vector, M is the mass matrix, K is the stiffness
Ka = Ma
(2.9-2)
K is symmetric,
M K a = a
(2.9-3)
For damped motion, C is a real non-zero matrix that may or may not be symmetric,
and may also be non-proportional i.e. the product matrix = C M
K is non-
A = B
where A , B and
(2.9-4)
are given by
A=
LM M 0 OP ,
N 0 KQ
LM x OP
NxQ
B=
LM 0
N M
OP
CQ
M
(2.9-5)
and
(2.9-6)
85
~
A =
(2.9-7)
where A is given by
LM
MN
M C M K
~
A=
I
0
OP
PQ
(2.9-8)
~
A is clearly not symmetric, and thus and can now be complex, with
corresponding conjugate solutions
and
a = y1 1 + y2 2 + y3 3 + ... + yn n = Y
where
(2.10-1)
yi are the factors applied to the vectors so that their sum equals a . The
of
the system
cK M h = 0
2
(2.10-2)
a as
86
Analysis Procedures
a = Y
(2.10-3)
where the matrix contains m eigenvectors which may be some or all of the
eigenvectors of the system (2.10-2). The equation of linear dynamic equilibrium is
M a&& + Ca& + K a = R
t
(2.10-4)
(2.10-5)
T
T
T
Tt
M Y&& + C Y& + K Y = R
(2.10-6)
The advantage of using the eigenvectors of (2.10-2) is now apparent, as pre and post
multiplying the mass and stiffness matrices, M and K , by results in their
diagonalisation. Provided the damping matrix C is diagonal, the reduced equilibrium
equations are uncoupled
T
T
T
Tt
i M iY&&i + i C iY&i + i K iYi = i R
(2.10-7)
Since the eigenvectors were normalised with respect to the mass matrix the following
relationships apply
i M i = 1 i=1,m
T
i C i = 2 i i
T
i=1,m
(2.10-8)
i K i = 2i
T
i=1,m
where i are the modal damping ratios and i are the circular frequencies of the
system. Using these relationships (2.10-7) becomes
i=1,m
(2.10-9)
The reduced linear equations in the form of (2.10-9) are particularly useful since
methods for their explicit solution are readily available in standard mathematical
87
i =
1
2
LM a
N
R
i
+ bR i
OP
Q
(2.10-10)
Modal damping factors may also be computed to model the physical distribution of
damping in a structure. This may be done for viscous and/or structural damping and
utilises the element damping matrices together with the eigenmodes to compute the
modal damping coefficient. Unique Rayleigh damping coefficients may be specified
for a frequency range from which the coefficients will be interpolated for the required
modal frequency and the distributed damping factor computed. Alternatively, the
Rayleigh damping coefficients may be extracted from the material properties input.
Element damping matrices are then computed using equation (2.4-13) which are
assembled allowing the equivalent modal damping coefficients to be obtained using
the damping relationship in equation (2.10-8).
Two modal analysis types are implemented in LUSAS and are detailed in the
following sections.
88
Analysis Procedures
M
am
C
ag
(2.10-11)
where the force in the spring is induced by relative displacement between the earth
and mass. Similarly, the viscous force is developed when there is a relative velocity
between the ground and mass. If a relative displacement coordinate system is now
defined as
a = am a g =>
(2.10-13)
which defines the relative motion of the mass with respect to earth arising from the
earthquake. Dividing (2.10-11) by M recovers the reduced modal equation (2.10-9)
for a multi-degree of freedom system
(2.10-14)
89
KS d = Ma&&m
(2.10-15)
or
a&&m = Sa =
K
Sd = 2Sd
M
(2.10-16)
where Sa is the absolute acceleration of the mass. The true velocity of a& the mass is
a which is not readily obtainable from the formulation. Instead a pseudo velocity is
introduced S v which relates the kinetic energy of the mass to the maximum energy
stored in the spring
1
2
MS v2 = 12 KS d2
(2.10-17)
or
S v = S d
where
(2.10-18)
Sa = S v = 2 S d
(2.10-19)
&&
Y&&i + 2 i iY&i + 2i Yi = Pa
i g (t )
i=1,m
90
(2.10-20)
Analysis Procedures
where Pi = i M X is known as the participation factor for mode i. X is a vector
T
defining the direction of excitation. For the single degree of freedom structure the
ground acceleration acts in the same direction as the displacement of the mass. An
equivalent procedure for the modal solution would require that the acceleration acts in
the direction of the amplitude of the mode, which is not a realistic assumption.
Instead, defining the direction in which the ground acceleration acts, selectively
excites the associated inertial components of the eigenmode. The accelerations are
applied directly to the mode rather than being transmitted through the supports of the
structure so that the structure is considered to be rigid during loading.
By a comparison of (2.10-20) and (2.10-14) it can be seen that to relate the design
spectra to the mode of the actual structure, the response of the single degree of
freedom system with an identical must be scaled by the participation factor Pi .
Thus for example, the maximum modal displacement is given by
Yi = PS
i di
(2.10-21)
where S di is obtained for the modal frequency i by interpolation from the design
spectrum. Where the damping inherent in the spectral curve differs from the viscous
damping specified a damping correction can be applied. The use may select from the
following formulae.
Eurocode formula
=
where
and
+2
+2
(2.10-22)(2.10-22)
Kapra formula
F I
=G J
HK
0. 4
(2.10-23)(2.10-23)
Tolis & Faccioli [T3] proposed a modified version of the equation, which they state is
only applicable for damping values of 5% and greater:
15
10 +
(2.10-24)
91
10
5+
(2.10-25)
M Pi =
Pi 2
XT M X
(2.10-26)
Once the Yi are known for all modes the displacements for the finite element model
can be obtained by using (2.10-3).
To obtain an approximate solution, only part of the modal contributions need to be
included in the superposition. In general, the lower modes make the principal
contributions to the response and good approximations can frequently be obtained by
considering only the first few modes in the analysis.
2.10.1.5 Mode Combination
As the modal maxima do not necessarily occur at the same time, they may not be
superimposed directly to obtain design values. Therefore two averaging methods have
been incorporated within LUSAS.
(a) SRSS METHOD
Where design displacements, stresses, forces are evaluated as the square-root-of-thesum-of-the-squares (SRSS), i.e. for a typical displacement component u
uk design =
(u
k 2
i
i =1
(2.10-27)
2
uk design =
u u
k
i
i =1
j =1
ij
k
j
(2.10-28)
2
92
Analysis Procedures
The cross modal coefficients
ij
the loading and of the modal frequencies and damping ratios of the structure. Within
LUSAS the coefficients are evaluated from
ij =
where
8( i j )1/ 2 ( i + r j )r 3/ 2
(2.10-29)
(1 r 2 )2 + 4 i j r (1 + r 2 ) + 4( 2i + 2j )r 2
is the damping associated with mode i, and r = i
j.
The CQC method has been shown to be superior to the SRSS method as the cross
modal coupling accounts for the difference in sign of modes, which is lost in the
SRSS method. The default modal damping is taken to be 5%.
Note. For zero damping, the CQC method will provide identical results to the SRSS
method.
(c) Absolute Sum
The absolute sum method simply computes the sum of the absolute values. This
method is usually over conservative.
(2.10-30)
93
(for j=1,m)(2.10-31)
for mode j.
The solution of (2.10-31) consists of the complementary function plus the particular
integral. The complementary function defines the behaviour of the structure
independent of the load (i.e. the transient effects when the harmonic loading is
activated and de-activated), whilst the particular integral represents the steady state
response to the harmonic load.
The particular integral of (2.10-31) is
(2.10-32)
where
(YR ) j =
( 2j i2 ) f R + ( 2 j j i + j 2j ) f I
( 2j i2 )2 + ( 2 j j i + j 2j )2
(2.10-33)
and
(YI ) j =
( 2j 2i ) f R + ( 2 j j i + j 2j ) f R
( 2j i2 )2 + ( 2 j j i + j 2j )2
(2.10-34)
a R = (Y R )
a I = (Y I )
and
(2.10-35)
Alternatively, rather than use the resolved real and imaginary components, the
amplitude and phase angle of the response may be used. The particular integral is then
Yj = a j e
eiit
(2.10-36)
where the real and imaginary components are related to the phase and amplitude by
2
a j = ( a R + a I )1/ 2
and
j = arctan( a R a I )
(2.10-37)
Analysis Procedures
(YR ) j =
fR
( 2i )
(YI ) j =
2
j
fI
( 2i )
2
j
(2.10-38)
As the loading frequency approaches the (j)th modal frequency (i.e. the loading
frequency is that of the natural harmonic frequency of the (j)th mode) then
i => j
(2.10-39)
and the case of perfect harmonic resonance is created with the generalised modal
displacements and, hence, the structural displacements tending to infinity. However,
since in reality some form of damping is present at each mode, displacements
resulting from the resonant condition are generally large but finite. Furthermore, since
the higher natural modes tend to be subject to a higher degree of damping it is usually
only the lower modes of vibration which are significant.
LM
N
OP
Q
LM
N
OP
Q
K X ()
KY ( )
+
X
X
Y
Y
KZ ()
+
+ Q( ) = 0
Z
Z
LM
N
OP
Q
(2.11-1)
= temperature.
95
Unknown ()
Heat
Conduction
Temperature
Thermal
Conductivity
Internal Heat
Generation
Seepage Flow
Hydraulic Head
Permeability
Storage
Incompressible
Flow
Stream Function
Unity
Soap Film
Deflection
Surface Tension
Pressure
Elastic Torsion
Warping
Function
Unity
+2
Elastic Torsion
Stress Function
Electric
Conduction
Voltage
Electric
Conductivity
Internal Current
Source
Electrostatics
Voltage
Permittivity of Free
Space
Charge Density
Magnetostatics
Magnetic
Potential
Reluctivity
Current Density
(Shear Modulus)
K X ()
LX + KY ( )
LY + K Z ( )
L
Y
Y
Z Z
(2.11-2)
= q + qc ( ) + qr ( )
where
LX , LY and LZ are the direction cosines between the outward normal and
the X,Y and Z axes respectively. q is the imposed heat flux, qc is the convective
heat flux and qr is the radiative heat flux. The convective and radiative heat flux are
generally defined as
qc = hc ( )( e )
and
qr = hr ( )( 4 e4 )
96
(2.11-3)
Analysis Procedures
where hc and hr are the convective and radiative heat transfer coefficients
respectively, and
K = R
(2.11-4)
K = B K B dv + hc
v
and
R as
R = N Q dv +
v
sc
N s N s ds
N q ds + hc
sc
(2.11-5)
N s e ds
(2.11-6)
where N and B are the shape functions and shape function derivatives and k is the
matrix of thermal conductivities.
Equation (2.11-2) has an identical form as the static analysis equilibrium equation,
therefore the solution algorithm is identical.
Notes
The conductance matrix and flux vector are formulated directly from the
quasi-harmonic equation in which the only degree of freedom is the field
variable .
The conductance matrix is dependent on the boundary heat transfer conditions,
this may limit the analysis to one load vector.
() =
t + t
P( )
t + t
K ( )
(2.11-7)
where
97
P= B
T t + t
q dv
(2.11-8)
t +t
i 1
t + t
i =
i 1
t + t
i 1
(2.11-9)
where
t + t
K i1 =
t + t
in which
t + t
t + t
i 1
Kk
i 1
Kc
z
z
i 1
Kr
T t + t
t + t
i 1
K ic1 +
t + t
K ir1
N dV
(2.11-10)
(2.11-11)
t + t
hci1 N S N S dS
(2.11-12)
t + t
hri1 N S N S dS
(2.11-13)
and
t + t
K ik1 +
Further
t + t
Ri-1 =
t + t
Q i-1 +
t + t
Q i-1
+
c
t + t
ext
Q i-1
r
(2.11-14)
ext
Q i-1 =
t + t
q N S dS
+
where
and
t +t
t +t
i-1
N dV +
t +t
t + t
Q con
(2.11-15)
Q con is the concentrated nodal heat flux. Also the heat flow due to
convection is
t + t
t + t
Q i-1
=
c
ext
t + t
hci1 N S N S
t + t
e dS
98
(2.11-16)
Analysis Procedures
and the heat flow due to radiation
t + t
Q i-1
=
r
ext
t + t
hri1 N S N S
t + t
e dS
(2.11-17)
where
Fi-1 =
t +t
t + t
Q i-1
+
c
t + t
int
Q i-1
=
c
int
Q i-1
=
r
int
and
t + t
Q i-1
k
Q i-1
=
k
int
z
z
z
t + t
S
t + t
t + t
t + t
t + t
hri1 N S N S
i 1
t +t
Q i-1
is the internal
r
Q i-1
is the internal heat flow due to conduction.
k
t +t
hci1 N S N S
T t + t
(2.11-18)
int
Q i-1
is the internal heat flow due to convection,
c
in which
t + t
t + t
int
t + t
Q i-1
+
r
i-1
i-1
i-1
dS
(2.11-19)
dS
(2.11-20)
dV
(2.11-21)
Concentrated Load
Face Load
99
Environmental Temperature
Loading
at nodes
LM
N
OP
Q
LM
N
OP
Q
K X ()
KY ( )
+
X
X
Y
Y
KZ ()
+
+ Q ( ) = C ( )
Z
Z
t
LM
N
OP
Q
(2.12-1)
where c is the specific heat and is the density. Here K is the thermal conductivity,
is the temperature and Q is the heat supply. After discretisation this equation has the
form
& + K + R = 0
C
(2.12-2)
z
z
z
C = N c( )N dv
(2.12-3)
K = B B dv
(2.12-4)
R = N Q dv
(2.12-5)
100
Analysis Procedures
Here N and B are the shape functions and shape function derivatives and
is the
C + K
t + t
C + K (1 )
1
t
t + t
(2.12-6)
R + (1 ) R = 0
t
Scheme
Crank-Nicolson scheme
1/2
Galerkin scheme
2/3 (default)
i t ( 2 1) > 2
(2.12-7)
2
(1 2 ) max
(2.12-8)
where max is the maximum circular frequency of the system. Violation of this
criterion results in divergence of the solution algorithm.
101
where
1
3p
(2.12-9)
th
2 c
(2.12-10)
4k
is replaced in (2.12-2) by
t + t
t + t
i 1
t + t
where
(2.12-11)
so that
102
Analysis Procedures
t + t
i t + t
&i +
t + t
t + t
i 1
i 1
t + t
(2.12-12)
i 1
The integration of the rate term is performed using the backward Euler method.
Consequently, the rate term is approximated as
t + t
&i = 1
t + t
i 1
+
i
(2.12-13)
LM 1
N t
t + t
C +
i
t + t
t + t
i 1
OP
Q
t + t
1 t + t i
C
t
t + t
i 1
(2.12-14)
i1 t
LM 1
N t
OP
Q
C + K
t
t + t
1 t + t i
C
t
t + t
t + t
i 1
i 1
(2.12-15)
103
H=
c1 ( ) d
< f
ref
(2.12-16)
H=
c1 ( ) d + L + c2 ( ) d
ref
(2.12-17)
and for alloy substances (fig.2.12-1b)
H=
c1 ( ) d
< f
ref
(2.12-18)
H=
c1 ( ) d
ref
f ( f + )
ref
dL
+ c f ( ) d
d
(2.12-19)
H=
c1 ( ) d
ref
f + f
cf ( ) d +
> f
c2 ( ) d
f + f
(2.12-20)
where c1 , c2 and cf are the specific heat values below, above and during the phase
change respectively.
The transient term in the governing equation for transient heat flow (2.12-1) may be
rewritten as
H dH d * d
=
c
t d dt
dt
(2.12-21)
104
Analysis Procedures
*
where c is the effective heat capacity including the effects of the latent heat of
evolution.
*
c =
(H x )(T x ) + (H y )(T y )
(T x )2 + (T y )2
(2.12-22)
Lemmon [L3,L4]
L (H x ) + (H y ) OP
c = M
N (T x ) + (T y ) Q
2
2 1/ 2
(2.12-23)
where the enthalpy H is interpolated from nodal values using the element shape
functions, i.e.
n
H = N i Hi
i 1
so that
H x = N i x H i
(2.12-24)
i 1
105
Temperature
Impulse loading may be approximated by applying the load pulse during one time
step and then removing it in the next time step. This is illustrated in fig.2.11-2(d).
Alternatively, if the pulse is applied during the first time step, the structure may be
initially fully restrained with the pulse load and then released with the load
simultaneously removed (fig.2.11-2(e)).
f
Transition
region
Enthalpy H
Temperature
Solid temperature f
Liquid temperature f + f
f
Transition
region
Enthalpy H
106
Analysis Procedures
107
Analysis Procedures
mechanical coupling, however, information transfer at an increment level has
provided adequate solutions.
The approach adopted for the solution of the coupled problem is to partition the
structural and field analyses either sequentially or in parallel. The time integration
process is performed over each system component.
Communication is achieved via a data transfer file which is common to both analysis
modules. Reading and writing of datasets occurs from or to this file at defined
intervals throughout the analysis. Information transfer occurs at an incremental level
if the analyses are performed independently. If two analyses can be run concurrently
information may be transferred either on an iterative or an incremental level.
w p = 12 Tp
t + t
+t
(2.13-1)
109
w p
t +t
= stresses at time t
Equation (2.13-1) is evaluated at the Gauss points and may be distributed to the nodes
in a manner similar to that when dealing with body force potentials so that
R = Nw p dv
(2.13-2)
N = {N1 , N 2 , N 3 ,K}T
(2.13-3)
and
R will contribute towards the element right hand side in the thermal analysis.
The vector R will be passed to the thermal analysis so that the heat flux will be given
by
Q=
hf
tint
(2.13-4)
and Q the heat flux. Q can now be added into the element right hand side in the
same manner as a 'concentrated load'.
2.13.3.2 Time interval for computing heat generation
This section details the assumptions that are made in relation to the rate at which
plastic work is considered to be done. There are four combinations of analysis type
which may be used to carry out a coupled analysis
110
Analysis Procedures
Option
Structural
Thermal
Dynamic
Steady State
Dynamic
Transient
Static
Steady State
Static
Transient
1. The heat flux generated due to plastic work is a function of the time increment
over which the work is done. For a meaningful solution to this type of problem the
thermal analysis should be transient. This allows control over the rate at which the
plastic work is assumed to be done.
2. It is important not to miss data by inconsistent data transfers during an analysis.
This could result in the heat due to plastic work being applied over a different
period in the thermal analysis to when it was generated. It is recommended that
reading and writing to the data transfer file are carried out at the same point in the
analysis to prevent this occurring.
3. The structural analysis must be run first when problems involving semi-coupled
analysis are run. In general, for analyses run in parallel, the thermal analysis must
wait for the structural analysis to write before attempting to read from the data
transfer file (or DTF).
4. A fully coupled analysis involving iterative transfers will give the best solutions
but the extra expense in computation may not be justified in some cases. Iterative
coupling is justified when the temperatures generated produce significant thermal
strains or when the material properties are temperature dependent. The option of
running problems in parallel but coupling on an incremental basis should prove to
give the most efficient solutions in terms of accuracy and computer cost.
111
Structural
Thermal
c
4
1,5
t+t
This iterative strategy is different from that usually in force for a coupled analysis in
the sense that values computed at time t+t in the structural analysis are used at time t
in the thermal analysis. The heat flux due to plastic work done over the time step t is
computed (points a to b). This flux is transferred to the thermal analysis (points b to c)
and used at time t (points c to d). The first temperature distribution is then transferred
to the structural analysis (points d to a). New temperature dependent properties and a
thermal loading are now applied to the initial structural analysis (points a to b) and the
iterative cycle continues until convergence is achieved.
112
Analysis Procedures
u=
uns ( X , Y )cos n +
n=0
v=
u ( X , Y )sin n
a
n
n =1
v ( X , Y ) cos n + v ( X , Y )sin n
s
n
a
n
n=0
w=
(2.14-1)
n =1
w ( X , Y )sin n w ( X , Y )cos n
a
n
s
n
n =1
n=0
where u,v and w are defined in the cylindrical coordinate system with axial, radial
and tangential displacements, as opposed to the more familiar displacements U,V,W
in global cartesian system. Note that for all references to Fourier analyses and
elements, capital letters, U,V,W,X,Y,Z refer to the global cartesian system whilst
lower case letters refer to the cylindrical coordinate system.
An analysis is performed for each harmonic component n, and the solution of the
original problem is obtained by combining the response of each harmonic. This is
consistent with the principle of superposition for linear elastic structural response.
By using this semi-analytical approach, the three dimensional analysis is reduced to a
series of two dimensional analyses, with the consequent saving in computational
effort being dependent upon the number of harmonics required to accurately
reproduce the structural response. Further details may be found in references [C1] and
[Z1].
113
v = 0, w = 0
u = 0, w = 0
For a solid structure such as a circular shaft, the most important modes are the n=0
and n=1 terms; the complete engineering beam theory is encompassed by these first
harmonics. As the structure tends towards thin-walled, the global modes become less
dominant, and the local deformations modelled by the higher order harmonics
become increasingly important.
114
Analysis Procedures
115
f( )cos n d Pi
cos n
(2.14-2)
n=0
where
Rx =
Rx ns cos n +
n=0
Ry =
Rx
a
n
sin n
a
n
sin n
n =1
Ry ns cos n +
n=0
Rz =
Ry
(2.14-3)
n =1
Rz ns sin n
n =1
Rz
a
n
cos n
n= 0
PX =
NNodes
2r Rx
j
(2.14-4)
j =1
where
NNodes is the number of restrained nodal reactions
rj
is the radius of node j (note rj = 1 for centre line nodes)
Rx j
116
Analysis Procedures
Asymmetric - the total torque reaction which will be equal and opposite to the
structural torque TZ , can be calculated from
TZ =
NNodes
2r Rz
j
(2.14-5)
j =1
where
NNodes is the number of restrained nodal reactions
rj
is the radius of node j (note rj = 1 for centre line nodes)
Rz j
PY =
NNodes
r Ry
j
rj Rz j
(2.14-6)
j =1
where
NNodes is the number of restrained nodal reactions
rj
is the radius of node j (note rj = 1 for centre line nodes)
Ry j
Rz j
PY
is the load in the global Y direction
Asymmetric mode
PZ =
NNodes
r Ry
j
rj Rz j
(2.14-7)
j =1
where
NNodes is the number of restrained nodal reactions
rj
is the radius of node j (note rj = 1 for centre line nodes)
is the radial reaction at node j
Ry j
Rz j
PZ
117
K ff a f = P f
(2.15-1)
118
Analysis Procedures
where f denotes the set of statically independent 'free' variables. This is then
partitioned as
LM K
NK
mm
sm
OPL O L O
QMN PQ MN PQ
K ms a m
P
= m
K ss a s
Ps
(2.15-2)
where subscript m denotes the active set which includes all exterior freedoms and
subscript s denotes the omitted set which includes all interior freedoms. Note that
subscripts denote the type of variables that matrices relate to.
Rewriting the second set of equations gives
a s = K ss1 P s + G sm a m
(2.15-3)
where
G sm = K ss1 K sm
(2.15-4)
K mm a m = P m
(2.15-5)
where
K mm = K mm + K ms G sm
(2.15-6)
P m = P m + G Tsm P s
(2.15-7)
and
Here K mm represents the stiffness of the substructure and P m represents the the
boundary loads transmitted to the rest of the structure.
No approximation has been performed in the static condensation so that for a static
analysis the substructure solution will be identical to a solution that does not use the
substructuring technique.
K ff a f 2 M ff a f = P f
(2.15-8)
119
(2.15-9)
A similar expression may be derived for the damping matrix. Unlike the condensation
of the stiffness matrix which is exact, the condensation of the mass matrix is only
approximate. The accuracy of the solution obtained will depend on the suitability of
the external or master freedoms to represent the response of the structure. Further,
dynamic analyses will require internal master nodes in order to reproduce the correct
response.
2.15.5 Transformations
The freedoms at a node associated to a superelement may be transformed at both the
superelement generation and use stages. Therefore transformation of the superelement
stiffness, mass and force vectors between the superelement generation and
superelement use axes systems is defined as
Stiffness: K u = T u T g K g T g T u
(2.15-10)
Mass: M u = T u T g M g T g T u
(2.15-11)
= T uT g f
(2.15-12)
Force: f
where subscripts 'u' and 'g' refer to values defined in the use and generation phases
respectively.
Analysis Procedures
The algorithm introduces additional generalised exterior freedoms (or modal
coordinates) which allow an enhanced representation of the reduced mass and
stiffness for each superelement to be computed. The superelement matrices are then
combined and the eigen-solution for the complete structure is evaluated. Effectively
the procedure utilises the mode shape characteristics of each superelement as Ritz
vectors during the reduction phase for the complete structure.
The eigenvalues evaluated using this method of analysis will always be an upper
bound on the corresponding exact values of the system. However, the accuracy of
each eigenvalue and corresponding eigenvector is dependent upon the suitability of
the Ritz basis vectors used in reducing the component matrices. This in turn is
dependent on how accurately the boundary conditions are represented in the eigenanalysis of the components.
Generally the master freedoms are assumed to be either fixed or free, however a
better approximation is usually obtained by utilising point masses and stiffnesses to
represent the effects of the remaining structure. It is possible to invoke an automatic
procedure for distributing the stiffness and mass of the remaining structure to the
boundary nodes. This is achieved by modifying the master freedoms for each
superelement in turn and then performing a Guyan reduction analysis. This provides
the reduced stiffness and mass from which the superelement stiffness and mass are
subtracted to give the boundary mass and stiffness.
( K ff M ff ) f = 0
(2.15-13)
122
Analysis Procedures
LMa OP = LM OP a
Na Q MN PQ
s
sq
mq
(2.15-14)
a s = G sm a m + G sq a q
(2.15-15)
It remains to evaluate the matrices G sm and G sq required for this equation and to
use these to transform the governing equations (2.15-1) and (2.15-13) into a form that
only uses the master freedoms and generalised coordinates.
From the static reduction equation (2.15-14) we have already determined
G sm = K ss1 K sm
(2.15-16)
sq a q = G sm mq a q + G sq a q
(2.15-17)
G sq = sq G sm mq
(2.15-18)
relating ( a s ,
a m ) to ( a s , a q ) defined as
LMa OP = LG
Na Q MN I
s
sm
OPLM OP
QN Q
G sq a m
aq
0
(2.15-19)
which can be used to compute the reduced stiffness and mass matrices which
adequately represent the characteristics of the superelement.
The transformations can be written generally as
123
Z$ ( m+ q )( m+ q ) = T (Ts+ m )( m+ q ) Z ff T ( s+ m )( m+ q )
T
b$ ( m+ q ) = T ( s+ m )( m+ q ) b( s+ m )
It should be noted at this point that if no generalised coordinates exist in the problem
then equation (2.15-15) reduces to equation (2.15-3), noting that for natural frequency
analysis the external loads are zero. This equation was obtained in the static reduction
and therefore the static properties of the structure will be properly represented at the
exterior degrees of freedom. Using equations (2.15-20) we obtain the following
reduced matrices for a superelement
reduced stiffness matrix
LM K
MN
mm
+ K ms G sm
G sq K ss G sq
OP
PQ
(2.15-21)
Note that equation (2.15-16) has been used to zero the off diagonal terms.
reduced mass matrix
LMG
MN
T
sm
M ss G sm + G sm M sm + M ms G sm + M mm
G sm M ss G sq + M ms G sq
G sq M ss G sm + G sq M sm
T
G sq M ss G sq
(2.15-22)
LMG
MN
T
sm
C ss G sm + G sm C sm + C ms G sm + C mm
T
G sq C ss G sm + G sq C sm
T
G sm C ss G sq + C ms G sq
T
G sq C ss G sq
(2.15-23)
OP
PQ
LMG P + P
MN G P
T
sm
sq
OP
PQ
(2.15-24)
These matrices fully represent the superelement characteristics and can be assembled
with the residual structure in order to obtain the solution for the full structure.
124
OP
PQ
Analysis Procedures
= 2 2 T
where
(2.15-25)
is the mass
is
A =
nn
2A 2 T
(2.15-26)
nm
mm mn
where n is the number of freedoms and m is the number of modes. The inverse of the
receptance matrix is then
A1 = T 2A 2
A
(2.15-27)
where
T
T
A = ( ) 1
A
(2.15-28)
mn mn mm
and it is assumed n is less than or equal to m. The impedance matrix can therefore be
expressed in the form:
Z A = A1 = K A 2 M A
(2.15-29)
125
K A = A 2A A
T
(2.15-30)
and
M A = A A = ( A A ) 1
T
(2.15-31)
The reduced stiffness K A and mass M A matrices for a component A can, thus, be
computed from the natural frequencies and mass normalised eigenvectors via
equations (2.15-30) and (2.15-31) respectively.
In field analyses.
In explicit dynamics analyses.
In Fourier analyses.
When using updated Lagrangian or Eulerian geometric nonlinearity.
Elements adjacent to slideline surfaces cannot be activated or deactivated.
( t ) = R i ( t ) R e( t )
(2.16-1)
where:
126
Analysis Procedures
(t )
(t ) = 0
(2.16-2)
(2.16-3)
Ri ( t +1) = Ri ( t ) Rr ( t )
(2.16-4)
(2.16-5)
where
Rr ( t ) ' = nodal forces 'equivalent' to the internal stress state for the elements
removed (i.e. stress state just prior to removal)
For equilibrium to be maintained:
(2.16-6)
where:
(2.16-7)
127
(2.16-8)
where:
(2.16-9)
( t +1) = (1 f ) Rr ( t )
(2.16-10)
be redistributed in the final assembly after the activation of elements representing the
tunnel lining:
( t +2 ) = Ri ( t +2 ) Re( t +2 )
(2.16-11)
where:
(2.16-12)
( t +2 ) = 0
(2.16-13)
It should be noted that residual forces only exist at the boundary nodes between active
and deactivated elements. All internal forces and loading at nodes which exist solely
on deactivated elements will be zero.
128
Geometric Nonlinearity
3 Geometric
Nonlinearity
3.1 Introduction
Four geometrically nonlinear formulations are available in LUSAS
129
We
u t dA +
u f dV
(3.2-1)
Wi
is given by
T
dV
(3.2-2)
where and represent general strain measures and may be replaced by any
specific work conjugate strain measures. The virtual work equation can then be
written as
u T dV =
dV -
u T t dA -
u T f dV
(3.2-3)
where the left hand side represents the work done by the residual or out of balance
force vector . The variation of the virtual work equation can now be obtained by
taking the variation of equation (3.2-3). If the loading is assumed to be conservative,
the variation of the external work terms due to the surface and body loadings can be
ignored. The variation of equation (3.2-3) can then be written as
d u dV =
V
d( ) dV +
Td dV +
T d(dV)
(3.2-4)
Geometric Nonlinearity
material. They are therefore objective and suitable for large deformation analysis
where the configuration of the body is continuously changing.
However, a disadvantage of using Second Piola-Kirchhoff stresses is that, for general
motions, they have limited physical meaning and are therefore not as easy to interpret
as Cauchy stresses.
ds2 - dS2
2dS2
E =
(3.3-1)
E ij =
LM
MN
u j
1 u i
u k u k
+
+
2 X j
X i
X i X j
OP
PQ
(3.3-2)
Equation (3.3-2) is exact for arbitrary large deformations. For the specific case of the
3-D continuum strains, equation (3.3-2) becomes
R|
||
S|
||
T
xx
yy
zz
xy
yz
zx
R| u U| R| 12 LM Xu OP + 12 LM Xv OP + 12 LM Xw OP U|
|| N Q N Q N Q ||
X
|
|
v
U| |Y | | 1 LM u OP + 1 LM v OP + 1 LM w OP |
|| ||w || || 21 NLYu QO 12 NLYv OQ 12 LNwY OQ ||
V| = |S| Zu v |V| + |S| 2 MNZ PQ + 2 MNZ PQ + 2 MN Z PQ |V|
|| ||Yv + wX || || Xu Yu + Xv Yv + Xw wY ||
W |Z + Y | | Yu Zu + Yv Zv + wY wZ |
|| w + u || || u u v v w w ||
TX Z W |T Z X + Z X + Z X |W
2
(3.3-3)
where all derivatives are evaluated with respect to the reference configuration.
The specific form of (3.3-3) is given for each element in Section 6.
131
1
E = Bo a + A
2
(3.3-4)
= Ga
(3.3-5)
dE = B da + A d
(3.3-6)
E = B a + A
(3.3-7)
and finally the variation of the virtual variation may be defined by taking the variation
of equation (3.3-7) as
d( E ) = dA
(3.3-8)
dS = D dE
(3.3-9)
Geometric Nonlinearity
The invariance of the stresses also implies that any material description that has been
developed for infinitesimal displacement analysis using engineering stress and strain
measures may be employed directly in a Lagrangian large deformation analysis with
Second Piola-Kirchhoff stresses and Green-Lagrange strains, provided that the strains
are small. Therefore nonlinear material models, e.g. elasto-plastic models, may be
utilized directly for both Total and Updated Lagrangian analysis.
aT
da = a
a
T
T
G S$ G + B D B dV da
(3.3-10)
B = Bo + A G
(3.3-11)
$ is the stress matrix [Z1]. Therefore from (3.3-10) the tangent stiffness matrix
and S
may be identified as
KT =
G S$ G dV +
B D B dV
(3.3-12)
Note. If a constitutive relationship appropriate for large strains had been utilized in
(3.3-9), then equation (3.3-11) would have included a term for the variation of the D
matrix which in turn would have resulted in an additional term in the tangent stiffness
matrix.
a T N dV = a T B S dV - a T R
V
(3.3-13)
133
B S dV - R
(3.3-14)
The external force vector R may contain non-conservative loads, i.e. loads that vary
with structural deformation e.g. body forces and surface tractions.
In LUSAS, deformation dependent loading cannot be represented by the Total
Lagrangian formulation, however they may be approximately represented for the
Updated Lagrangian formulation, by integrating the forces at time t+t in the
configuration at time t as
zc
Body forces:
t + t
tV
zc
Surface forces:
t + t
tV
T t + t
f dV
T t + t
(3.3-15)
t dV
(3.3-16)
Note. Non-conservative loading is only available for two and three dimensional
continuum elements when using this formulation.
( i)
E
where
( i)
t+ t
t+ t
(i)
- tE
(3.3-17)
(i)
= D E
(i)
(3.3-18)
(i)
( i)
= t S + S
(3.3-19)
134
Geometric Nonlinearity
t
x = t x + a
(3.3-20)
where x are the nodal coordinates at the end of the last converged increment.
(ii) STRESS UPDATE
The Second Piola-Kirchhoff stresses referred to the old reference configuration are
transformed to Cauchy stresses, i.e. stresses referred to the current configuration.
Before further deformation, these are equivalent to the Second Piola-Kirchhoff
stresses in the new reference configuration.
Consideration of the mapping between the Second Piola-Kirchhoff stresses and
Green-Lagrange strains enables [B1] the new Cauchy stress to be computed from
t + t
t + t
t
FT t + t S F
(3.3-21)
t + t x
F =
tx
(3.3-22)
1
.
Det F
135
For plane stress situations the thickness should be updated due to the effect of
Poisson's ratio. For elastic materials the out of plane strain increment is defined as
t + t
-
1 -
E zz =
gd
t + t
E xx +
t + t
E yy
(3.3-23)
EZZ =
b gd
t + t
Exx + t + tE yy
t + tE p xx t + tE p yy
(3.3-24)
t +t
However,
EZZ may also be defined in terms of the thicknesses at time t and
time t+t, i.e.
t + t
t + t
E zz =
h2 - th2
2t h 2
(3.3-25)
h = t h 1 + 2t + t E zz
1/ 2
(3.3-26)
136
Geometric Nonlinearity
Although the Cauchy stress tensor is not objective, incremental objectivity is obtained
by removing the rigid body rotation. This is achieved by either using polar
decomposition and a rate formulation to evaluate the Cauchy stresses or using a rate
formulation to integrate the rotated strain increment. A major advantage of this
formulation is that the stress and strain measures naturally describe the material
response. In this manner the infinitesimal elastic and inelastic material models may be
used directly in the presence of large strains.
The logarithmic or natural strain measure is defined in terms of the change in length
dS per unit instantaneous length S as
dS
S
d =
(3.4-1)
S0
dS
S
dS = ln
= ln
S
So
(3.4-2)
In 3D, the principal stretches may be evaluated from the right stretch tensor as
U =
(3.4-3)
where
= [N1 , N 2 , N 3 ]
(3.4-4)
and N i are the direction cosines of the principal stretch directions with respect to the
global and hence, unrotated, configurations.
The tensor is defined as diag [ 1 , 2 , 3 ] where is the magnitude of the
principal stretch in the
N i direction.
The direction of the principal stretch and the principal strain coincide
(3.4-5)
where is a diagonal tensor containing the principal logarithmic strains. These are
evaluated as
137
i = ln i
(3.4-6)
The total logarithmic strain may also be evaluated [M1] by integrating the rate of
deformation tensor D over some time interval dt
tO
D dt
(3.4-7)
LM
MN
1 v
D =
+
2 x
LM v OP OP
N x Q PQ
T
(3.4-8)
Integration of the rate of deformation tensor (or velocity strain tensor) is performed at
the midpoint configuration, which provides a second order appproximation to the
logarithmic strain.
F = RU
(3.4-9)
where R is a rotation tensor that defines the rigid body rotation of the principal
directions of strain, and U is the right stretch tensor that completely defines the
deformation of the material particles.
The right stretch tensor is evaluated by noting that [M1]
1/ 2
U = C
where C = F F
(3.4-10)
1/ 2
cC - Ih N = 0
2
(3.4-11)
138
Geometric Nonlinearity
may be solved for i , the principal stretches and N i , the corresponding
eigenvectors which define the principal directions of strain. The right stretch tensor
U is then given by
U = NN
(3.4-12)
R = FU
-1
(3.4-13)
aT
da = a
a
T
T
T
B $$ B + G $ G + B D B dV da
(3.4-14)
where $$ and $ are stress matrices [H3] and B is evaluated in the current
deformed configuration.
Note. A stiffness contribution due to the variation of the volumetric strain has been
neglected in (3.4-14) as it leads to a non-symmetric tangent matrix.
The tangent stiffness matrix may be identified from (3.4-14) as
KT =
T
B $$ B dV +
G $ G dV +
B D B dV
(3.4-15)
Note. By default, the first term in 3.4-15 is neglected. This improves the convergence
rate of the iteration process when the rigid body rotation is removed exactly in the
strain computations.
139
R = ot Ft U 1
(3.4-16)
R = ot R T t ot R
(3.4-17)
R = ot R T t ot R
(3.4-18)
u = u + u
(3.4-19)
5. Form the deformation gradient and deformation tensor at time t+t and use the
t+ t
R = T and
d i
ii = ln i1/2 , ij = 0
(3.4-20)
R =
t+ t
R - t R
(3.4-21)
R = D R
(3.4-22)
R = t R + R
(3.4-23)
10. Rotate to the Cauchy stresses for internal forces and output
t+ t
t+ t
o
R t+ t R t+ ot R T
(3.4-24)
t+ t
o
R t+ t R t+ ot R T
(3.4-25)
140
Geometric Nonlinearity
= t + & t
(3.4-26)
in which the dot denotes the material time derivative. Because of the non-objective
nature of this derivative, various stress rates have been introduced which do satisfy
the objectivity requirements. Two measures are used.
The Green-Naghdi rate, for which the material behaviour is treated in an
unrotated configuration.
The Jaumann rate, for which the material stress rates are accounted for by
applying approximate spin terms.
3.4.4.1 The Green-Naghdi formulation
At each time t+t, the rotation matrix
t
o
decomposition theorem. This matrix is then used to rotate the current total stress into
the unrotated R configuration as
t
R = ot R T t ot R
(3.4-27)
F = ot F + F& t / 2
(3.4-28)
t+ t/2
o
increments are evaluated from the velocity strain and may be rotated at this midpoint
configuration as
R =
t+ t/2
o
R T t+ t/2o R
(3.4-29)
R =
t- t/2
R + R
(3.4-30)
R = t R + D R
(3.4-31)
141
t+ t/2
F =
F + F& t / 2
t+ t
o
(3.4-32)
t+ t
t+ t
t+ t
RT
(3.4-33)
The total strain measure may also be rotated in a similar manner for
output/restart/plotting purposes as
t+ t/2
t+ t/2
t+ t/2
t+ t/2
RT
(3.4-34)
+ & t
t
& t + t
& T + & t
= +
J
(3.4-35)
& at t + t / 2
& and spin tensor
1. Compute the strain rate
2. Compute the Jaumann increment of Cauchy stress from
t+ t/2
&
& J = D t+ t/2
(3.4-36)
(3.4-37)
where
142
Geometric Nonlinearity
t+ t/2
r =
t+ t/2
t+ t/2
& t + t
&T
t+ t/2
(3.4-38)
d J = D d
(3.4-39)
B dV
(3.4-40)
is a vector
of Cauchy stresses.
The external force vector q may contain non-conservative loads i.e. loads that vary
with structural deformation, e.g. body forces and surface tractions. These are
represented by integrating the forces at time t+t in the current iterative configuration
at time t+t as
Body Forces:
Surface Forces:
z
z
gc
gc
t+ t
t+ t V i-1
t+ t V i-1
t+ t
h
uh
u
T t+ t
T t+ t
f dV
(3.4-41)
t dV
(3.4-42)
Note that non-conservative loading is only available for use with two and three
dimensional continuum elements when using this formulation.
143
bg
x i = x + a b i g
t
big
(3.4-43)
where x are the nodal coordinates at the end of the last converged increment.
3.4.7.2 Thickness update
For plane stress situations, the thickness should be updated due to the effect of
Poisson's ratio. For elastic materials the out of plane strain is defined as
bzzig =
-
bxxig + byyig
1-
b ge
(3.4-44)
bzzig =
-
bxxig + byyig - pxxb i g - pyyb i g
1-
b ge
(3.4-45)
big
However, zz may also be defined in terms of the thickness at time t and time
t+t, i.e. using a mid-point rule
bzzig =
LM
N
1 h b i g
+
2 th
h b i g
t
h + h b i g
OP
Q
(3.4-46)
bg
LM
N
LM e
N
t + t h i = t h bzzig + 1 + bzzig
144
j OQP OPQ
2 1/ 2
(3.4-47)
Geometric Nonlinearity
F =V R
is the so-called left stretch tensor, rather than from the polar decomposition
as it circumvents unrotating the Cauchy stresses during the update and rotating the
logarithmic strains obtained from the right stretch tensor for output purposes. See
steps (iii) and (vii)-(xi) in Section 3.4.3.2. Furthermore, such a set-up provides a
framework, in which it is easier to linearise the governing nonlinear equations and
obtain a fully consistent tangent stiffness matrix. This approach is currently available
for two 2D continuum elements.
3.4.8.1 Polar decomposition using the left stretch tensor
In the present approach, the deformation gradient tensor F is decomposed to give
F = VR
where
(3.4-48)
is a rotation tensor that defines the rigid body rotation of the principal
V = b
where b = F F
(3.4-49)
c b - Ih n = 0
2
(3.4-50)
may be solved for i , the principal stretches and n i , the corresponding eigenvectors
which define the principal directions of strain in the spatial coordinate system. The
left stretch tensor V is then given by
V = nn
(3.4-51)
145
i .
-1
R = V F
(3.4-52)
= J , where J
u = u + u
(3.4-53)
2. Form the deformation gradient and deformation tensor at time t+t and use the
polar decomposition theorem to evaluate
t+ t
t+ t
= n n T and
d i
ii = ln i1/2 , ij = 0
(3.4-54)
1
J
t+ t
(3.4-55)
B dV0
(3.4-56)
146
is a vector of
Geometric Nonlinearity
The tangent stiffness matrix is derived from the variation of the virtual work equation.
Equation (3.2-4) may be discretised as
aT
da = a
a
V0
T
T
G $ G + B D tTK B dV0 da
(3.4-57)
where $ = J $ , and $ is the stress matrix [H3] and B is evaluated in the current
deformed configuration.
The tangent stiffness matrix may then be identified as
KT =
V0
G G dV0 +
V0
B D tTK B dV0
(3.4-58)
where D tTK is tangent constitutive matrix associated with the Truesdell rate of
Kirchhoff stress. This matrix is obtained by rotating the tangent constitutive matrix
associated with the Truesdell rate of Kirchhoff stress D tTKE , which is defined in
principal directions of the Eulerian triad into the base (spatial) triad. Matrix D tTKE
147
e = Re
(3.5-1)
where R represents the local axes and e the axis of rotation or unit vector in the
direction of the pseudovector. Defining the pseudovector as
= e
(3.5-2)
Argyris [A6] has shown that the local axes may be expressed as
R =
LMI +
MN
sin
S ( ) +
PQ (3.5-3)
2
LM 0
Sb g = M
MN
- 3
0
3
2
OP
P
0 PQ
2
1
(3.5-4)
148
Geometric Nonlinearity
The Euler parameters relating to equation (3.5-2) may be expressed as
q =
(3.5-5)
Note that Euler parameters form a unit quarternion and as the name implies there are
four components, one scalar and 3 sine scaled components of the rotation
pseudovector. (3.5-5) can therefore be expressed as
q =
RSq UV
Tq W
o
(3.5-6)
Using (3.5-5) and (3.5-6) in (3.5-3) allows the local axes to be expressed in terms of
Euler parameters
bg
R = q o 2 - q T q I + 2qq T + 2q 0 S q
(3.5-7)
The local axes representing the current configuration are therefore not updated
directly but are defined by an updated set of Euler parameters. It is the updating of the
Euler parameters which involves the use of quarternion algebra, in particular, the
quarternion product is required. If the Euler parameters qo relate an original set of
local axes to the global frame and qi is formed from an iterative rotation increment
then the updated parameters are given by the quarternion product
qu = qiqo
(3.5-8)
qu = qi 0qo0 + qo0 qi + qi 0 qo + qi qo - qi T qo
(3.5-9)
In the initial configuration the local axes are derived from nodal geometry. The initial
Euler parameters are then extracted from these axes using an algorithm due to
Spurrier [S6]. The parameters are then updated as the solution proceeds so that the
local axes may be defined in the current configuration.
The use of Euler parameters and quarternion algebra appears to be the most efficient
and singularity free approach for updating a set of local axes. More information on
this approach including details of how this method has been implemented in LUSAS
may be found in [C6].
149
= Ba
(3.5-10)
where are local engineering strains and a are global nodal displacements. Using
(3.5-10) in the virtual work equation (3.2-3) allows the out of balance force vector to
be written as
B P dV - R
(3.5-11)
P represents the local internal forces which are work conjugate to . A consistent
derivation of the stiffness matrix will now involve taking the variation of all terms in
(3.5-11). Assuming conservative loading this gives
d =
zn
V
BTdP + dBT P dV
(3.5-12)
where the first term on the right hand side of (3.5-12) gives rise to the material or
linear tangent stiffness and the second term the geometric stiffness. The derivation of
these matrices is quite involved and further details of this procedure relating to beam
150
Geometric Nonlinearity
elements may be found in [C6], [C7] and [C8]. Non-conservative loading is available
with this formulation.
X i = X i - X1
(3.5-13)
where X i are the original local co-ordinates of node i , X i are the original global
co-ordinates of node i and X1 are the original global co-ordinates of node 1. Note
that throughout this section the original configuration is expressed in upper case
characters whereas the current configuration is written in lower case.
Now, it is necessary to establish the local axes within the nonlinear process. This
local frame is used to map the initial configuration of the element onto its final
configuration. The approach used is to compute the rotation tensor R , as defined in
(3.4-9), at the centroid which gives the rotation from the original i1, i 2 , i3 frame into
the current e1, e2 , e3 frame (co-rotating base vectors), as shown in fig.3.5-1, hence
producing the desired local co-ordinate system. The demonstration of the assertion
given above can be seen in [M4] and [M5]. The rotation matrix is therefore given by
R = [e1, e2 , e3 ]
(3.5-14)
151
X i = X i + a i = R x i - x1 = R x i1
(3.5-15)
u / x
computed. The right stretch tensor U is computed with the help of (3.4-10).
In order to obtain a relationship between the variation of the local displacement and
the variation of the global displacement it is necessary to compute the differentiation
of (3.5-15) which results in
b g
a1i = R T S x i1 + R T a i = zi + R T a i
Now,
(3.5-16)
i1
and
is the
frame (fig.3.5-1). It can be computed via a procedure in which the local `spin' at the
centroid is set to zero. In fact this means that defines the set of axes for which the
spin at the centroid is zero. This is equivalent to saying that
1 =
u 1
v 1
1 1
+
= A a = 0
1
1
y
x
T
(3.5-17)
1
where is the local spin at the centroid and A is a vector obtained from shape
functions. Note, however, that for a 2D analysis the rotation only involves an angle
which is a scalar, i.e., e1 =
3D case, a similar expression to that of (3.5-17) can be written but now it relates the
pseudovector
to the matrix A as
152
Geometric Nonlinearity
1T
1 = A a = 0
(3.5-18)
a1 =
RSddiag R i - zLeA zj
MN
T
T
1T
1T
ddiag R iOPQUVW a = T a
T
(3.5-19)
At this stage the principle of virtual work is applied to derive the relationship between
local and global internal force vectors. Hence, equating the virtual work in the local
and global systems leads to
T
P = T P
(3.5-20)
where P and P are the global and local internal force vectors, respectively. The
differentiation of (3.5-20) results in the consistent tangent stiffness matrix, with the
variation of the local internal force vector leading to the standard local stiffness
matrix K1 for the linear element. The final equation can be written as
P = K T a + K a
(3.5-21)
stress stiffness matrix. The latter is derived from the variation of the transformation
matrix T , as previously described in section 3.5.1.2.
It should be emphasised here that the stress measure used within this co-rotational
technique for continuum elements is a `non-conventional' stress type and it is difficult
to visualise [M4]. Therefore, the local Biot-type stresses applied in the formulation
should be converted into a more standard measure. The approach utilised is to
transform the local stress into Kirchhoff stress which is equivalent to Cauchy stress
but related to the original volume or configuration of the element rather than the
current volume or configuration [C11]. This can be accomplished via the definition of
the principal Kirchhoff stresses with respect to the principal Biot stresses, so that,
i = i bi
where
(3.5-22)
bi are the principal Biot stresses. The Kirchhoff stress tensor can be written as
153
= R b U RT
(3.5-23)
1
= R b I + 1 R T
(3.5-24)
The Kirchhoff tensor computed as above recovers its exact value for a homogeneous
stress state within the element.
Non-conservative loading is available with this formulation.
Original
Configuration
i2
Y1
Final
Configuration
e2
e1
X1
i1
X
Fig.3.5-1 Local and Global Co-ordinate Systems
154
Geometric Nonlinearity
3.6.5 Conclusions
In general it is suggested that the TL formulation is used, unless
The elements contain rotational degrees of freedom and large rotations are
present. In this case the UL or co-rotational formulation should be more
effective.
Large strains are present. In this case the Eulerian formulation is most
effective.
Cauchy stresses are required with elements formulated with global constitutive
relationships, e.g. continuum elements. In which case either the UL or
Eulerian formulations should be employed.
Non-conservative loading is required, in which case any of the other
formulations should be employed.
Rubber materials are being used with continuum elements in which case the
co-rotational technique has to be applied.
156
4 Constitutive
Models
4.1 Linear Elastic Models
Within LUSAS, the continuum and resultant elastic constitutive models available are
Isotropic linear elastic (available with all elements)
Orthotropic linear elastic (available with 2D continuum, plates, shells,
axisymmetric solids and 3D solids)
Anisotropic linear elastic (available with 2D continuum, plates, shells,
axisymmetric solids and 3D solids)
In addition, rigidity or resultant modulus matrices may be defined directly for plate,
space membrane and shell elements. This permits the representation of sandwich and
voided cross-sections by defining equivalent continuous resultant moduli.
Each material type may also be used in conjunction with the thermo-elastic model,
which permits specification of temperature dependent material properties.
157
= C , so that = D , where D = C
-1
(4.1-1)
Y
y
158
Y
y
Z
z
159
LM D
M
D =M
MM
MNsym.
1
D2
D3
.
.
.
.
D4
D5
D6
.
.
.
.
Dm
OP
PP
PP
PQ
R| U|
|
|
b g = TS V
|| . ||
|T |W
1
and
o t
(4.1-2)
where Di , i = 1, m are the upper triangular terms of the modulus matrix, i , i = 1, n
are the coefficients of thermal expansion, and n is the order of the modulus matrix so
that m = n(n+1)/2. The value of n is element dependent and the value for each
element is defined in the LUSAS Element Library.
M = D - o - M o
where
(4.1-3)
M = M Y , M X , M XY , M o = M Y0 , M X0 , M XY0
= Y , X , XY , o = Y0 , X0 , XY0
(4.1-4)
(4.1-5)
and the modulus matrix and coefficient of thermal expansion vector are,
LM D
D= M
MNsym.
1
D2
D3
D4
D5
D6
OP
PP
Q
b g
and o
b g R|S U|V
|T |W
1
T
2
=
z
3
(4.1-6)
where D i , i = 1,6 are the upper triangular terms of the modulus matrix,
are the coefficients of thermal expansion.
160
i , i = 1,3
temperature T at point
i , i
b gT
where N b , g is the element shape function vector, and
t
T = N i , i
i
(4.1-7)
t
T is the vector of
T = t T - Tref
(4.1-8)
are then interpolated from the table using the current temperature T .
The thermo-elastic model may be employed in geometrically nonlinear analyses with
the Total Lagrangian formulation. It may also be employed in materially nonlinear
analyses with the continuum elastoplastic models.
161
Consistent formulation
= +
e
(4.2-1)
Elasto-Plastic Models
4.2.1.1 Yield condition
The yield function F (fig.4.2-1) defines the limit of the region of elastic response and
is written at time t as
t
where
F t ,t T,t
i0
(4.2-2)
t
is the state
Non-associated
flow
Associated
flow
Elastic zone
Yield surface
Plastic potential
surface
Inadmissable
zone
163
tQ
d = t
where
tQ
t
(4.2-3)
and is the Lagrangian plastic multiplier defining the magnitude of plastic straining
and is determined by enforcing the yield criterion (4.2-2)
The function Q is known as the 'plastic potential' [O1] and is usually defined in terms
of stress invariants. For all LUSAS models Q = F , T, which is termed
'associated flow', that is, the direction of the plastic strain vector is orthogonal to the
yield surface.
4.2.1.3 Hardening rule
The hardening rule defines the enlargement of the yield surface with plastic straining
as the material yields. For the Hoffman and modified von Mises models, different
hardening rules may be prescribed in tension and compression, other models are
governed by a single hardening rule. A nonlinear hardening function may be
approximated by using a series of straight line segments (fig.4.2-2), i.e.
c h
ce h =
c h
+ H ce h e
t e p = ot + H t e p e p
c
where
co
and
c
c
o
ot
(4.2-4a)
(4.2-4b)
c h
c h
ep = o + H ep ep
where
(4.2-4c)
A kinematic hardening law is also available for plane strain in which the centre of the
yield surface is defined by
164
Elasto-Plastic Models
t +t
where
c h
= t + 2 / 3H e p e p
(4.2-5)
is the position in stress space of the centre of the yield surface. H is the
H3
H2
1
ep1
ep2
ep
165
Stress return
path
Stress return
path
Direction of plastic
flow evaluated at
final stress point
(b) Implicit Algorithm
Direction of plastic
flow evaluated at
contact stress point
Stress return
path
166
Elasto-Plastic Models
For the explicit algorithm, the hardening data and direction of plastic flow are
evaluated at the 'contact stress' point, i.e. the point at which the elastic stress
increment crosses the yield surface. Whereas, for the implicit algorithm, evaluation
occurs at the final stress point and at the elastic predictor stress point for the steepest
descent algorithm.
The explicit algorithm is relatively simple and integrates the stresses directly, i.e. no
iterations are required at a Gauss point level. However, it suffers from three
disadvantages
It is only conditionally stable
Sub-incrementation is required during the stress update to maintain acceptable
accuracy
An 'artificial return' method is required to correct for drift from the yield
surface
Further, a tangent modulus matrix consistent with the return algorithm cannot be
formed. This results in the loss of the quadratic convergence rate for the NewtonRaphson iteration process.
The implicit algorithm furnishes sufficient accuracy without either subincrementation or 'artificial return' and it is also unconditionally stable. However, for
general yield criteria, iterations may be required at the Gauss point level to update the
stresses. Tangent matrices consistent with the return algorithm may be evaluated, so
that the quadratic convergence rate of the Newton-Raphson iteration process is
maintained. Therefore, the algorithm is usually computationally more efficient than
the explicit algorithm, even when iteration is performed at the Gauss point level.
The steepest descent method is a return mapping algorithm applicable to a very large
class of elastoplastic constitutive models. The models may exhibit non-associated
flow and be defined by arbitrary yield criteria and hardening laws. For many yield
criteria, including the von Mises criterion with linear isotropic hardening, the steepest
descent algorithm and implicit algorithm coincide. For these cases, the algorithm has
the same advantages as the implicit algorithm over the explicit method.
Where an implicit or steepest descent algorithm is available for a LUSAS model, it
should prove more effective than the explicit algorithm.
4.2.2.1 Explicit formulation (forward Euler)
The explicit algorithm is formulated using the theory presented in [O1]. The
constitutive relations at time t + t may be written as
Stress
t + t
= D
Plastic strain
t + t
= + t a
t + t
167
t+ t
(4.2-6)
(4.2-7)
a = tF / t
where
Hardening law
t+ t
= y + H te p te p
t+ t
ep
t+ t
F= F
c h
L2 O
= M : P
N3 Q
Yield criterion
Consistency condition
p t
t+ t
(4.2-8)
1/ 2
(4.2-9)
,t+ t T,t+ t = 0
(4.2-10)
The constitutive relations involve plastic state variables evaluated at time t and may
therefore be integrated directly.
STRESS INTEGRATION ALGORITHM
= + s u
(4.2-11)
= D
t+ t
- t p
(4.2-12)
3. If the trial stress lies within the yield surface the stress update has been completed.
Otherwise, the stress lies outside the yield surface and must be returned to the
yield surface by plastic straining.
4. The contact stress c is now evaluated. This is defined as the stresspoint where
the elastic stress vector crosses the yield surface. The elastic stress increment
e , is divided into an admissible stress increment 1 r e and a non-
b g
b g
c = t + 1- r e
where
r =
(4.2-13)
i
Fd , i - Fd , i
F
trial
trial
(4.2-14)
5. Physically, further straining would cause the stress point to traverse the yield
surface. This is approximated by sub-dividing the excess stress into m smaller
168
Elasto-Plastic Models
b jg
stress increments exc which are applied consecutively (fig.4.2-4). Each stress
increment moves the stress point into the inadmissible zone, and a corrector
stress increment, formed by plastic straining, is used to return the stress to the
yield surface. The direction of plastic straining is normal to the yield surface at
the point of application of the elastic stress increment (fig.4.2-5). The updated
stress
t + t
t +t
= c +
is then given by
m
b g
j
exc
j=1
- db jg D a b jg
(4.2-15)
bg c h
(4.2-16)
Notes
The position of the yield surface is updated using the hardening law at the end
of each sub-increment j.
The stress state after the application of each plastic strain increment is
corrected for drift from the yield surface by direct scaling.
Unloading is assumed to be elastic.
r
(1-r)
trial
Yield
surface
t+t
169
Correction for
drift
Stress
= D
t + t
t + t
(4.2-17)
Plastic strain
t + t
where
t + t
Hardening laws
t + t
= +
t + t
(4.2-18)
t+ t F
a = t + t
- t + t
h
= + Hc e h e
= + 2 / 3H c h
t+ t
170
p t + t
t+ t
p t + t
(4.2-19)
Elasto-Plastic Models
ep =
t + t
F= F
Yield criterion
Consistency condition
LM 2
N3
t + t
t + t
t + t
p t + t
t + t
T,
OP
Q
1/ 2
t + t
(4.2-20)
t + t
= 0
(4.2-21)
INTEGRATION OF STRESSES
171
t+t (1)
t+t
The aim of the operator split method is to take advantage of the additive nature of
elastoplastic constitutive relations to decompose the equations of evolution into
elastic and plastic parts. The equations are then integrated by
1. 'Freezing' the inelastic material response and applying the total strain. This
permits the evaluation of a trial stress.
2. 'Freezing' the geometry of the structure whilst using a relaxation process to satisfy
the consistency condition and update the stresses and plastic variables.
For constant elastic moduli, associated flow and isotropic hardening the constitutive
relations become:
ELASTIC PART (where superscript (1) denotes value at end of elastic predictor)
172
Elasto-Plastic Models
Stress
t + t
b1g = t + D
(4.2-22)
Plastic strain
t + t
b g =
(4.2-23)
Hardening law
t +t
b1g = t
(4.2-24)
t +t
e p b1g = t e p
(4.2-25)
p1
PLASTIC PART (where superscript (i) denotes values for iteration (i))
Stress
t + t
b i+1g =
Plastic strain
t + t
P i +1
b g =
t + t
b i g - D p b i g (4.2-26)
t + t
P i
t + t
i
b g - b i g a b g
(4.2-27)
t + t
Hardening law
P b i +1g =
t + t
Pb i g -
e
bg
p i
bg
p i
(4.2-28)
Equivalent plastic strain
t + t
e Pb i +1g =
t + t
e P b i g + b i g
t + t
P b i g:t + t Pb i g
1/ 2
(4.2-29)
The relaxation of the stresses and plastic strains is achieved in a step by step manner
(fig.4.2-6), by linearising the yield function or consistency condition at each iteration
about the current values of the state variables. The yield function in general form is
defined as (neglecting temperature)
b g = F( ) - ce h = 0
(4.2-30)
t+ t
t+ t
t + t F
ig
ig
b
b
F + t + t b i g + t+ t p b i g e p b i g = 0
e
(4.2-31)
b g =
i
t+ t
b i +1g -
t+ t
b i g = - D t + t a b i g
173
(4.2-32)
LM 2
N3
e p = b i g a where a =
t + t
a b g:
i t + t
ab g
i
OP
Q
1/ 2
(4.2-33)
t + t
t + t
t+ t
=
e bg
p i
H big
(4.2-34)
t+ t
t + t
abig D
T
Fb i g
t+ t
(4.2-35)
abig - H a
Substitution of into (4.2-26) and (4.2-27) yields the updated plastic state. The
iteration then continues until plastic consistency is restored to within a prescribed
tolerance, i.e.
t + t
Fb i+1g Tol
(4.2-36)
Note. For models where the algorithm coincides with the implicit backward Euler
algorithm, convergence is obtained with a single iteration.
* = t - t D t e where
= -
(4.2-37)
= +
where =
t+ t
t+ t
t +t
e
T , i.e.
D +
(4.2-38)
174
Elasto-Plastic Models
The stresses are then integrated in the normal manner using one of the three
integration algorithms.
Notes
b g = - ce h = 0
where = 3 bJ g
F ,
(4.2-39)
1/ 2
(4.2-40)
and
175
Tresca
2
3
von Mises
2- 3
Tresca
von Mises
Tresca
1- 3
2
Elasto-Plastic Models
Implicit Backward Euler algorithm All stress types. Hardening is restricted
to nonlinear isotropic.
Steepest Descent algorithm All stress types except plane stress. Hardening is
restricted to linear isotropic/kinematic.
4.2.4.2 Tresca criterion
The Tresca criterion (fig.4.2-7) is suitable for ductile materials which exhibit little
volumetric plastic strain, e.g. metals. The criterion states that yielding begins when
the maximum shear stress reaches a specified value. Thus if the principal stresses are
1, 2, 3 where 1 2 3 the yield function is given by
b g=
F ,
c h
3 ep
(4.2-41)
b g = 2 bJ g
F ,
1/ 2
c h
cos e p
(4.2-42)
The material is integrated using the explicit forward Euler algorithm and is available
for all stress types, i.e. uniaxial, plane stress, plane strain, axisymmetric solid,
axisymmetric shell, and 3-D solid . Hardening is restricted to linear isotropic.
177
t+t
F(,T,)=0
t+t (1)
t+t (2)
F(,T,) = Constant
t+t (3)
t
F(,T,) = 0
Elasto-Plastic Models
integration algorithms are modified for this case. When a value of > 29 is
encountered, the von Mises criterion is used to form the flow vector, for both
evaluating the modulus matrix and integrating the stresses.
4.2.4.3 Non associative Mohr-Coulomb criterion
The Mohr-Coulomb criterion (fig.4.2-9) is suitable for materials which exhibit
volumetric plastic straining, e.g. concrete, soil and rock. The Mohr-Coulomb yield
criterion is a generalisation of the Coulomb friction law defined as
b g = - bc -
F ,
tan = 0
(4.2-43)
where is the magnitude of the shearing stress, n is the normal stress, c is the
cohesion, and the angle of internal friction. The Mohr-Coulomb yield function can
be written in terms of the stress invariants as
b g=
F ,
b g LMNcos -
sin + J 2
1/2
OP
Q
1
sin cos - c cos
3
(4.2-44)
where both the cohesion, c and the friction angle, depend upon the strain hardening
parameter .
The model is integrated using the explicit forward Euler algorithm for all stress types,
i.e. uniaxial, plane stress, plane strain, axisymmetric solid, axisymmetric shell, and 3D solid. Hardening is restricted to linear isotropic.
Numerical difficulties are encountered when the stress point lies at a singular point on
the yield surface, as the direction of plastic straining is indeterminate. This occurs for
the Mohr-Coulomb criterion as the lode angle approaches 30 and also at the apex.
Therefore, the stress integration algorithms are modified for these two cases. When a
value of > 29 is encountered, the Drucker-Prager criterion is used to form the flow
vector for both evaluating the modulus matrix and integrating the stresses. When a
stress point passes beyond the apex, it is returned directly to the apex and the tangent
modulus matrix is initialised for this stress point.
179
Drucker -Prager
Mohr-Coulomb
c cot
2
3
Mohr-Coulomb
Drucker -Prager
Mohr-Coulomb
180
Elasto-Plastic Models
The general form of the Drucker-Prager yield function is
b g = I
F ,
J2 k
(4.2-45)
where I1 is the first stress invariant, J 2 is the second stress invariant and
are constants that define the yield surface.
I1 = xx + yy + zz
J2 =
1
xx m
2
g + d
2
yy
and
(4.2-46)
i + b
2
zz
+ xy + yz + zx
(4.2-47)
where
m =
1
I1
3
(4.2-48)
The Drucker-Prager yield surface takes the form of a circular cone (see figure 4.2-10).
By making the cone coincide with the outer apices of the Mohr-Coulomb criterion
(figure 4.2-11), the yield function can be re-written as [O1]
F ,
J2
6 cos
c (4.2-49)
3 3 sin
There is another form of the Drucker-Prager material model that coincides with the
inner apices of the Mohr-Coulomb model [O1], see figure 4.2-11, and is given by
F ,
J2
6 cos
c (4.2-50)
3 3 + sin
181
2 sin
3 3 + sin
int =
and
k int =
6 cos
c (4.2-51)
3 3 + sin
int
and
k int can then be used to derive an angle of friction and a cohesion that simulates the
3 int 3
2 + int 3
sin =
c =
k int 3 3 sin
6cos
(4.2-52)
(4.2-53)
is used. Using the values for and c computed from (4.2-52) and (4.2-53) in
LUSAS will simulate the inner cone form of the Drucker-Prager material model.
The procedure outlined above can be used to simulate other forms of the DruckerPrager yield criterion in LUSAS. The different forms of the yield criterion actually
correspond to different states of stress. The most significant cases are summarised
here.
Triaxial compression
In this case the Drucker-Prager cone touches the outer apices of the Mohr-Coulomb
hexagonal pyramid (compression meridian mc, figure 4.2-12). The angle is 60o. This
situation is encountered in common laboratory triaxial testing conditions [M8]. This is
the form used in LUSAS and the yield function is given in (4.2-49). The parameters
and k are given by
2 sin
3 3 sin
k =
6 cos
c
3 3 sin
(4.2-54)
(4.2-55)
Plane shear
For plane shear the Drucker-Prager cone is formulated to match the shear meridian
when the angle is 30o (figure 4.2-12). The parameters and k for this case are
given by [M8]
182
Elasto-Plastic Models
2
sin
3
(4.2-56)
k =
2 c cos
(4.2-57)
Tension
In this case the Drucker-Prager cone touches the inner apices of the Mohr-Coulomb
surface, with an angle of 0o (figure 4.2-12, tension meridian mt). The yield
function is given in (4.2-50) and the parameters and k for the tension case are
given by [M8]
2 sin
3 3 + sin
k =
6 cos
c
3 3 + sin
(4.2-58)
(4.2-59)
= sin
and
k = c cos
(4.2-60)
Each of these forms of the Drucker-Prager yield criterion can be modelled in LUSAS.
To do this, the angle of friction, , and the cohesion, c , used to define the material
properties in LUSAS should be modified using the procedure outlined earlier.
The approximation that the Drucker-Prager yield criterion gives to the true failure
surface can sometimes be poor for certain stress combinations [O1]. Care is,
therefore, needed in identifying the dominant stress state and adjusting the DruckerPrager material parameters accordingly.
Associative plasticity is utilised with the Drucker-Prager material model in LUSAS.
The point at which the apex of the cone meets the hydrostatic axis, however,
introduces a singularity into the definition of the plastic flow vector. Numerical
difficulties can then be encountered since the direction of plastic straining is
indeterminate. When a stress point passes beyond the apex, it is returned directly to
the apex and the tangent modulus matrix is initialised for that stress point.
The model is integrated using the Explicit forward Euler algorithm and is available
for all stress types, i.e. uniaxial, plane stress, plane strain, axisymmetric solid,
axisymmetric shell, and 3-D solid. Hardening is restricted to linear isotropic.
183
Drucker-Prager
Mohr-Coulomb
c cot
2
1
Drucker-Prager
inner cone
Mohr-Coulomb
Drucker-Prager
outer cone
184
Elasto-Plastic Models
1
Mohr-Coulomb
mc
mt
Drucker-Prager
f =
1
1 T
T
P + p
fc ft = 0
2
3
(4.2-61)
where
185
LM b + g
b + g
MM
b + g
MM 0
0
0
MM 0
0
0
0
0
MN 0
1
3
31
1
3
P =
1
3
12
1
3
12
1
3
12
23
1
3
13
1
3
31
1
3
23
12
1
3
23
31
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2 44
0
0
0
0
0
0
2 55
0
(4.2-62)
pT = 11 , 22 , 33 ,
where
FG 1 + 1
H
F 1 + 1
= f fG
H
F 1 + 1
= f fG
H
f f F I
=
G
JK
3 H
f f F I
=
G
JK
3 H
f f F I
=
G
JK
3 H
12 = f c f t
13
23
11
22
33
0,
44 =
c t
11 11
c
22
t
22
c t
c t
11 11
c
33
t
33
c t
c
22
c t
t
22
c
33
c
11
t
33
t
11
c t
11 11
c t
c
22
t
22
c
22
c t
t
22
c
33
t
33
c
33
t
33
fc ft
3 223
0,
0
1
c
33
t
33
1
t
22
c
22
c t
11 11
IJ
K
IJ
K
IJ
K
(4.2-63)
(4.2-64)
(4.2-64b)
(4.2-64c)
(4.2-64d)
(4.2-64e)
(4.2-64f)
(4.2-64g)
186
2 66
OP
PP
PP
PP
PQ
Elasto-Plastic Models
55 =
fc ft
2
3 31
(4.2-64h)
66 =
fc ft
2
3 12
(4.2-64i)
cii and iit are compressive and tensile yield strengths in the axes of orthotropy and
ij i j are the shear yield strengths.
b g
Both the tensile and compressive yield stresses, fc and ft , may harden as functions
of the equivalent plastic strain. Hardening for the Hoffman material model is assumed
to be proportional in both tension and compression. The following relationships are
therefore enforced for the component directions.
ft
=
h
fc
=
h
bf g
bh g
bf g
bh g
t x
t x
c x
c x
bf g
bh g
bf g
bh g
t y
t y
bf g
bh g
bf g
=
bh g
c y
c y
t z
= ct
(4.2-65)
= cc
(4.2-66)
t z
c z
c z
where h , h c and h t are the hardening gradients. Figure (4.2-13a) shows an initial
p = a
where
(4.2-67)
f
= P + p
(4.2-68)
p = P + p
(4.2-69)
187
in (4.2-69) is the pressure dependant component and defines the plastic volumetric
change.
Using a work hardening approach, the effective plastic strain increment is defined as
ps =
T ep =
T Ps + p
(4.2-70)
, is defined as
3 T
P
2
(4.2-71)
The work hardening approach ensures that the uniaxial case is correctly recovered and
also ensures that ps is always positive at a converged state on the yield surface.
The backward Euler algorithm is used to integrate the stresses. The equation for
ps in (4.2-70) is non-linear and is solved via a Newton Raphson iterative
procedure in each iteration of the backward Euler algorithm. To ensure global
quadratic convergence, a consistently linearised tangent modulus matrix is used.
Since the modulus matrix is non-symmetric, the non-symmetric solver (LUSAS
Solver Option 64) is switched on by default whenever the Hoffman material model is
used.
The Hoffman material model can be used alongside all creep and damage laws as well
as the viscoelastic material model.
188
Elasto-Plastic Models
Initial yield
surface
Strain hardened
yield surface
(a) Strain hardening of Hoffman Criterion
189
f =
where fc and
respectively.
1 T
1
T
P + p
fc ft = 0
2
3
(4.2-72)
The material model is characterised by the same tensile yield strength in the three
component directions x, y and z and the same compressive yield strengths in the three
component directions. This isotropic nature of the model makes it a special case of
the more general Hoffman material model section 4.2.4.5, with [B1]
and
c
11c = c22 = 33
= fc
(4.2-73)
t
t
11t = 22
= 33
= ft
(4.2-74)
12 = 23 = 31 =
fc f t
3
(4.2-75)
The projection matrix P for the modified von Mises material is, therefore, defined as
LM
MM
MM0
MM 0
MN 0
P =
13
where
0
0
2
3
1
3
13
2
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
p =
0
0
1
3
13
13
2
3
(4.2-76)
p is defined as
1
fc f t j
3
OP
P
0P
P
0P
0P
P
2 PQ
0
0
(4.2-77)
jT = 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0
190
(4.2-78)
Elasto-Plastic Models
An alternative expression for the yield function can be obtained by noting that the
effective stress, , and the mean stress or hydrostatic pressure, m , are defined as
3 T
P
2
(4.2-79)
m =
1 T
j
3
(4.2-80)
Using these in (4.2-72) enables the yield function for the modified von-Mises model
to be rewritten as
f =
1 2
1
+ fc f t m f c f t = 0
3
3
(4.2-81)
Both the tensile and compressive yield stresses, fc and f t , may harden as functions
of the equivalent plastic strain. Figure (4.2-13) shows the case of different hardening
in tension and compression. In this instance, the shape of the yield surface evolves in
a non-proportional manner.
The plastic strain vector is defined as
p = a
(4.2-82)
a =
f
= P + p
(4.2-83)
p = P + p
(4.2-84)
The term involving P in (4.2-84) is the deviatoric component of the plastic strain for
which there is no change in volume following plastic straining. The term involving p
in (4.2-84) is the pressure dependant component and defines the plastic volumetric
change.
Using a work hardening approach, the effective plastic strain increment is defined as
ps =
T p =
T P + p
191
(4.2-85)
1
1 T
P 2 = 0
2
3
f =
(4.2-86)
where represents the generic yield strength. The definition of the projection matrix
P can be found in equation (4.2-62) in section 4.2.4.5, noting that properties in
tension and compression are the same. For the hardening of the yield surface the
following relationships are enforced for the component directions.
x
hx
y
hy
z
hz
= c
(4.2-87)
192
Elasto-Plastic Models
straining and the second, a time dependent process, which is known as creep. Plastic
straining requires that the equivalent stress in a body exceeds a certain value before an
inelastic deformation is produced. Creep, on the other hand, occurs as soon as the
body is stressed, is independent of a yield criterion, and takes place over a (usually
prolonged) period of time.
rupture
creep
strain
time
stress
time
& c = f& q, T, t
(4.2-88)
& c = At m + Bt + Ct n and
& c = AeCt + Be Dt
(4.2-89)
where A, B, C and D are functions of stress and temperature and 0 < m < 1
(hardening) with n > 1 (softening)
The time hardening equation is a response function giving the development of strain
for a constant stress.
It is possible to use relaxation tests to compute the parameters. In this case, provided
the response is of a similar form to the response in the relaxation test, a reasonable
solution will be produced.
194
Elasto-Plastic Models
(ii) STRAIN HARDENING LAWS
& c = f& q, T, c
(4.2-90)
& c = A q ntm
(time hardening)
(4.2-91)
c =
1
A q n t m+1
m +1
(4.2-92)
so that
L bm + 1g OP
t=M
N Aq Q
c 1/ m +1
(4.2-93)
Then substituting in equation (4.2-91) gives the equivalent strain hardening power
law as
b g
& c = A qn m +1 ec
b1/ m +1g
(strain hardening)
(4.2-94)
The material parameters defining the creep behaviour are usually very sensitive to
stress and temperature. Further, the data is often sparse so care has to be taken in
interpreting the results.
Three creep laws are included in LUSAS.
(i) POWER CREEP
c = A q n t m
(4.2-95)
where A, n and m are temperature dependent constants. This leads to time and strain
hardening forms of the creep rate as
195
& c = m A q n t m 1
Strain Hardening
& c = m A q n c
c h
(4.2-96)
m 1 1/ m
(4.2-97)
Notes
The exponential creep law includes the effects of both primary and secondary creep
and is defined by
bg
bg
= A q 1- e-Bb q g t + C q t
(4.2-98)
= cp + sc
(4.2-99)
where
bg
pc = A q 1- e-Bb q g t
(4.2-100)
bg
pc A q
(4.2-101)
bg
sc C q t
(4.2-102)
which is the secondary creep strains and which grows linearly with time. A, B and C
are functions defined as
bg
b g
Bbq g = c q
Cbq g = e exp bfq g
A q = a exp bq
d
(4.2-103)
and a-g are constants. The creep strain rate is obtained by differentiating (4.2-100)
with respect to time
196
Elasto-Plastic Models
bgbg
bg
& c = A q B q e Bb q g t + C q (4.2-104)
Time Hardening
bg
Note. If C q is set to zero then the law defines a visco-elastic creep law.
(iii) EIGHT PARAMETER LAW
The eight parameter law may include primary, secondary and tertiary creep and is
defined as
c = Aq b t c + Dt d + Et f e g/T
(4.2-105)
where A, D, E, a - g are constants and T is the temperature in Kelvin. The creep strain
rate is obtained by differentiating (4.2-105) with respect to time.
Time Hardening
t crit
b g
4 1+
&c
d
3E
dq
(4.2-107)
Some creep laws predict an infinite rate of creep at time t=0. To overcome this, the
initial evaluation of the required creep gradients is performed at a small time offset
from t=0 (the offset is the input timestep t). Given these gradients (4.2-107) then
predicts the initial timestep.
197
creep strain c
increment
& ct + t
& ct
cmax = ct + t ct = t
(4.2-108)
thus
cmax
t = c
& t + t
& ct
(4.2-109)
L . OP
t = M
N & .& Q
t
1
2
(4.2-110)
L . OP
dt = M
N & .& Q
e
1
2
(4.2-111)
Equation (4.2-109) severely restricts the timestep in regions where there is a high
degree of nonlinearity in the rate of creep straining. Equally, if the rate is
approximately linear (4.2-109) it predicts an infinite timestep. The timestep is
therefore subject to two constraints
The growth of the timestep from one timestep to the next is restricted to be a
factor of the old timestep
198
tnew tmax
Equation (4.2-109) requires that the time derivative of e is known at the end of the
increment. In practice t is calculated using data from the preceding timestep. During
the iterations, the updated timestep is monitored and if it is less than the assumed
value (subject to a prescribed tolerance) the time is cut
tassumed > t
iteration x restriction factor
The restriction factor corresponds to the parameter "dtincf", and t max corresponds
to the parameter "dtmax" in the VISCOUS CONTROL command section.
199
Area associated
with Gauss
point 3
200
Type
Description
Integration Rule
BMX3
Curved 2D Beam
5-point Newton-Cotes
BSX4
Curved 3D Beam
5*5 Newton-Cotes
BXL4
Semiloof Beam
5*5 Newton-Cotes
BXS3
5-point Newton-Cotes
TSL6,
QSL8
Semiloof Shell
5-point Newton-Cotes
201
Theoretical
stress
distribution
Yielding
zones
Stress distribution
after yielding
202
Line of action of
stress resultant
The stress resultant beam model is based on an 'exact' (within the approximating
assumptions) yield surface [C3], which has been derived for rectangular solid sections
and circular hollow sections. Other cross-sections may be treated as a combination of
these. The yield criteria has been derived using the following initial assumptions
The von Mises yield criterion is used as the basis of the model.
The stress-strain curve is linear elastic/perfectly plastic.
Plastification is an abrupt process with the whole cross-section transformed
from an elastic to fully plastic stress state.
The fully plastic torsional capacity is constant.
Transverse shear distortions are neglected.
203
3 2
p2 + r m z + m y + t 2 = 1
4
for
my
2
1 p m z (4.3-1)
3
3
p 2 + m 2z + rm y + t 2 = 1
4
for
mz
2
1 p m y (4.3-2)
3
b g
b g
6
3
4p 2 9
rp + p 2
r - p my + mz
+
5
5
5r 10
9
m ym z + t 2 = 1
20
b gd
my
for
2
1 p
3
b g
mz
and
(4.3-3)
2
1 p
3
b g
m 2y + m 2z r 2 sin 2
LM FG1 p IJ OP = 0
N2 H r KQ
(4.3-4)
where
m y = M y / M py ,
c h
r = 1- t 2
1/ 2
m z = M z / M pz ,
p = P / Po ,
t = T / To
and
d i
is the fully plastic moment for bending about the z-axis, c= s Z h
M py is the fully plastic moment for bending about the y-axis, = so Z pyy
M pz
204
p
zz
The shell resultant model used in LUSAS is based on work by Ivanov which was
reported by Robinson [R2]. The criterion has the form
LM
N
1
1
Q t + Q m + Q 2m + Q 2tm
2
4
OP
Q
1/ 2
Q t Q m Q 2tm
=1
4 Q t + 0.48Q m
(4.3-5)
where
Qt =
M
MN
N
, Q m = 2 , Q tm =
2
No
Mo
MoNo
(4.3-6)
and
N = N 2x + N 2y N x N y + 3N 2xy
(4.3-7)
M = M 2x + M 2y M x M y + 3M 2xy
(4.3-8)
1
1
MN = M x N x + M y N y M x N y M y N x + 3 M xy N xy
2
2
(4.3-9)
where N o is the uniaxial yield force/unit width and M o is the uniaxial yield
moment/unit width.
The constant is used to overcome the numerical problems caused by the
discontinuity in the slope of the yield criterion as
205
1 2
Q m + Q 2tm tend to zero
4
is, in general, unity but is set to zero at the discontinuity.
Note. M o and N o is evaluated automatically by LUSAS from the uniaxial yield
stress.
The resultant model is implemented using a very similar procedure to that of the
continuum model with two exceptions:
1. The contact stress c cannot be computed directly and is found using an iterative
process.
2. The reduction to the yield surface at the end of the sub-incremental return
algorithm is also an iterative process.
206
Interface Models
= B a
(4.4-1)
207
e2
e1
e3
e2
e1
208
Interface Models
6
7
OUT
IN
4
18
19
17
16
20
14
13
15
OUT
IN
11
12
IN
10
5
7
4
8
1
Fig.4.4-2 ELEMENT TOPOLOGY DEFINING THE IN-PLANE AND OUT-OFPLANE DIRECTIONS FOR THE INTERFACE MODEL
209
'
(4.4-2)
and ' are the local stress and strain vectors and D' is the matrix of
elastic properties. The modulus matrix is orthotropic and is defined by the following
properties
Ein , Eout , G ,
(2D)
(3D)
(4.4-3)
where E, G and are the Young's modulus, Poisson's ratio and shear modulus of the
material, and subscripts 'in' and 'out' denote properties in and out of plane respectively
(fig.4.4-3).
210
Interface Models
Mohr-Coulomb
criterion
Limited
tension
criterion
yz
xz
Mohr-Coulomb
criterion
Limited
tension
criterion
z
211
bg
F =0
where
(4.4-4)
bg
bg bg
F = F1 , F2
(4.4-5)
and F1
where
n
and
(4.4-6)
in 3-D model)
bg
F b g = bc
where
c
f
t
tan
(4.4-7)
The maximum shear stress is known directly for the 2-D model and is evaluated for
the 3-D model using
d i d i
2
= xy + yz
2 1/ 2
(4.4-8)
A modified form of the steepest descent algorithm is used to integrate the stresses.
This algorithm utilises sub-incrementation with the flow vectors being evaluated at
the projected stress point of each sub-increment. The algorithm is based on a method
proposed by Lade and Nelson [L1], which also incorporates the two vector return
212
Damage
method [C5] to accomplish stress return near yield surface discontinuities. Associated
flow rules are used for both yield criteria.
4.5 Damage
Continuum damage analysis is based on the thermodynamics of an irreversible
process. To model an isotropic damage process it suffices to consider a scalar damage
variable d.
The damage models available within LUSAS fall under a type of stress-based elasticdamage model, in which the damage is determined by a norm of elastic
complementary energy. They are
Simo's damage model
Oliver's damage model
Simo's model allows damage to occur equally in tension and compression but the
difference between tensile and compressive damage strength may be accounted for in
Oliver's model.
= e + i
(4.5-1)
e = d
(4.5-2)
d =
1
1 d
(4.5-3)
For the material with linear elastic behaviour the elastic complementary energy can be
written as
b g=
1 T 1
De
2
(4.5-4)
e = d D 1
(4.5-5)
cgb , r gh = b g brg 0
t
(4.5-6)
b g =
20
e b gj
t
(4.5-7)
For Simo's damage model = 1, whilst for Oliver's damage model it is given as
FG
H
= +
1
n
IJ
K
(4.5-8)
where
3
i =1
3
(4.5-9)
i =1
cd
n = t
d
(4.5-10)
where d and d are the initial damage strengths in tension and compression.
(i = 1,2,3) are principal undamaged stresses and
t
i =
RS
T0
if i 0
otherwise
(4.5-11)
214
Damage
t
brg in the damage function (4.5-6) is the current damage strength measured with an
(4.5-12)
d& = t &
e c hj
t G t , d
(4.5-13)
b g
b g
& 0 , g , r 0 , & g , r = 0
(4.5-14)
&
In addition, to simplify the calculations in damage analysis, the damage multiplier
is defined so that
& = &r
(4.5-15)
From the consistency of the damage condition in (4.5-6) and the definition in (4.2-69)
it is given that
(4.5-16)
0
According to (4.5-16), the definition (4.5-7) and the form of in (4.5-4), we have
& =
t
2 T 1
D e &
b G g
(4.5-17)
d = G
(4.5-18)
R|G r
S| c h b g
T
t
U| = 0
V
b g |W
(4.5-19)
r =0 r
e b gj
t
= 1
br gb1 Ag
br g
t
e br g br gj
A exp B
(4.5-20)
e b gj
t
= 1
br g expLMAFG1 br g IJ OP
br g MN H br gK PQ
t
(4.5-21)
br g
216
Viscoelastic Models
Elastic + Damage
Plastic
F()
Creep
F(,t)
Viscoelastic (Maxwell)
Viscoelastic
Elastic-Plastic and
Damage
4.6.1 Notation
t
t
G(t)
Gv
Current time
Current time step increment
Stress relaxation function
Viscoelastic shear modulus
Viscoelastic decay constant
Deviatoric viscoelastic stress tensor
Cv
Dv
tr[a]
bg
v t =
b g dds
2G t s
(4.6-1)
ds
bg
G t = G v e t
(4.6-2)
v t + t =
t + t
2 G t + t s
g dds
v t + t =
2G t + t s
g dds
(4.6-3)
ds
ds +
t+ t
2G t + t s
g dds
ds
(4.6-4)
Substituting equation (4.2-67) into (4.2-83) and introducing the assumption that the
strain rate is constant over a time increment t gives;
v t + t =
(4.6-5)
2Gv e b t + t s g
d
ds + 2Gv
ds
t
t + t
e b t + t s g ds
Recalling equations (4.2-82) and (4.2-83) enable the first term on the right hand side
of (4.2-84) to be rewritten as;
2Gv e b t + t s g
t
d
d
ds = e t 2Gv e b t s g
ds
0
ds
ds
= e t v t
bg
(4.6-6)
In addition, the integral in the second term emerges after some simple algebra as;
218
Viscoelastic Models
t + t
e b
t + t s
t
g ds = 1 e
(4.6-7)
Equations (4.2-53) and (4.2-64) can now be combined with equation (4.2-67) to yield
an expression for the deviatoric viscoelastic stresses at the updated position t+t as;
bg
v t + t = v t e t + 2Gv
c1 e h
t
(4.6-8)
This recursive relationship for the calculation of the deviatoric viscoelastic stresses
can be utilised in both implicit and explicit integration schemes. At each iteration, the
viscoelastic stresses are assembled into the elemental stress tensor, ( t + t ) , after
the plasticity, creep and damage have all been processed. In this way stress states
outside the yield surface are permissible. However, under constant load these
viscoelastic stresses will relax to give a state of stress equivalent to that of the
underlying elastic-plastic material.
It is assumed that the viscoelastic stresses play no part in causing the material to yield,
or in the calculation of damage and creep. The viscoelastic stresses are therefore
stored separately and deducted from the total stress tensor at each iteration prior to
any plasticity, creep or damage computations. Note that this applies to both implicit
and explicit integration of the creep equations.
bg
v t + t = v t + v
(4.6-9)
h bg
v = e t 1 v t + 2Gv
c1 e h
t
219
(4.6-10)
v = C v ;
v
ij
= Cv
(4.6-11)
ijkl
kl
(4.6-12)
1
= tr
3
(4.6-13)
1
ij = ij kk
3
(4.6-14)
Dv = Gv
FG 1 e
H t
LM
M
IJ MM
KM
MM
MN
4
3
- 23
4
3
- 23
- 23
4
3
1 0
1
sym
OP
PP
P
0P
0P
P
1PQ
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
LM
MM
=M
MM
MN
xx
yy
zz
xy
yz
zx
OP
PP
PP
PP
Q
(4.6-15)
To be consistent with the assembly of the elemental stress tensor, the viscoelastic
components of the constitutive matrix are assembled into the elemental D matrix
after the plasticity, creep and damage have all been processed.
220
Viscoelastic Models
strain elements. Elements that have reduced states of stress; such as bars, 2D plane
stress continuum elements, shells, membranes and beams are not valid for use with
the viscoelastic model. This is due to the fact that in LUSAS the x-sectional area or
thickness of these elements is not updated during an analysis. As a consequence of
this there is no procedure available for obtaining the three components of strain at any
gauss point. These are required in equation (4.2-45) when determining the trace of the
incremental strain tensor. The relevant incremental deviatoric strain components
cannot therefore be calculated for use in equation (4.6-8).
Recalling equation (4.2-62), the viscoelastic material model assumes that the
viscoelastic effects are restricted to the deviatoric component of the material response.
Consequently, in analyses where viscoelastic properties are coupled with an isotropic
linear elastic material, the bulk modulus, K, will remain constant. In the event that the
loads remain constant during such an analysis, the linear properties E and defined as
data input, relate to the long term elastic material properties at time , denoted by E
and . These properties can be used to obtain the long term shear modulus of the
material G. The instantaneous or short term shear modulus G0 is obtained simply as
the sum of G and Gv, and may be combined with K to obtain the short term elastic
properties E0 and 0. Under constant loading, the shear modulus of the material at
time t may therefore be expressed using (4.2-45) as;
G t = G + G v e t
(4.6-16)
Note that this is equivalent to the linear viscoelastic models currently implemented in
LS-DYNA3D [D1], NIKE2D [N1] and ABAQUS [A5]. Finally, when the
viscoelastic properties are coupled with a nonlinear material, constant loading will
also result in the relaxation of the viscoelastic effects and the stress and strain states
will return to that of the underlying material properties.
Due to the nonlinear constitutive behaviour inherent with the viscoelastic model, even
when coupled with a linear elastic material, NONLINEAR CONTROL (Option 80)
must always be used when viscoelastic properties are assigned. In addition, due to the
rate dependence of the model, a time increment is always required. Consequently, for
implicit analyses either VISCOUS CONTROL (Option 213) or DYNAMIC
CONTROL (Option 43) must also be used. If these are not specified, the viscoelastic
properties will be ignored.
221
A function from which local strains can be computed such that the local and
global constitutive relationships are both satisfied. This is termed the totallocal function;
The model couples directional damage with plasticity and employs contact mechanics
to simulate crack opening and closing and shear contact effects. The model uses
damage planes; stresses on these damage planes are governed by a local constitutive
relationship and the static constraint is also satisfied such that the local stresses are the
transformed components of the local stress tensor. A key aspect of the model is the
derivation of a so-called Total-local condition that ensures that both the local and
total constitutive relationships are satisfied.
Planes of degradation (POD) that can undergo damage and separation but which can
regain contact according to a contact state function are employed here. The model is
thermodynamically consistent, i.e. non-negative energy is produced on any loading
cycle, and this is proven analytically for simple 2-D cases whereas numerical proof is
sought for more complicated problems as described in [J5, J6, J7].
222
4.7.1 Theory
4.7.1.1 Global local stresses and strains
The global stress-strain relationship is given by
F
= D G( ) N
H
np
j =1
T
j
(I M x )e j
j
223
I
JK
(4.7-1)
is a local damage-
The plane of degradation POD, along with its defining local and global coordinate
systems, is shown in Figure 4.8-2.
y
s
t
x
z
Figure 4.7-2: POD. Local and Global co-ordinate systems
Local stresses ( s ) are related to global stresses ( ) by the following transformation;
si = N i
(4.7-2)
s = sr ,ss ,st
LMr
N = Ms
MN t
2
1
2
1
2
1
= xx , yy , zz , xy , yz , xz
OP
PP
2t t Q
r22
s22
r32
s23
2 r1r2
2s1s2
2r2 r3
2s2 s3
2r1r3
2s1s3
2
2
2
3
2t 1t 2
2t 2 t 3
1 3
(4.7-3a-c)
r1 , r2 , r3 are the x, y and z components of the unit vector r d , normal to the POD
surface, similarly for sd and t d , the in-plane vectors forming an orthogonal set. sd is
generated in the same [H14] generated shear directions for micro-planes, in that the
directions are chosen orthogonal to r d and to each of the reference axes in turn.
The local stresses are related to the normal and principal shearing stresses on the POD
as follows,
224
n = sr
and
= ss + st
(4.7-4a-b)
Effective local strain and total global strain vectors are as follows
e = er
es
et
and = xx
yy
zz
xy
yz
xz
(4.7-5a-b)
The global stress- elastic strain relationships are given by
= De e
(4.7-7)
e = Ce
(4.7-8)
s = D L ee
and
ee = C L s
(4.7-9a-b)
where
LME
=M0
MN 0
0
E
0
DL
0
0
E
OP
PP
Q
and C L
LM 1 E
=M 0
MM
MN 0
0
1
E
0
OP
0 P
P
1 P
E PQ
0
The relationship between the local effective strains e and the local stresses is given
by
si = D L M x e i = D ls e i
i
(4.7-10)
e fi = M x1 I C L si = I M x e i = C lsf si
i
225
(4.7-11)
eful
er
Open
g
Interlock
Interlock
es
g
Closed
g is equal to the local strain vector since the contact point coincides with the origin of
the local strain space. The interlock and closed functions used to identify which state
is active are
bg
int e = mg e r e s2 + e 2t
(4.7-12)
226
bg
If beg 0, state = closed.
If beg > 0, and beg < 0 and e < e
If beg 0 or e e , state = open.
cl e = e r + mg e 2s + e 2t
(4.7-13)
cl
cl
int
int
ful
, state = interlock.
ful
The constant mg can be obtained from experimental data from tests in which shear is
applied to an open crack, for example from the tests conducted by [W6]. The default
value of mg is taken as 0.425 but it is considered that a reasonable range for mg for
normal strength concrete is 0.3 to 0.6. It was found that a low value of 0.3 could lead
to second cracks forming at shallow angles to the first, due to the development of
relatively large shear forces.
It is assumed that there is a crack opening strain beyond which no further contact can
take place in shear and this is denoted eful.. In this implementation of the model, eful is
made a multiple of 0, i.e. eful=mful 0. Trials suggest that when concrete contains
relatively large coarse aggregate i.e. 20 to 30mm, a value of mful in the range 10-20 is
appropriate, whereas for concrete with relatively small coarse aggregate, i.e. 5 to
8mm, a lower value is appropriate, in the range 3 to 5. This variation is necessary
because the relative displacement at the end of a tension-softening curve (related via
the characteristic dimension to 0) is not in direct proportion to the coarse aggregate
size, whereas the clearance displacement is roughly in proportion to the coarse
aggregate size. Thus eful is not in a fixed ratio to 0.
227
fs = f ti . func() = (1 ()) E
(4.7-14)
with
= 1
ti c1
e (a be c1m ce c1mp )
(4.7-15)
fs = f ti e c1 (a be c1m ce c1mp )
in which =
(4.7-16)
ti
0 ti
c1 and p are both assumed to be fixed at 5. The constants a, b, c and m are determined
from the following four conditions;
fs = f ti at = 0
(4.7-17)
f s
= E at = 0
(4.7-18)
fs = f t at = k
(4.7-19)
228
f s
= 0 at = k
(4.7-20)
e0
5G f
w c ft
(4.7-21)
A POD is formed when the principal stress reaches the fracture stress (ft); the POD is
formed normal to the major principal axis. Thereafter, it is assumed that damage on
the plane can occur with both shear and normal strains. The damage surface, shown in
Figure 4.7-3, is similar to that used by [K4].
es 2 + e t 2
Damage surface
1
229
er
LM F I OP 1
MN GH JK PQ + 2r dr
e
e, = r 1 +
2
r
b g
2 e 2r + 4 r2 e 2s + e 2t
(4.7-22)
The material constants r and are the strain equivalents of the relative shear stress
intercept r = c / f t and the asymptotic friction factor , noting that c is the shear
stress intercept. These, the stress ratios, are set to 0.8 and 0.5 respectively.
N i
I
. This is
calculated using the chain differentiation rule, such that if a new plane is associated
with the major principal value 1 of I , and the normal and shear directions are given
by the unit vectors
r d , sd and t d , then
230
is given by
N i
I
FG N
H r
IJ
K
rd N i sd N i t d 1
+
+
1 sd 1 t d 1 I
(4.7-23)
When the alternative criterion, of the damage function being greater than zero on the
nearest plane to the existing and the major principal stress planes, is used the above
no longer applies. A scheme to deal with this case for the formation of a second
damage plane with one existing plane having the normal r e is briefly explained here.
The criterion is applied that a new plane cannot form within an angle of p from an
existing plane. If the major principal direction of the stress state under consideration
( r ) is within p of
d i
on a plane which has a normal which lies in the same plane as r e and r but is at an
ro =
re r
re
re r
(4.7-24)
r n = cos( p ) r e + sin( p ) r o
In this case (4.14-23) still applies but
constructed from the new direction r n .
(4.7-25)
When two or three planes form in one increment, the above problem does not arise
because the directions are orthogonal to each other since they are all based on
principal directions.
Unloading-reloading (u-r) behaviour that is near elastic until well into the
post-peak range, except under high confining pressures.
231
FG
H
IJ
K
F( , Z( )) = J 2 A r () + +
I Z fc Z (1 )
3 1
(4.7-26)
where
A r () = c
F 2 cos()2 + b2 I
GG
J
2 +cJ
+
cos(
)
b
2
cos(
)
H
K
and I1 = 1st stress invariant, J2 = 2nd deviatoric stress invariant, is the Lode angle
(with range 0 to 60o) and is a friction hardening factor, which is a function of the
work hardening parameter . varies from a possible value of 0, at which the yield
surface degenerates to a line on the hydrostatic axis, up to 1 at the peak surface
position. The initial position of the yield surface is governed by the initial value of
=0 . For most situations in which the degree of triaxial confinement is relatively
low, a value of between 0.5 and 0.6 is considered appropriate for 0 however, for
higher confinements a lower value of 0.25 is better.
232
br 1
2b r 1
, b = 2 1, c =
3(1- )
5
, c = 3 +
2 2, = 1 , =
2
2 -1
2
3
(4.7-27)
A comparison with the surface of [L5] in the pi-plane is shown in Figure 4.8-1.
Comparisons with the curves and the meridians form the yield surface of the yield
function used by [K3] are made in [J6, J7].
90
120
60
150
Lubliner
30
180
Craft
210
330
240
270
300
c b gh =
G ,Z
b g FGH
J2 Ar + +
IJ I Z f Z b1 g
3K
(4.7-28)
The flow rule is derived from the plastic potential in the standard way as follows
233
& p =
G &
(4.7-29)
& 0.
is the plastic multiplier, which obeys the condition
The restriction on may be expressed as
G
0
(4.7-30)
(4.7-31)
A single friction hardening/softening function for has been adopted which gives a
smooth transition from pre to post peak behaviour, as follows
Z = Z0 +
b1 Z g e e1 e j
a
0
c c1
c c2
(4.7-32)
To ensure that the peak occurs at = 1, the constants of (4.7.32) must satisfy the
following relationships c c1 =
c c2 e c c2
c c2
1 e
used are cc2= 5, cc1 = 0.0339182745 and ac = 0.9601372615.
The following expression for p was derived by integrating the equation in [S15] over
a uniaxial stress strain curve in compression and then removing the elastic
component, using data typical for structural concrete
FG
H
p = f c 0.72 c
fc
2E
IJ
K
(4.7-33)
in which c is the uniaxial compressive strain at the peak uniaxial compressive stress
(fc).
234
where =
(4.7-34)
I1
+ 0.55 and X I = 0.0022
0.9f c
The enhancement factor will never be required for stress states for which I1 is
positive i.e. tensile.
computations
For the finite element implementation of the model, a consistent algorithm was
developed for the tangent matrix and stress recovery computations following the
principles established for computational plasticity by [S14], but extending the
approach to the present plastic-damage-contact model. The approach adopted in the
stress recovery algorithm employed is first to update the effective local strains and
then account for any plastic flow, with the latter computation employing the updated
secant elastic-damage-contact constitutive matrix. The plasticity equations are then
satisfied using a multi-surface plasticity adaptation of the Tangent Cutting algorithm
of [O2]. Full details of this procedure are provided in [J5, J6, J7].
( t ) = G ( t ) d
(4.8-7)
where d is an applied strain increment and G(t) is the stress relaxation function as
shown in Figure 4.8-1. For an applied strain d the stresses relax with time according
to the stress relaxation function.
235
s=
t
aT ( T )
(4.8-8)
temperature is higher than Tref the shift function is smaller than 1 and conversely if
the temperature is lower than Tref the shift function is greater than 1. A sketch of a
simple shift function is shown in Figure 4.8-2.
236
( s ) = G ( s ) d
(4.8-9)
The relaxation function can be written in terms of the time dependent and time
independent parts as
bg
G (t ) = G + G (t )
(4.8-10)
Two material states are assumed as indicated in Figure 4.8-1. In the glassy state it is
assumed that the shift function aT tends to infinity and that no relaxation occurs.
Whilst for the rubbery state it is assumed that aT tends to zero and that the relaxation
is completed instantaneously. This means that the shift function depends on the
degree of cure as well as temperature and two equations are used to represent the
resin
Rubbery: aT => 0
Glassy:
aT =>
G (t ) => G ( )
G (t ) => G ( ) + G (0)
237
(4.8-11)
(4.8-12)
Glassy:
(4.8-13)
= D g
(4.8-14)
Where the appropriate values of G(t) are inserted into micromechanic equations
which model the resin/fibre interaction of the composite.
In an incremental elastic analysis procedure the stresses are calculated according to
the formulae
Rubbery:
Glassy:
t + dt = t + D r
(4.8-15)
t + dt = t + D g
(4.8-16)
Finally, a record of the relaxable stresses which accumulate whilst the resin is in its
glassy state are computed
t +dt
= + D g Dr
t
(4.8-17)
On passing from the glassy state to the rubbery state, these relaxable stresses are
instantaneously relaxed by subtracting them from the current stresses
t + dt = t + D g t
t + dt = 0
(4.8-18)
This model retains a constant modulus from the gel point to the vitrification point
when it switches from its rubbery to glassy properties. The accuracy of this approach
depends on the speed at which the stresses relax and that the time independent part of
the stress relaxation function remains constant.
Using a thermally coupled method (in which the temperature and degree of cure are
separately evaluated) a phase change can occur within a time step. The use of a single
set of material properties over the time step to define the material in this instance is
approximate and could, potentially, produce quite different answers for a small
parameter change.
238
m is calculated from
m = T S
(4.8-19)
Where T and S are the incremental thermal and shrinkage strains respectively.
These strains can be decomposed into two parts corresponding to the change in phase
T + S = r r T + r LS + (1 r ) g T + g LS
(4.8-20)
Where it has been assumed that the change in incremental temperature T as well as
the linear shrinkage LS occurs uniformly across the timestep. The symbols r,g and
r,g represent the coefficients of thermal expansion and shrinkage of the resin in the
rubbery and glassy states. Similarly, the total strain increment , is split into two
components corresponding to the strain before and after the transition point
= + (1 )
(4.8-21)
The factor can be, but is not necessarily, equal to r. The incremental change of
stress is now written
= (1 ) DG + Dr rDr r T + r LS
(1 r ) Dg g T + g LS
h
(4.8-22)
The first term on the right of the equals sign is the effective material modulus matrix
whilst the second term transfers to the RHS as a load. If we assume that the material
is unrestrained then the mechanical strain is zero. Working in terms of strains we can
write
239
= Tr + rS
b1 g =
T
g
+ Sg
(4.8-23)
Tr + rS
Tg + Sg + Tr + rS
(4.8-24)
As can be seen the value of depends on the values of the thermal and shrinkage
strains which in turn depend on the particular values of ii and ii corresponding to the
strain component. Equation (2.10-11) relates the stress increment to the strain
increment and implies a single value of and r. This is accurate for the load/strains
but it is not for the resulting stresses. A precise representation requires that each strain
component has its own factoring value i which a priori cannot be evaluated. In the
above calculation the mechanical strains have been ignored as they cannot be known
before solving. For simplicity, it has been assumed that =r in the implementation.
The degree of cure (which dictates when rubbery and glassy properties are used) and
the exothermic heat of reaction are computed in a separate thermal (field) analysis
and are read into the structural analysis via a data transfer file in a coupled analysis.
The input parameters to the curing kinetics equation that controls the evolution of
degree of cure and heat of reaction are read from a database of properties for selected
resins. This database also contains the mechanical properties of resins and fibres that
are available to be used. To access this database the High Precision Moulding product
is required.
4.9 Shrinkage
The cure of materials such as concrete and thermoset resins is accompanied by an
isotropic shrinkage. It is a consequence of a chemical reaction and results in a
reduction in volume which takes place over a period of time. Shrinkage in a
geometrically restrained element which prevents free movement, leads to the
development of stress.
The shrinkage of concrete has been addressed in the design code CEB-FIP 90, the
equations of which are given in section 4.10.4. The shrinkage of a thermoset resin is
normally related to the degree of cure assuming a linear or bilinear relation. The
degree of cure (DOC) is calculated in a transient thermal analysis in which the rate of
heat generation from the reaction and heat flows are taken into account. The resulting
DOCs are then read into a structural analysis in which the effect of the shrinkage is
evaluated.
240
bg
(4.9.1)
where F is the linear shrinkage function and may be time or degree of cure
depending on the analysis type. For non-composite beams and shells shrinkage only
produces inplane stresses. It does not induce bending or shear stresses as it is constant
through the thickness.
4.10.1 Definitions
The CEB-FIP Model Code 90 assumes that the total strain in a concrete member,
which is uniaxially loaded at time t0 with a constant stress
components:
= t0 i + t c + t s + t T
(4.10-1)
=t +t n
(4.10-2)
where
t0
t0
241
= t0 i + t c
n =t s +t T
In LUSAS Solver the thermal strains are dealt with in the usual manner and this
section will concentrate on the computation of creep and shrinkage strains. For
simplicity the theory will be written for the uniaxial case as the procedure is identical
for each stress (resultant) component [K4].
=
c
t0
t ,t0
Eci
(4.10-3)
where
t ,t 0
Eci
= t0
LM 1 + OP=
NE E Q
t ,t0
t0
t0
t ,t0J
(4.10-4)
ci
where
t ,t 0
t0
242
t0
t0
E 1 ,
E is computed in
E = t cc 0.5 Eci
where
cc
cc
(4.10-5)
R| L F 28 I
= exp Ss M1 G
|T MN H t / t JK
1
1/ 2
OPU|
PQV|W
(4.10-6)
with
s
t1
( t0 , t )
= J +
t0
t ,t 0
z
t
t ,
t0
d + t n
(4.10-7)
= 0 c ( t t0 )
(4.10-8)
where
creep
is
the
notional
Error! Reference source not found.
coefficient,
243
equation
0 = RH ( f cm ) ( t0 )
(4.10-9)
with
RH = 1 +
1 RH / RH0
0.46( h / h0 )1/ 3
(4.10-10)
( f cm ) =
53
.
( f cm / f cmo )0.5
(4.10-11)
( t0 ) =
1
. + ( t0 / t1 )0.2
01
(4.10-12)
where
is the notional size of the member (mm) = 2Ac/u (where Ac=area of cross
section, u= length of the perimeter of the cross section which is in contact
with the atmosphere)
fcm
fcmo
=10MPa
RH
RHo
=100%
ho
=100mm
L (t t ) / t OP
(t t ) = M
N + (t t ) / t Q
c
0.3
244
(4.10-13)
R| F RH I
.
= 150S1 + G12
RH JK
H
T|
18
U| h
V| h + 250 1500
W
(4.10-14)
J = ai ( ) 1 e( yi ( ) yi ( t ))
(4.10-15)
i =1
To obtain a more familiar form of equation (4.10-15) the following substitution can
be made to give a specific value to the general function yi ( t )
yi ( t ) = t / i
(4.10-16)
which results in
t ,
J = ai ( ) 1 e ( t )/ i
(4.10-17)
i =1
where i are known as retardation times which govern the shape of the creep curve
and ai ( ) are creep compliance coefficients which depend upon the age of loading
. The selection of appropriate coefficients and retardation times is described in
Section 4.10.3.2.
245
G2
G1
m
Kelvin unit m
2
Kelvin unit 2
1
Kelvin unit 1
Figure 4.10-1: A series of Kelvin units used in the definition of creep strain. Each
Kelvin unit is made up of a spring in parallel with a linear viscous damper. Gi
represents the spring stiffness of the i'th Kelvin unit while i is the viscosity.
The total creep strain at time t idealised with m Kelvin units can then be defined as
t
c =
where
t
t
i
i=1
(4.10-18)
is the strain of the ith Kelvin unit which, using (4.10-15), is given by:
i =
a ( ) 1 e(yi ( ) yi ( t ))
0 i
( ) yi ( )
d
yi ( )
(4.10-19)
The following derivation takes the form described in [K4]. Equation (4.10-19) can be
rearranged to give:
t
i =
a i ( )
t
where
( ) yi ( )
d t g i
yi ( )
gi =
a i ( )e(yi ( ) yi ( t ))
(4.10-20)
( ) yi ( )
d (4.1-21)
yi ( )
In order to derive the creep strain increment the relationship between creep strain at
time t + t with that at time t is needed.
bg
246
gi =
t + t
a i ( )e( yi ( ) yi ( t + t ))
( ) yi ( )
d
yi ( )
(4.10-22)
Splitting the integration in (4.10-22) to isolate the current time step gives
t+ t
z
z
( ) yi ( )
d
0
yi ( )
t + t
( ) yi ( )
+
a i ( )e( yi ( ) yi ( t + t ))
d
t
yi ( )
gi =
a i ( )e( yi ( ) yi ( t + t ))
(4.10-23)
Substituting equation (4.10-16) for the function yi to relate it more directly to the
basic Kelvin unit, equation (4.10-23) becomes:
t+ t
z
z
-(t+ t)/ i i t
/ ( )
g i = ed
a ( )ec i h
d
0 i
/ ( )
-(t+ t)/ i h t + t
a i ( )ec i h
d
+ ec
t
(4.10-24)
t
t/ i i t
( t + t)/ i i
g i = ed
g i + ed
t + t
a i ( )ec
/ i
h ( ) d
(4.10-25)
If the stress varies linearly over a time step and the material properties remain
constant, then
t+ t
t / i h t
( t + t )/ i h
g i = ec
g i + ec
ai (t )
t
t + t
ed
/ i
i d
(4.10-26)
LM
N
t / i i t
t / i i
g i = ed
g i + a i ( t )i
1 ed
t
247
OP
Q
t + t
i =
t+ t
a i ( )
( )
d
t+ t
gi
(4.10-28)
Splitting the integration in (4.10-28) as before to isolate the current time step gives
t + t
i =
a i ( )
( )
d +
t+ t
a i ( )
( )
d
t+ t
gi
(4.10-29)
Using the assumptions of a linear variation of stress over a time step and constant
material properties, after some manipulation leads to
t + t
i = t i + t g i + t a i
t+ t
gi
(4.10-30)
The creep strain increment for the ith Kelvin unit is then obtained from
i =
t+ t
i t i
t+ t
Substituting for
(4.10-31)
i = t a i t a ii 1 e t / i
+ t g i 1 e t / i
t
(4.10-32)
c =
i=1
or
m
LM
N
c = t a i
i =1
(4.10-33)
ai
i 1 e( t / i )
t
OP + g 1 e
Q
m
i=1
( t / i )
(4.10-34)
248
t ,
concrete are the values of total creep strain under unit stress (= J ) for a number of
loading ages and observation times t. The following procedure [K4] is then
followed in order to make a best fit approximation of the creep data with the
degenerate kernel, equation Error! Reference source not found..
1. The number of retardation times is taken as m=4 and these were set to m = 1, 10,
100 and 1000 days. It was found that these retardation times provided the best
curve fit to a wide range of observation times.
2. 32 loading ages,
3. 40 observation times, n, are also taken ranging between 7 days and 25 years after
initial load 0 . The observation times t j , j = 1,2,..., n are generated at log10
equivalent intervals as are the loading ages.
t ,
LM1 e
MM1 e
MM1 e
N
( t1 0 )/ 1
( t2 0 )/ 1
( t n 0 )/ 1
1 e( t1 0 )/ 2 K 1 e ( t1 0 )/ m
1 e ( t2 0 )/ 2 K 1 e( t2 0 )/ m
M
M
( tn 0 )/ 2
( t n 0 )/ m
K 1 e
1 e
OPR|
PP|S
PP||
QT
U|
|V
||
W
a1
0
a2
=
M
0
am
R|
|S
||
T
U|
|V
M |
J |W
t1 , 0
t2 , 0
J
J
tn , 0
(4.10-35)
or in symbolic form:
An m a m1 = bn1, n > m
(4.10-36)
249
(4.10-37)
a m1 = AT A
1
m m
AT b
(4.10-38)
m1
The acceptability of the curve fit can be can be assessed by the following:
The least squares error.
m
ai
i =1
cs = cso s ( t ts )
(4.10-39)
where
cso
s
(4.10-40)
cso = s ( f cm ) RH
(4.10-42)
with
250
(4.10-43)
sc
sc = 5
sc = 4
for slowly
(4.10-44)
where
sRH
F RH I
= 1 G
H RH JK
(4.10-45)
L
OP
(t t ) / t
(t t ) = M
N 350( h / h ) + (t t ) / t Q
s
0.5
(4.10-46)
The creep strain computation for this material model takes the following form:
1.
During the very first pass through a time step, the incremental stresses are
estimated to be zero, so that
t + t
= t
(4.10-47)
c
Ri =
BT Dt + t c dV
(4.10-48)
The matrix
251
3.
(4.10-49)
4.
pi = K
and
, are computed.
In the post solution, the incremental creep and shrinkage strains are treated
in the same manner as thermal strains when an incremental stress change,
, is computed which in turn is updated to account for the change in
creep strain during the iteration. The incremental non-mechanical strain,
t +t
n , is computed via:
t + t
n =
c +
s +
t + t
t + t
t + t
5.
t +t
(4.10-50)
t +t
is the
n = tn +
t + t
6.
t + t
= t + D n = t + D m
where
(4.10-51)
(4.10-52)
Linear external
spring
Eyring
dashpot
damage model
Maxwell element
Figure 4.11-1: Two Maxwell unit rheological model for the GPM model.
Unlike linear Newtonian dashpots, the Eyring dashpot behaves nonlinearly and is able
to account for temperature and strain rate effects. The inclusion of the Eyring dashpot
enables the constitutive model to include the irrecoverable, or permanent,
deformation and account for strain rate and temperature effects. The Visco-Scram
model [H15] is used to provide a basis for the cracking of the material.
Component
Purpose
Properties
Visco-elastic effects
Eyring dashpot
Visco-plastic effects
Att, tt
At c, t c
Damage effects
a, c, K0, m, Vmax, s
Linear spring
Elastic effects
Gspr t
Gsprc
253
m =
(4.11-1)
1
ii = 3K m
3
where
m = mean stress
m = mean strain
ij = Kronecker delta
K = bulk modulus
The individual components of the model are described separately and then assembled
to form the GPM model. Understanding how each component in the model interacts
with each other is the key to deriving the governing differential equation for the
model and hence the finite element implementation. In the case considered here, the
strain rate of the model is the sum of the strain rates from the Maxwell unit, the
Eyring dashpot, the external linear spring and the Visco-Scram damage element as
can be seen from Figure 4.11-1. Thus, the total deviatoric strain rate is the sum of the
strain rate from the Eyring dashpot, the damage model, the spring, and the Maxwell
units:
254
(4.11-2)
& dam
e& ijve = e& ij e& eyr
e& spr
ij
ij
ij e
where
e& ijve = Maxwell unit deviatoric strain rate,
e& eyr
ij = Eyring dashpot deviatoric strain rate,
e& dam
= Damage deviatoric strain rate,
ij
e& spr
ij = External spring deviatoric strain rate
The equations for each of these components are derived and explained below.
4.11.1.1 Maxwell element
The linear Maxwell element in the model implemented here consists of a linear spring
in series with a Newtonian dashpot as shown in Figure 4.11-2. The Maxwell element
provides a means to simulate viscoelastic effects in the model.
(4.11-3)
sij = 2 e& ij
(4.11-4)
The total viscoelastic strain rate is the sum of the spring strain rate and the viscous
damper strain rate. From (4.11-3), the spring strain rate is given as
e& ij =
s& ij
(4.11-5)
2G
255
sijn
(4.11-6)
where e& ijve is the deviatoric viscoelastic strain rate and is the sum of the strain rate in
the Maxwell spring and the viscous damper. The retardation is defined as,
n =
(4.11-7)
Gn
s& ij =
n =1
sijn
n
(4.11-8)
where, as in the one-dimensional case, the deviatoric stresses for each Maxwell
element are additive and can be evaluated from (4.11-3) and (4.11-4).
4.11.1.2 Eyring dashpot
The Eyring dashpot model of viscous flow obeys an Arrhenius type relation which in
1-D is of the form
FG kT IJ e
H hK
F IJ
= A sinhG
H RT K
& eyr = 2 X
F
RT
sinh
FG IJ
H RT K
(4.11-9)
where A is associated with the activation energy and is the activation volume [S16].
The other quantities in (4.11-9) are as follows:
X
flow parameter
Boltzmann constant
temperature (K)
Plancks constant
Energy barrier
256
where t =
3A sij
sinh t e
2 e
and
RT
(4.11-10)
F3 I
=G s s J
H2 K
1
2
(4.11-11)
ij ij
The ViscoScram model by Hackett and Bennett [H15] is used to incorporate damage
behaviour into the Generic Polymer Material model. The damage component in
ViscoScram is a simplification of SCRAM, a physically based micromechanical
model developed for the arbitrarily large deformation and cracking of brittle
materials. The SCRAM model is based on a statistical crack mechanics approach and
seeks to account for the effect of defects such as cracks whose individual behaviour is
understood at the meso level, in the macroscopic definition of the material. These
meso-effects are incorporated into the macroscopic behaviour using statistical
arguments. The SCRAM model makes two main assumptions, that during the
deformation process the distribution of cracks remains random and that the initial size
distribution of the cracks is exponential [A8]. Full details of the model and its
generation can be found in [A8, H15].
For the ViscoScram damage model, the relationship between the cracking deviatoric
crack
strain, e ij
e crack
= c 3sij
ij
(4.11-12)
257
(4.11-13)
2Ga 3
where a is the initial flaw size and G is the shear modulus. With the GPM model
the shear modulus is approximated as G , the sum of the Maxwell shear modulii.
N
G =
(4.11-14)
n=1
where G is the shear Modulus of the spring in the nth Maxwell element and N is the
total number of Maxwell elements.
Equation (4.10-12) can be re-written to identify terms that are dependant on time.
Thus,
bg
bg bg
3
e cr
ij t = c t sij t
(4.11-15)
The time derivative of (4.11-15) gives the cracking deviatoric strain rate as
e crack
ij
t
= 3c 2
sij
c
sij + c 3
t
t
(4.11-16)
Using equation (4.11-14) in (4.11-13) and substituting for in (4.11-16) gives the
cracking deviatoric strain as
e& crack
=
ij
FG IJ
HK
3 c
2G a
FG IJ
HK
c&
1 c
sij +
a
2G a
(4.11-17)
s& ij
Equation (4.11-17) is in a particularly convenient form that can be integrated into the
GPM model directly.
The various quantities in (4.11-17) are now defined. The cracking rate is defined as
FG K IJ when
HK K
F FK I I
GG1 GH K JK JJ
H
K
m
c& = Vmax
c& = Vmax
KI < K
(4.11-18)
when
258
KI K
(4.11-19)
3c
sijsij
2
KI =
3c
ij ij
2
m < 0
for
(4.11-20)
m 0
for
(4.11-21)
(4.11-22)
The definition for K I in (4.11-20) and (4.11-21) is dependant on the sign of the mean
stress, and therefore introduces an element of pressure dependency into the
ViscoScram damage model via the cracking rate. The definition in (4.11-20) applies
in compression whilst the definition in (4.11-21) applies in tension.
The remaining definitions are
+
m
2
(4.11-23)
K = K o 1 +
2
m
(4.11-24)
K o = K o 1
m c1 2
m c1 2
1
Ko
Ko
K1 = K
m1
45 s
2 3 2 2s
F
GH
I
JK
(4.11-25)
(4.11-26)
where
Vmax
Ko
m
s
Since the ViscoScram damage model defines the damage behaviour of the material,
the damage strain and strain rate are equivalent to the cracking strain and strain rate in
the model.
259
e& dam
= e& crack
ij
ij
e dam
= e crack
ij
ij
(4.11-27)
Two general damage functions can be input, one to describe the damage in tension
and the other to describe the damage in compression. The damage function requires
the effective strain rate & eff , the deviatoric strain e and the mean strain m to
b g
bg
b g
cb
3
gh FGH ac IJK
Q d m ,& eff =
(4.11-28)
bg
1
Q d sij
2G
(4.11-29)
These are the starting point for the damage formulation developed.
4.11.1.4 Damage functions
The Strain-based damage model relies on extracting the level of damage, Q , at the
current strain or stress, depending on the choice of the state variable d . At the
moment, the damage model is derived in terms of the effective strain represented here
by d . A series of piecewise linear functions have been derived and these are
available in Solver via their respective identifier as shown in Table 4.11-2 Some of
these functions are illustrated in Figure 4.11-3.
260
Tension
identifier
Compression
identifier
Description
ITDAM
1
2
3
4
5
Description
ICDAM
No damage
Redistributed stress
Redistribution based on failure strain
Linear tensile failure
User Defined
1
2
3
4
No damage
Total strain
Deviatoric
Useri defined
F
= G 2G b g ee&
GH
N
s& ij
ij
e& eyr
ij
e& dam
ij
e& spr
ij
i =1
I
J
b g JK
sbij g
n
(4.11-30)
Note that deviatoric stress rate for each Maxwell element in (4.11-28) is affected by
the presence of damage.
indicate which set of material properties to use for the next increment depending on
the value of the deviatoric stress component in a particular direction for each Maxwell
element. This method of switching material properties on an individual Maxwell
n
element basis takes the form: if s ii 0 , set tension properties for the i direction for
th
n Maxwell element, else use compression properties. This is illustrated in Figure
4.11-4 where the Maxwell element is shown in the three directions the deviatoric
stresses act. The shear modulii G11 , G 22 , G 33 can be switched from tension to
Figure 4.11-4 Maxwell element showing the three deviatoric stress components and
the associated shear modulii.
262
e& eyr
ij =
e
3A sij
sinh t e
2 e
F3 I
=G s s J
H2 K
h
(4.2-31)
1
2
ij ij
(4.2-32)
e =
3
sxx
2
sinh t e
1
exp t e
2
h
(4.2-33)
ln & eyr
xx ln
F
GH
I
JK
1
C + t xx
6
(4.2-34)
Plotting the natural logarithm of the strain rate against the stress yields a straight line
with a gradient linked to the activation volume and an intercept on the y-axis
1
.
equivalent to the activation energy multiplied by a factor of
6
263
this limiting value and the degradation carried out on a directional basis i.e. the
Maxwell element can have zero-stress carrying capability, or no stiffness, in one
direction but maintain its stiffness in the other directions.
Since most of the failure criteria implemented here use the principal stresses or
strains, the total stress acting on each Maxwell element has to be determined. This is
done by assuming that the mean stress acting over the Maxwell unit can be split
between the individual elements as follows:
G nkl
=s +
mean mn
G
n
ij
n
ij
(4.11-35)
where
G = sum of Maxwell elements shear stiffness
von Mises
264
Mohrs circle
1 1tu
2 2tu
12
(4.11-36)
u
12
in tension and
1 1cu
(4.11-37)
u
2 2c
in compression, where
u
265
Figure 4.11-4: Envelope for allowable strain using the Maximum strain theory.
4.11.6.2 Critical strain criterion
This is based on a limiting value for the equivalent shear strain. The latter is given as
eq =
2
3
LMb 1 2 g2 +b 2 3 g2 +b 3 1g2 OP
N
Q
(4.11-38)
The choice of the above criterion limits the accumulation of local strain in the
material at a given strain rate by comparing the value of the equivalent strain from
(4.11-38) to a critical value. The latter will be based on experimental data for the
material under consideration.
The critical strain criterion is normally applicable to ductile materials.
4.11.6.3 Strain rate dependency
Strain rate dependency is included by specifying criteria in piecewise linear fashion at
different strain rates.
266
U = ij d ij
(4.11-39)
ij
The dissipated energy in the material is mostly due to damage and viscous effects.
The strain energy density can therefore be written as:
(4.11-40)
ij
where
af
&
w
ve
= s e& =
n ve
ij ij
n =1
n =1
s ijns ijn
(4.11-41)
2G n n
ve
where s ij and e ij are the deviatoric viscoelastic stresses and strains; G and
shear modulus and retardation time. The cracking damage work rate is
aw& f
cr
= s ij e& crij
(4.11-42)
aw& f
cr
LM F I
NH K
1
c
=
3
a
2G
FI
HK
3
c&
c
s ijs ij +
s ijs& ij
a
a
OP
Q
(4.11-43)
aw& f
cr
LM
N
1 Q &
es ijs ij + Qs ijs& ij
2G d
OP
Q
(4.11-44)
(4.11-45)
267
are
& = (w)
& total (w)
& ve (w)
& cr
(w)
(4.11-46)
The
incremental
strain
energy
Error! Reference source not found. as
is
easily
computed
( w) = ( w) total ( w) ve ( w) cr
from
(4.11-47)
Using Error! Reference source not found., Error! Reference source not found.
and Error! Reference source not found., the incremental strain energy can be
written as
awf = (
ij
+ ij ) ij
cs
n =1
LM F I c& cs
NH K a
1
c
3
2G
a
n
ij
hc
c
+ s hcs + s h + F I cs
H aK
3
ij
ij
ij
ij
ij
h OPQ
+ s ij s ij
(4.11-48)
Visco-plastic
work
should
also
be
subtracted
from
Error! Reference source not found. if the Eyring dashpot is used. The strain energy
density can then be equated to a maximum user specified value to determine if failure
has occurred.
bF g = K du u i = K
x i
b g
x = Fx
268
(4.12-1)
dF i = K dv v i = K
y i
d i
y = Fy
(4.12-2)
where
f = k a'
(4.12-3)
where
bF g , dF i , bF g , dF i
a'
k
x 1
y 1
x 2
y 2
LM K
0
K=M
MM-K
N0
-K x
Ky
0
-K y
0
Kx
0
OP
-K
P
0 P
P
K Q
0
(4.12-4)
Both f and k are transformed to the global Cartesian system before assembly. The
mass and damping matrices are formed in an identical manner to the stiffness matrix.
Alternatively, the complete stiffness, mass and damping matrices may be specified
directly, by using the MATRIX PROPERTY command
LM K
K=M
MM
NSym.
1
K2
K3
K4
K5
K6
.
.
.
Km
OP
PP
PQ
(4.12-5)
where
K i = 1, m
b g
m = n n +1 / 2
The value of n is element dependent and specific values for each element are given in
the LUSAS Element Library.
Note. Connected nodes must be coincident to maintain equilibrium when rotational
degrees of freedom are present.
y
QPM4 elements
Local Cartesian
system
Y
Kx
Ky
X
FIG.4.12-1 TWO NODES CONNECTED BY A JOINT ELEMENT
FE = t F + K
t +t
t + t
where
270
Fyld = 0 Fyld + t p
(4.12-7)
where
0
If
t + t
FE > t Fyld then yielding occurs and the force is returned to the yield surface
F = t Fyld + t+ t p
(4.12-8)
where
t+ t
p =
t+ t
FE t F / t Fyld t F
(4.3-9)
F
yld
-F
yld
271
t+ t
t+ t
FE at time
FE = K c
t+ t
t+ t
FE t + t is updated as
+g
(4.12-10)
where
t+ t
1 =
Fyld
Kc
(4.12-11)
F = Fyld + K1
t+ t
(4.12-12)
272
Liftoff
Fyld
Strain
g
K
Sunken support
Beam elements
Joint element
Initial gap
Contact
stiffness Kc
273
Kx
Fx
-Fyld
(c) Shear Stress-Shear Strain relationship
274
fE = k
t+ t
+ g
(4.12-13)
LM F OP L O LK
f = M F P, = MM PP, k = MM 0
MNF PQ MN PQ MN 0
x
xy
xy
yz
xz
0
Ky
0
OP
0 P and
K PQ
0
LMgOP
g = M0P
MN0PQ
(4.12-14)
and
LM OP LM u OP LM u OP
MM PP = MM v PP - MM v PP
N Q N w Q N w Q
x
xy
xz
(4.12-15)
Fs
t+ t
Fyld > 0
(4.12-16)
t+ t
i +c
2
t+ t
Fs =
t+ t
Fyld = t+ t Fx
Fxy
t+ t
Fxz
2 1/ 2
(4.12-17)
and
(4.12-18)
LM
N
t+ t
Fxy
t+ t
Fxz
OP =
Q
t+ t
Fyld
t+ t
Fs
LM
N
t+ t
FExy
t+ t E
F xz
OP
Q
(4.12-19)
275
b g
Fs
a k ka
where a =
T
f
a ka
T
k=k
t+ t
(4.12-20)
F = Fp + K a + Ca& v
(4.12-21)
Where Fp is a preload force vector, K the stiffness matrix for the joint, a the
displacement vector, C the damping or viscosity coefficient matrix, a& the velocity
vector and v a constant typically taking a value between 0.1 and 1.0. The preload
force is usually the result of the initial pressure of the hydraulic fluid in the damper.
The preload force does not exert a force on the structure but defines the force that
must be exceeded before piston movement takes place. For a viscous damper device,
the stiffness term defines the change in pressure due to the stroke of the piston.
The behaviour law can be expressed by introducing the concept of nominal force, Fn,
and nominal velocity, Vn, where for a one degree of freedom system:
C=
Fn
Vn v
(4.12-22)
The value required for Fn depends on the location of the damper in the structure and
the applied loading. Vn depends on the results of the expected seismic reponse. Fn and
276
F = Fp + K a + C' a&
(4.12-23)
where
C' = Diag[a&
v 1
]C
(4.12-24)
To incorporate the preload facility a high artificial stiffness has been introduced for
net displacements less than 0.0001. The second term in equation (4.12-23), K a , is
evaluated in the usual manner. Note that Fp and K may be specified as zero (if the
structural stiffness permits) so that a pure viscous damper is defined.
are then interpolated from the table using the current temperature T .
Kk =
B k B dV
(4.13-1)
277
k = T . k' .T
(4.13-2)
and, typically for heat conduction problems, k' is the thermal conductivity matrix in
the local Cartesian system, i.e.
for 2-D
Lk
k' = M
N0
0
ky
0
OP
PP
Q
0
0 (4.13-3)
kz
and T is the transformation matrix from the local to the global Cartesian system
defined as
for 2-D
(4.13-4)
and e x' e y' e z are the direction cosines of the x, y and z axes of the local Cartesian
system relative to the global Cartesian system.
For the 2-D case, the direction cosines are evaluated from an angle of rotation,
measured anticlockwise from the global axis. For the three dimensional case, the
cosines are formed directly from a Cartesian set.
For orthotropic materials, the flow rates are evaluated as
q = TT k' T B
(4.13-5)
are then interpolated from the table using the current temperature T . Furthermore,
the axes of orthotropy should be independent of the field variable.
278
-dhr/dL
-dK/dL
hc o
-dh /dL
c
Gap distance L
Ko
hco
hro
279
h
c1
hr 1
cn
hr n
L1
L2
L3
Ln
Ki
hci
hri
Li
n
T
are then interpolated from the table using the current temperature T .
280
(4.14-1)
(4.14-2)
and are defined by their midsurface curvilinear plane such that
=
and
constant
k = 0
(4.14-3)
(4.14-4)
K=
B D' Bdv =
where 1
zzz
+1
+1
+1
b,, g
B D ' B J d d d
T
(4.14-5)
For composite or layered shells it is convenient to separate the in-plane and throughthickness integrals. Since the through-thickness stress distribution is generally a
discontinuous function of z it is necessary to evaluate the elemental stiffness by
integrating independently within the domain of each layer. The elemental stiffness
contribution at a typical Gauss point is therefore obtained as a summation of the
contribution from each of the constituent layers. The above volume integral may be
modified by replacing the elemental through-thickness local coordinate with an
equivalent layer coordinate which varies from -1 to +1 within the (k)th layer of the
element
281
K=
B D' B dv =
Lz
MN
k=1
+1
zz
+1
+1
'
Bk D k B k J
OP
Q
hk
ddd k
t
(4.14-6)
where:-
= -1 +
LM b g
N
k
1
h k 1- k + 2 h j
t
j=1
OP
Q
(4.14-7)
and
d = h k / t d k
(4.14-8)
k = 0
(4.14-9)
= -1 +
LM
N
k
1
h k + 2 h j
t
j=1
OP
Q
(4.14-10)
L
= -1 + M h
N
'
k
+ 2 h 'j
j=1
OP
Q
(4.14-11)
Wk = 2h k / t and
Wk = 2 h 'k
282
(4.14-12)
K=
B s dv =
Lz
MN
k=1
+1
zz
+1
+1
Bk s k J
OP
Q
hk
ddd k
t
(4.14-13)
where:-
p
1
2
1 + 2 + 3 3 + k J -1
2
p=1 p
b g
(4.15-1)
h c
1
2
b g
= C1 I 1 3 + C2 I 2 3 + k J -1
(4.15-2)
1
2
b g
= C0 I 1 3 + k J -1
(4.15-3)
283
c h c
h c
= G ln 21 + ln 22 + ln 23
b g +
1
G ln J
3
(4.15-4)
where
and
1
2
b g . This is redefined as
k = k ln J
b g
k is
defined as
1
2
k J 1 (i.e. the same as for the
2
other hyper-elastic material models) for the elements employing the mixed
displacement-pressure formulation, where such a definition of the bulk strain energy
ensures the symmetry of the tangent stiffness matrix.
The modified strain invariants and stretch quantities are defined as
I1 = I1 I-1/3
3
(4.15-5)
I2 = I 2 I-2/3
3
(4.15-6)
Ii = J -1/3 i
(4.15-7)
I1 = 21 + 22 + 23
(4.15-8)
(4.15-9)
with
I3 = 21 22 23
(4.15-10)
n = 1 1 = 2
1 = 2 C0
Mooney-Rivlin
n=2
1 = 2
1 = 2 C1
2 = -2 2 = -2 C2
284
(4.15-11)
T
hi hi
i=1 i
3
(4.15-12)
where is the strain tensor, i are the principal strains and h i are the vectors of
principal directions, which either define the Lagrangian triad ( h i = N i ) for the
material setting of the problem or the Eulerian triad ( h i = n i ) for the spatial setting.
The second variation of the strain energy function with respect to the strain produces
the tangent modulus matrix used in the computation of the tangent stiffness matrix.
Hence,
D=
2
2
(4.15-13)
285
22
33
This material may behave volumetrically in a nonlinear elastic manner or may include
volumetric crushing in which unloading takes place along a straight line defined by
the unloading bulk modulus which is different to the loading curve. In both cases a
tensile stress cut-off value is employed to limit the amount of stress the material may
sustain in tension. The volumetric behaviour is defined by a pressure-logarithm of
relative volume curve (fig.4.16-1) where pressure is denoted by p and relative
volume by V / V0' If there is no volumetric crushing, loading and unloading takes
place along the same nonlinear curve. There is a maximum (or cut-off) tensile stress
Pcut that the material is capable of bearing whilst still undergoing tensile straining.
However, if volumetric crushing is included then unloading takes place along a
straight line, defined by the unloading bulk modulus K , which is regarded to be the
same as the tensile bulk modulus, but in general different from the initial compressive
bulk modulus, which is equal to the initial slope of the curve.
286
tension
-ln(V/V )
0
K
pcut
l q L lSq ca
1
S
2
+ a1p + a 2 p 2
(4.16-3)
lq
LM1
MM00
L =M
MM0
MN00
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
OP
PP
PP
PP
Q
(4.16-4)
ca , a p, a p h is replaced by 1 / 3
2
2
y
in equation (4.12-3) it can be seen that this yield criterion is identical to the classical
von Mises yield criterion with uniaxial yield stress y .
For plane strain, axisymmetric and 3D stress states the elastic-plastic deviatoric stress
vector S is defined by the expression
lq
287
(4.16-5)
where G is the shear modulus, S0 is the deviatoric stress vector at the end of the
lq
m r is the
m& r = L lSq
p
(4.16-6)
Here l is the plastic multiplier (zero if no yielding) and there is no hardening in this
material model. It should be noted that, due to the definition of the plastic strains in
equation (4.12-6), non-associative plasticity is assumed and a radial stress return
algorithm is utilised. The relative volumes computed for each formulation are defined
as follows.
Infinitesimal strains:
V
= 1+ 11 + 22 + 33
V0
(4.16-7)
V
= A1 A 2 + A 3
V0
(4.16-8)
where
b
gb
gb
g
= b1 + 2 g +b1 + 2 g +b1 + 2 g
A1 = 1 + 2 11 1 + 2 22 1 + 2 33
A2
11
2
23
2
13
22
33
2
12
A 3 = 2 12 13 23
state:
V Vp
=
V0 V0
A1 A 2 + A 3
(4.16-9)
288
V
= 1 2 3 = exp 11 + 22 + 33
V0
1, 2 , 3
(4.16-10)
- principal stretches
and Gc as
max =
2Gc
289
max is
uniquely
Initiation stress
Softening
Area = Fracture energy (G)
Elastic
Failure
Relative
displacement
Opening distance
= I D* E = D unc
(4.17-1)
290
= D t
(4.17-2)
Eii =
t ,i
0 ,i
(4.17-3)
and
Dii* = 0
Dii* =
(4.17-4)
i 0,i max,i
i max,i 0,i
Dt ,ii =
t ,i
max,i 0,i
Dii* = 1
Dt ,ii = 0
(4.17-5)
for
(4.17-6)
for
max,i i
(4.17-7)
In practice, a damage caused by the initiation of delamination in any mode will have
an immediate effect on all of the fracture modes. This phenomenon can be captured
by the introduction of a parameter of the extent of damage , which is defined as
= T A 1
(4.17-8)
where
LM 1
A=M
MM 0
N
2
0, I
0
1
20, II
OP
PP in 2D and
PQ
LM 1
MM
A=M 0
MM
MN 0
2
0, I
291
20, II
0
2
0 , III
OP
PP
PP in 3D
PP
Q
(4.17-9)
= I F * E = D mix
(4.17-10)
The diagonal matrices E and F and the tangent modulus matrix D t (coming from
= D t ) follow as
0:
Fii* = 0
>0
max,i
1
+ 1 max,i 0,i
and
Fii* =
(4.17-11)
max,i
+ 1 max,i 0,i
F E A
*
D t = D mix
>0
D t = D mix
and
b g
+1
(4.17-12)
max,i
> 1 Fii* = 1 D t = 0
+ 1 max,i 0,i
(4.17-13)
It should be noted that in the coupled delamination damage model, the tangent
constitutive matrix D t is non-symmetric in the softening region. For that reason, the
solution procedure within LUSAS automatically uses the non-symmetric frontal
solver whenever a coupled delamination model is specified.
With this material model sharp snap-backs can often occur. In order to handle these
snap-backs as efficiently as possible, it is beneficial to choose a root during the arclength process, which is associated with the lowest residual norm [H13].
292
5 Load And
Boundary
Conditions
5.1 General Load Types
The load types available with each element are documented in the LUSAS Element
Library. In this section some general comments on the use of the load types are given,
together with descriptions of the more complex load types.
The contribution face and surface pressures to the nodal forces has the form
n
Rs = N s
e=1
(e) T (e)
t ds
(5.1-1)
Pressure loading is element dependent [see the LUSAS Element Library] and may be
specified using one of the following
distributed loads, uniformly distributed loads or distributed internal element
loads,
face loads,
body force potentials or element body force potentials,
element loads
Numerical integration is generally performed using the same rule that is used to form
the element stiffness matrix, e.g. for a QPM8 element with 2*2 integration, a 2-point
rule is used to evaluate the face pressures. An exception to this are the solid elements,
and the integration rules for these elements are given in table 5.1-1.
Element
Quadrilateral
Faces
Triangular
Faces
HX8
3*3
HX16
4*4
HX20
4*4
PN6
3*3
4-point
PN12
4*4
7-point
PN15
4*4
7-point
TH4
3*3
4-point
TH10
4*4
7-point
Body force input is element dependent [see the LUSAS Element Library] and may be
specified using either of the following.
constant body forces, which are specified on an element basis,
body force potentials or element body force potentials, which are specified on
a nodal basis. These include pore water pressure for effective stress analysis.
The body forces are specified as forces/unit volume and the equivalent nodal forces
are formed by integrating over the volume of the element. The Gauss quadrature rule
is then used to form the element stiffness matrix, i.e.
n
Rb = N
e =1
(e) T
(e)
(5.1-2)
dv
When the body forces are specified on a nodal basis they are first interpolated to the
Gauss points using the element shape functions.
294
The force vector due to the initial stresses and strains is defined as:
n
Ro = B
e=1
( e )T
(e)
o
(e)
(e)
D o
i dv
(5.1-3)
Initial stresses/strains in a structure may be due to the initial load conditions, i.e. the
application of initial stresses/strains without equilibrating forces results in
deformation. An example in which initial stresses would be utilised is the generation
of initial equilibrating loads and stresses in a soil excavation analysis.
Initial stresses/strains must be specified in the first load case and cannot be altered
throughout the analysis.
5.1.1.4 Temperature Loading
e j e j
o = bo g + bo g
(e)
(5.1-4)
(e)
(e)
where ( o )i are the initial strains specified at the start of the analysis, ( o )t are
the thermal strains which may change at the beginning of each load increment. The
temperature strain vector is element dependent, and the specific form for each
element is given in section 7.
5.1.1.5 Residual Stresses
Residual stresses are stresses that are locked into the structure in its initial
configuration, i.e. the application of residual stresses alone causes no deformation
(they only influence the solution of geometrically or materially nonlinear problems).
An example of the use of residual stresses is the representation of the effects of
manufacturing on cylindrical panels.
Residual stresses must be specified in the first load case and cannot be altered
throughout the analysis.
5.1.1.6 Field Analysis
The field and equivalent structural load cases are given in table 5.1-2.
295
Field Loading
Concentrated Load
Face Loads
Environmental Temperature
Loading
at nodes
x is defined by
&&
x = &&
x + x + 2 x& + x
(5.1-5)
where
&&
x
x&
LM 0
=M
MN
and
x,
z
0
y
x
OP
PP
Q
(5.1-6)
296
LM 0
=M
MN
z
0
y
x
z
y
OP
PP
Q
(5.1-7)
Using d'Alembert's principle, the inertia force may be included as part of the
vector as (2.1-15)
Rb = N T f &&
x dv
v
load
(5.1-8)
(5.1-9)
Rbb f g = N f dv
(5.1-10)
Rbb a g = N &&
x dv
(5.1-11)
Rbb c g = N x dv
(5.1-12)
Rbb co g = N 2 x& dv
(5.1-13)
Rbb aa g = N x dv
(5.1-14)
Note. The effects of the Coriolis forces are neglected in all analysis procedures.
Both the centrifugal and angular acceleration force terms provide contribution to the
load stiffness matrix i.e.
297
K = B DB dv + N N dv + N N dv
v
(5.1-15)
The equivalent nodal loading due to each point load Pzi , positioned at point
X i , Yi ,
X i = N j i , i e X ej
j =1
(5.1-16)
Yi = N j i , i eYje
j =1
(5.1-17)
298
for
and
of the load. If
Pz j = N j i , i Pzi j = 1, n
(5.1-18)
Patch Load
Load Applied
No Load Applied
Load distributed
over 16 nodes
299
CV
1 1 + C2V2 + CV
i i .............+ CmVm = Q
(5.2-1)
where
Vi
Ci
Ca = Q
(5.2-2)
a is the
1 T
T
T
a K a a R + Ca Q
2
(5.2-3)
LM K
MN C
C
0
OPRSa UV = RS RUV
PQT W TQW
(5.2-4)
In practice, the constraint equations and the stiffness terms are interlaced during the
solution process, and each equation is processed as soon as all the stiffness
coefficients associated with the equation are assembled. This minimises the increase
in the frontwidth and maintains a positive definite stiffness matrix provided K is
positive definite.
An alternative to the above is to use the Penalty method to evaluate the minimum of
the total potential energy , again augmented with the constraint equations but
without introducing an extra variable, i.e.
300
1 T
T
a K a a R + Ca Q
2
i dCa Qi
T
i.e. / a = 0 gives
lq l q
n s
K + 2 C T C a = R + 2 C T Q
The value of
(5.2-5)
(5.2-6)
b g.
Notes
a1 a2 = 0
a2 a3 = 0
a1 a2 = 0
a2 a3 = 0
a1 a3 = 0
u = u'
(5.3-1)
K ' = T KT and
T
R' = T R
T
(5.3-2)
R' are the transformed stiffness matrix and force vector and
LM I
T = M0
MN0
0 0
0
0 I
OP
PP
Q
(5.3-3)
302
Line of
Symmetry
303
y
y
y
x
y
x
X
FIG.5.3-2 ROTATED FREEDOMS ALIGNED WITH SYMMETRY DIRECTION
304
5.4 Slidelines
Slidelines may be used to model the contact behaviour between two or more bodies.
They are an alternative to joint elements or constraint equations, and have advantages
in the following situations
Null slideline
General sliding without friction
General sliding with friction
Tied sliding
Sliding only (without friction or lift off)
The penalty method is currently utilised for all slideline types while the augmented
Lagrangian method is available for all slideline types in two dimensions and selected
slideline types in three dimensions. The nodal constraint method is used for tied
slidelines when used in conjunction with an explicit time integration scheme. Note
that the null slideline type is independent of the slideline method, and may be used to
prevent the effect of any slidelines defined in the data file to be included in the
solution.
305
The tied slideline option eliminates the requirement of a transition zone in mesh
discretisations comprising differing degrees of refinement and is extremely useful in
creating a highly localised mesh in the region of high stress gradients.
Slidelines will not model surfaces collapsing onto themselves at present without an
initial, accurate estimate as to where the contact is likely to occur.
Note that the slideline facility is inherently nonlinear and requires use of the
NONLINEAR CONTROL data command. The tied slideline option for both penalty
and nodal constraint methods, however, computes the contact location point once
only for each contact node since its relative position never changes and enables it to
be used in conjunction with a linear analysis.
The general slideline options may be utilised for modelling finite relative
deformations of colliding solids in two or three dimensions which involve sliding
(with or without friction) and constant or intermittent contact conditions. The sliding
only option is similar to the general sliding options but does not permit intermittent
contact conditions or friction.
The slideline facility may be used with the following elements (see SLIDELINE
MODELLING CONSIDERATIONS as well)
Element Type
LUSAS elements
Plane stress
Plane Strain
Axisymmetric
Shell
TTS3, QTS4
Solid
Rigid Surface
surfaces is used. The nodal constraint slideline treatment, however, is more robust if
the mesh with the greatest contact node density is designated the master surface.
The slideline facility requires the following data input
Slideline property definition
Slideline surface definition
Slideline assignments
5.4.1.1 Slideline Properties
The slideline properties may be re-specified at any stage during an analysis, but the
following rules should be adhered to
Only existing properties can be overwritten. New data sets cannot be
introduced
The redefined data set must be consistent with the previous set in the sense
that a table of properties must be respecified in tabular form and cannot be
converted into a standard set of properties and vice versa.
Additional lines of data cannot be added to a table of properties, however, if
fewer lines are respecified, the remaining lines of data will retain their
previous values.
Data will only be changed if actual values are respecified. If a data location is
left blank the previous value will remain active.
Respecifying a 'D' in a data location will cause the previous value to be
overwritten with the appropriate default value.
5.4.1.2 Slideline Definition
The topological properties of each slideline surface are defined using this command
section.
The definition of the slideline segments for each slideline surface is a vital component
in the correct use of slidelines, and is governed at the data input stage by a few simple
laws. The definition of a consistent surface definition is necessary to enable the
correct computation of unit normal and tangential vectors for each slideline segment.
If slidelines are generated using LUSAS Modeller then the laws will be complied
automatically and require no further consideration.
307
The compliance with the following laws is assisted in TWO dimensional analyses
only by the use of OPTION 61. This option invokes a simple algorithm within
LUSAS which takes the segment ordering as defined in the data file and
automatically ensures a continuous sequence based upon the given segment node
direction.
This option is used to enable LUSAS Modeller to ignore the rule for two dimensional
consecutive segment ordering (following) and permit the segment ordering to be
given in an arbitrary sequence, thus relaxing the constraints on processing in LUSAS
Modeller.
This option is automatically written to a data file upon tabulation in LUSAS
Modeller. If, however, the slideline surface definitions are input manually to the data
file without the use of LUSAS Modeller, the following laws must be complied with:
Two-dimensional slidelines
With option 61
Without option 61
SLIDELINE_SURFACE DEFINITION 1
SLIDELINE_SURFACE DEFINITION 1
SLIDELINE_SURFACE DEFINITION 2
SLIDELINE_SURFACE DEFINITION 2
10
10
So there are two methods of defining a slideline surface independently from LUSAS
Modeller:
Write the SLIDELINE DEFINITION
command according to the first law and
ensure that OPTION 61 is included in the
data file.
308
When rigid surface contact is to be used in LUSAS the rigid slideline segments are
defined using SLIDELINE DEFINITION RIGID.
5.4.1.3 Slideline Assignments
The individual slideline surfaces are assembled into the required slidelines using the
SLIDELINE ASSIGNMENT data section.
The distinction between master and slave surfaces is arbitrary for slidelines that use
the penalty and augmented Lagrangian methods since a two pass algorithm over both
surfaces is used. The nodal constraint slideline treatment, however, is more robust if
the mesh with the greatest contact node density is designated the master surface.
If, however, the slideline commands have not been defined within LUSAS Modeller
then it must be ensured that the slave surface is on the left side as you move along the
master surface in the direction specified in the TWO dimensional slideline surface
definitions. It is immaterial which slideline surface is defined as the master or the
slave for three dimensional analyses.
A slideline surface definition number may only be used once in the slideline
assignment command in order to maintain the uniqueness of each slideline surface in
the subsequent processing. There is no limit on the number of times that a surface
may be used, however, if the surface definition is copied and assigned different
surface definition numbers as required.
If the master and slave surfaces of a slideline are assigned the wrong way round,
contact will be assumed in geometric configurations in which the surfaces are in fact
apart and will result in surfaces being pulled together.
Note that, in order to increase the efficiency and maintainability of the software, the
definition of the slave surface definition is automatically reversed. This means that a
slideline originally defined in LUSAS Modeller (or by hand) with two surfaces
defined in the same direction will be viewed in the results processor as having the
master surface in the original direction but the slave surface will now be viewed in the
opposite sense.
309
If OPTION 61 is set then the slave reversal will NOT be performed as LUSAS will
assume that the surfaces have already been manipulated in this way. This reversal will
only be performed for two dimensional analyses.
The slideline type (e.g. tied, general sliding with friction) can be redefined at selected
stages throughout an analysis. This involves respecifying the SLIDELINE
ASSIGNMENT data chapter, however, only the slideline type and pre-contact
parameter can be changed and all other input data must remain constant. Previously
defined SLIDELINE PROPERTIES can also be redefined but additional data sets
cannot be introduced.
Temperature dependent SLIDELINE PROPERTIES can also be specified. In this case
the TABLE command must follow the SLIDELINE PROPERTIES command. Lines
of data listing the slideline properties at particular reference temperatures are then
input.
A nonlinear friction law can be introduced by using the SLIDELINE PROPERTIES
USER command. This command allows a set of friction parameters to be defined
which may vary with the temperature, velocity and acceleration of the contacting
surfaces. These properties may also be specified as temperature dependent.
All slideline types (e.g. tied, general sliding with friction) can be used rigid surface
contact. Because the rigid surfaces are not allowed to contact each other, only one of
the master or slave surface can be rigid. When a slideline has a rigid surface, it is
possible to select between one or two pass contact algorithm. A one pass check is
faster, but the penetration of rigid surface into deformable surface is not corrected.
The penetration of the rigid surface into the deformable surface can be prevented
either by the default two pass algorithm or by using a finer mesh on the deformable
surface.
310
Adjacent
node
Local node
Local Segment
The continuous tracking of each contact node commences in the local node search, in
which the local node is located for each current node.
311
By default, the local node search is carried out over all the adjacent nodes to ensure
that the correct node is extracted. This "stringent" test is required for rapidly changing
surface geometries in the contact area, for example a screw thread.
For simpler geometries, such as flat surfaces in contact, a slight reduction in
processing time may be achieved by suppressing this "stringent" local node search
using OPTION 184 and invoking an iterative procedure. This procedure locates the
immediately adjacent segment nodes to the local node and extracts the minimum
distance between these nodes and the current node. If any of these distances are
greater than the distance between the current and local node then the search is ended.
The process is performed again if one of these distances is less by taking the adjacent
node which gives the smallest distance as the new local node. The procedure will
continue for 500 times before stopping.
The number of iterations is controlled by the system parameter,
changed via the SYSTEM command.
MXIT,
and may be
Only a small proportion of current nodes will typically be active at any one time and,
for this reason, a screening procedure is used to eliminate those nodes which need no
detailed consideration.
A radial 'contact zone' is defined around each local node (Fig.5.4-2). Contact is only
possible if the current node is located within this zone. The contact zone radius is a
measure of the maximum distance between any two neighbouring contact nodes. It
has a different value for each slideline surface and is continuously updated throughout
the solution as the segment lengths change. The relationship is thus:zonal contact radius = zonal detection parameter *maximum distance
between any two neighbouring
contact nodes
The zonal contact detection parameter controls the degree of radial overlap between
neighbouring contact zones.
The default magnitude of the zonal parameter is 5/9 (for explicit dynamics analyses)
or 10/9 (for static and implicit dynamic analyses). This ensures that all the zones
overlap. If it is set to less than 0.5, undetected penetration may occur.
To override this preliminary contact detection test, the zonal parameter may be set to
a large number such as 100. This would be required in situations in which the
displacements in the contact area are expected to be greater than the largest contact
segment length in any increment. The default value, however, has been found to be
sufficient for the majority of problem types because of the convergence difficulties
associated with such a large displacement increment.
312
rz
b1
For all current nodes passing the zonal contact detection test, tracking is continued by
extracting the local segment from the adjacent segments connected to the local node.
This process obtains the updated segment direction cosines to be used in both the
contact location point and slideline interface force calculations.
A slideline extension may be defined for each slideline independently in the slideline
data input section by assigning a unique slideline property assignment number to each
slideline using the SLIDELINE ASSIGNMENT command.
The calculation of a "pseudo-segment" using a slideline segment extension may be
performed in two and three dimensional analyses so as to eliminate the complete
penetration of slave node(s) through the master surface at a slideline extremity. For
example see Fig.5.4-3, where a segment extension has been depicted at a centreline.
Oscillations in either the residual or displacement norms can indicate that a
modification to the slideline extension tolerance is required. A general guide for the
magnitude of this parameter is that it should be approximately half a typical slideline
segment length in the area of interest.
For example: For the case in fig.5.4-3, the contacting node will come out of contact as
soon as the cantilever starts to bend since the contact point is determined by
projecting NORMALLY onto the opposing surface. The extension as shown stops
this from happening.
For non-flat surfaces regions develop below the surface that lie outside the region of
any segment. Contact in such regions (corner regions) is dealt with using the
formulations of section 5.4.4.9 which effectively defines the contact problem as
node-on-node or node-on-line.
A further tolerance (TOLNOD) is required for node-on-node contact to stop potential
oscillation of the residual norms as the contacting nodes change contact from one
313
segment to another. The default value of the tolerance zone is 1e-5 and may be
modified using the SYSTEM command in the usual manner
projectile
(S)
Target plate
TOL
FIG.5.4-3 SLIDELINE EXTENSION IN TWO DIMENSIONS
5.4.3.4 Contact location point
The contact location point is defined as the position on the local segment which is
nearest to the current node. This is a non-trivial process in three dimensional analyses.
The method is fundamentally a Newton type iteration which converges quadratically
providing the initial estimate is near the root.
The identification of this location point is necessary to evaluate the normal
penetration and tangential gap distances.
The coordinates of all contact nodes which are determined to have penetrated prior to
the commencement of the analysis are reset to the contact location point. Fig.5.4-4
shows a node (m) in initial contact due to poor mesh discretisation which is
subsequently set to position (c).
OPTION 186 will suppress this facility as required and is a useful method for
simulating interference fit problems, since the forces required for the interference fit
will come directly from the initial penetrations found by the slideline algorithms.
314
OPTION 186 should preferably not be used while 'de-bugging' a data file since the
suppression of the warning messages could remove some important indicators to data
file errors.
Note that the resetting of coordinates is not available for tied slidelines.
The following messages, however, may be generated for tied or sliding only
slidelines:
***WARNING***
SLIDING ONLY SLIDELINE NODE a IS NOT IN CONTACT
CONFIGURATION.
INITIAL CONFIGURATION DEFINED AS
CONTACT NODE NUMBER
=
ON
SURFACE NUMBER
=
SLIDELINE NUMBER
=
d
WITH
CLOSEST SEGMENT DEFINIED BY NODES
AND
NORMAL DISTANCE FROM SURFACE
***WARNING***
IN THE INITIAL
b
c
= e f (g h)
= i
This is simply a geometric warning that the slideline surface definition may be
incorrect. The nodes on the slideline, however, will be continue to be processed and
will maintain their relative position throughout the analysis. Thus, any gaps will
remain as gaps throughout the analysis. This may cause an analysis to be over-stiff in
the contact area due to the rigid tying of nodes which are not part of the active contact
conditions. By defining such slidelines so that the slideline surface definitions extend
only as far as required will eliminate any artificial stiffening.
Initial Configuration
(m)
b2
(c)
Final Configuration
b1
The stiffness for each contact node is based upon the material and geometric
properties of the elements which are immediately adjacent to each of the contact
nodes.
For two dimensional analyses
contact node stiffness = stiffness scale factor * bulk modulus * length
2 * thickness
and for three dimensional analyses
contact node stiffness = stiffness scale factor * bulk modulus * area2
volume
Since the values for the bulk modulus, length, area and volume have no meaning at a
point, they are computed for each contact node using an averaging process performed
over each of the adjacent segment contributions. See also section 5.4.4.4.
For three dimensional analyses, the following message may be generated
***WARNING*** A VERY SMALL VOLUME a HAS BEEN DETECTED WHILST PROCESSING CONTACT NODE b
This may be due to incorrect element topology, probably also giving an illegal
Jacobian determinant message. The units used in the analysis may also be causing
machine precision problem and the units should be changed to permit a larger number
of significant digits for the node coordinates, e.g. change from metres to millimetres.
The stiffness scale factor is input for the master and slave surfaces by the user via the
SLIDELINE PROPERTIES command. This factor controls the degree of interpenetration experienced in the contact zone. The default values are usually adequate,
but larger values will reduce the penetration further. Note, however, too large a value
may cause chattering at the interface or ill-conditioning.
It has been found that the influence of the stiffness scale factors do not have a
significant effect on the final stresses except in the case of tied slidelines in which a
factor as high as possible should be defined to ensure as rigid a connection as
possible.
The penalty method may use typical values as follows
Slideline Type
Scale Factor
0.01 - 50
0.01 - 50
Tied sliding
100 - 10000
316
0.01 - 50
These are only a guide, and the default values should normally give a reasonable
estimate for the analysis type. For instance, the default values in explicit dynamics
analyses is 0.1, whilst for implicit dynamics or static analyses with tied slidelines the
default is 5.0. There are instances in which the default values would require
increasing such as analyses involving rigid wall contact, since the forces required to
maintain low relative penetrations would be necessarily higher than that for two
deformable bodies.
Intractable solutions may occur if two materials of significantly differing properties
are utilised for the colliding bodies. In this instance a scaling procedure on the
slideline surface stiffnesses will be automatically invoked at the beginning of each
analysis if the ratio of the average stiffness values for each constituent slideline
surface differ by a factor greater than a default value of 100.
Note that the stiffness ratio at which the stiffness modification is invoked may be
modified by specifying an alternative magnitude through the SYSTEM command in
the LUSAS data file (SLSTFM parameter).
The stiffness modification procedure may be suppressed by using OPTION 185. The
nodal constraint method, used only for the tied slideline option in an explicit
dynamics analysis, does not use the stiffness scale factors.
5.4.3.6 Application of constraints
When the current node has penetrated the local segment, interaction forces are
imposed upon both the current node and the adjacent nodes defining the local
segment. These forces exactly satisfy the conditions for conservation of translational
and rotational momenta.
The normal contact force scalar for any contact node is calculated as follows, (see
section 5.4.4 for further details of these calculations):
for the penalty method
normal force = contact node stiffness * normal penetration distance
for the augmented Lagrangian method
normal force = (contact node stiffness * normal penetration distance) +
normal Lagrangian multiplier
317
The foregoing steps are applicable for all slidelines utilising the penalty method.
When this method is utilised within an implicit dynamic or static environment,
however, the assembly of the coupling element stiffness matrix into the global
stiffness matrix is additionally required.
The tangential motion processing is performed utilising only a force methodology and
does not require stiffness matrix modifications.
(5.4-1)
Subject to:
gN 0
(5.4-2)
where the minimisation of the total potential energy of the system, , is subject to the
inequality constraint (5.4-2). g N in (5.4-2) is the normal penetration of a node N. A
318
node is in contact if
to zero.
Both the penalty method and the augmented Lagrangian method deal with the
problem by incorporating the constraint into the function to be minimised, converting
the constrained minimisation into one which is unconstrained. This will then involve
modifications to the internal force vector and tangent stiffness matrix when the
normal penetration is in the inadmissible region. The difference between the two
methods is the manner by which the constraint is incorporated and the way in which
constraint violations are reduced. We will restrict ourselves to normal contact only in
order to illustrate the basic aspects of the two methods.
With the penalty method the problem (5.4-1) and (5.4-2) is converted into
P = +
Minimise:
1
N g 2N
2
(5.4-3)
A = +
Minimise:
where
1
N g 2N + g N
2
(5.4-4)
normal direction. The two functions are then minimised using the Newton Raphson
method since they are non-linear in nature.
In order to derive the internal force vector and tangent stiffness matrix contributions
let us define the contact contributions to the energy for an active contact node (the
contact node is also referred to as the current node in LUSAS), as
Pc =
Penalty method:
1
N g 2N
2
(5.4-5)
1
N g 2N + g N
2
(5.4-6)
The internal force vector contribution with both methods is obtained from a first
variation of the energy function in (5.4-5) or (5.4-6).
q ic p = Pc
T
or
q ic p = A c
T
(5.4-7)
The tangent stiffness matrix contribution is obtained from a first variation of the
internal force vector.
319
p T K tc = q ic
(5.4-8)
If no changes are made at the force level then this is equivalent to the second
variation of the energy function.
p T K tc p = 2 Pc
or
p T K tc p = 2 A c
(5.4-9)
With the penalty method the value of the penalty parameter determines the extent to
which the constraint (5.4-2) is violated. The higher the penalty parameter the lower
the constraint violations and hence the lower the penetrations. However, if the penalty
parameter is too high the problem will become ill-conditioned so that a careful choice
has to be made. The definition in section 5.4.4.4 later is designed to provide a
reasonable estimate of the penalty parameter to avoid problems of ill-conditioning
and yet return reasonable levels of penetration.
The augmented Lagrangian method is designed to avoid the sensitivity of the solution
to the penalty parameter by employing a Lagrangian multiplier term alongside the
penalty term in the energy function (5.4-4). If the solution does not produce an
acceptable level of constraint violation and hence penetration, the Lagrangian
multiplier is updated and the solution re-run. This procedure is continued until all
penetrations are within a specified tolerance of the surface. For normal contact the
update is carried out as follows.
kN+1 = min 0, kN + N g N
(5.4-10)
The Lagrangian multiplier represents the contact force at the surface. As the
Lagrangian multipliers are updated the contact force should tend towards the exact
value at the surface. The updating of the Lagrangian multipliers, however, introduces
an additional computational loop outside of the Newton Raphson loop and can
increase computational time. The advantage if the method is that it returns acceptable
penetrations and in some problems, such as micro-mechanical contact, is vital since
the penalty method can cause ill-conditioning because of the high penalty parameter
required.
The augmented Lagrangian method can be used by specifying OPTION 271. The
surface tolerance for the use in the augmented Lagrangian method is currently set in
SLIDELINE PROPERTIES as the close contact detection parameter. The latter is a
factor that multiplies the current segment length before its use as the surface
tolerance.
Status of contact constraints
With the penalty method a contact node is active if the constraint in (5.4-2) is
violated. A negative normal penetration therefore implies that a node has made
contact.
320
With the augmented Lagrangian method the update in (5.4-10) reflects the fact that
we are dealing with an inequality constraint. If the update returns a zero value the
node is no longer in contact while if it returns a negative value it is still in contact.
Within the iterative loop the criteria to determine whether a node is in contact or not,
therefore, is the sign of the Lagrangian multiplier.
Within this philosophy there are two ways of dealing with the contact status. With
Powells method, standard in LUSAS, the status is only updated at the end of each
Lagrangian multiplier update loop while with the Uzawa algorithm (OPTION 274)
the status is constantly updated within the iterative loop. The Uzawa algorithm can
prove advantageous with some problems (see [A7]) but can lead to convergence
problems in other cases.
Penalty update procedure
Although the augmented Lagrangian method does not depend upon the penalty
parameter in reducing constraint violations it does depend upon the penalty parameter
for the speed at which these constraint violations are reduced. The augmented
Lagrangian method can be speeded up by employing a penalty update procedure if the
constraint violations are not being reduced quickly enough (OPTION 273) [A7, C16,
B6].
kN+1 = kN
kN+1 = kN
if
if
FG g IJ <
Hg K
FG g IJ
Hg K
k
N
k-1
N
(5.4-11)
k
N
k-1
N
(5.4-12)
= 10.0
and
= 0.25
(5.4-13)
max
K
Nt
(5.4-14)
321
between two bodies in general. One of the ways in which a more general contact
definition can be specified is to treat the contact between two or more deformable
bodies as node-on-surface. The sections of the surfaces that will potentially come into
contact can then be defined as slidelines. In two dimensions slidelines define the line
along which contact is most likely to occur and with a finite element mesh simply
connect all of the potential contact nodes on the surface of a body. The slideline is
then split into a number contact segments with each segment defined by two adjacent
contact nodes on the surface of the body (see figure below).
Slideline
Contact segment
Contact elements can then be used to define the contact between the two surfaces.
The contact element is made up of three nodes (see figure 5.4-6). Two of the nodes lie
on the contact surface and describe the contact or master segment (nodes 1 and 2)
while the remaining node is the contact or slave node (node s). The master segment
will from now on be referred to as the current segment and the contact or slave node
will be referred to as the current node. Contact occurs when the current node
penetrates the current segment.
e2
e1
2
ln
ln
gN
The contact element adopts a set of co-rotational axes that rotate with the element.
The contact relationships are then related to the local frame produced by the rotating
and translating contact element. The co-rotational framework also allows
322
g N , is defined as
g N = x s x1 e2 = x Ts1 e2
where
(5.4-15)
x s and x1 are position vectors of the nodes defined in (see figure above).
The tangential gap, gT , is defined as the distance moved tangentially along the
segment between the current nodes initial point of contact and its current position at
the segment level (Figure 5.4-6).
g T = lo olo
(5.4-16)
2
gT
s
so
olo
1
lo
lo
1 T
x s1 e1
ln
(5.4-17)
The subscript o on the length l refers to the undeformed configuration while n refers
to the current configuration. The tangential gap is therefore based on the undeformed
segment length. o is the value of when contact is first made in the current phase
323
x BA
g T = x BA e BA1
T
(5.4-18)
The definition in the normal direction is still the same as that in (5.4-15) which means
that the formulation associated with the normal direction will be unaffected by crosssegment movement.
5.4.4.3 The 3D Contact Element
Three-dimensional contact segments can be either three noded triangular faces or four
noded quadrilateral faces (figure 5.4-9). A set of local natural coordinate axes
b,g
are defined for each segment so that the surface can be described via conventional
isoparametric shape functions.
b g
r , =
hb, g x
i=1
(5.4-19)
b g
324
3
2
1
s
r
3
4
Figure 5.4-9: Three and four node contact segments in global three-dimensional
space. s is the contact node while r is the closest point to the node on the segment.
h
where
= h1 , h2 , h3 , h4
h1 =
1
4
h3 =
1
4
(5.4-20)
b1 + gb1 + g ,
b1 gb1 g ,
h2 =
1
4
h4 =
1
4
b1 gb1 + g
b1 + gb1 g
h
where
= h1 , h2 , h3
h1 = ,
(5.4-21)
h2 = ,
h3 = 1
The triangular contact segment is flat while the quadrilateral, because of its bilinear
interpolation, is in general a ruled non-flat surface (figure 5.4-10).
325
Figure 5.4-10: A bilinearly interpolated (ruled) four noded contact segment in three
dimensions.
The derivations of this section will be based on the four noded quadrilateral contact
segment, unless specified otherwise. The modifications required to deal with
triangular segments are straightforward and mainly revolve around the form of the
shape functions and their derivatives.
Closest point computation
1
2
x sr x sr
with respect to
b,g
(5.4-22)
where x sr is the vector between the contact node and the closest point to the node on
the contact surface (see figure 5.4-11 which also shows the tangent vectors r and
r ).
b g
x sr = x s r ,
(5.4-23)
The Newton Raphson method can be used to solve the minimisation in (5.4-22). This
requires a derivation of the first and second variations of Acp with respect to
326
b,g .
Within the closest point computations the coordinates of each node are fixed which
means that the iterative displacements are zero, i.e. p = 0 .
2
s
xsr
r
r
3
Figure 5.4-11: The three dimensional contact segment showing the contact node s and
the closest point to the node on the surface r.
b,g is
Acp = xTsr A
(5.4-24)
where
A = r
(5.4-25)
b,g . At the
closest point these will be orthogonal to the vector x sr , which means that the first
variation of Acp should be zero. Let us define a new vector a cp representing the first
variation of Acp such that
a cp = A T x sr
(5.4-26)
At the closest point this vector should be zero. Carrying out a Taylor series expansion
of a we have
di
a cp + = a cp +
a cp
327
(5.4-27)
2 Acp = T x Tsr r
LM0 1OP +
N1 0Q
A A
T
is therefore
LM OP
N Q
0 1
a cp
T
T
= A A + x sr r
= D
1 0
(5.4-28)
(5.4-29)
0 = A T x sr + D
The iterative change in
(5.4-30)
is therefore
= D 1 AT x sr
(5.4-31)
k +1 = k +
(5.4-32)
Starting with an initial estimate for the contact location point the Newton Raphson
procedure is able to locate the point on the surface that satisfies the minimum of
(5.4-22). The criteria to check whether the initial estimate and all subsequent
estimates from the closest point iterations are acceptable is the norm of the first
derivative of Acp .
LM A OP
MN PQ
cp
(5.4-33)
compute a new estimate. The iterative procedure is continued until the criteria in
(5.4-33) is satisfied.
The Newton Raphson procedure can be summarised as
328
. In LUSAS this is = 0 .
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
via (5.4-31)
via (5.4-32)
Since the closest point iterations have been consistently linearised they should be
quadratically convergent.
Normal penetration and tangential gap
In order to derive the internal force vector and tangent stiffness matrix contributions
we need to make a number of definitions. The magnitude of the normal penetration is
defined as
g N = x sr =
(5.4-34)
x sr x sr
The unit vector normal to the contact surface at the closest point is defined as
n =
1
1
x sr =
x sr
x sr
gN
(5.4-35)
Note that special procedures are required to assign the correct sign to the normal
penetration and the unit normal vector.
For a four noded quadrilateral the displacement vector is defined as
p T = d sT , d1T , d T2 , d 3T , d T4
(5.4-36)
p T = d sT , d1T , d T2 , d 3T
(5.4-37)
For the tangential gap we need to make a number of further definitions. We first of all
need to store the contact location point when contact is first made in the initial phase
of contact.
To = o o
(5.4-38)
329
We also all require the orthogonal triad of vectors at this initial point of contact, E o .
E o = e1o , e2 o , e3o
(5.4-39)
where
e3 o = n o ,
e1o =
r o
r o
(5.4-40)
where the subscript o refers to the initial point of contact in the current phase of
contact and relates to a converged equilibrium state.
We now define a vector representing the initial contact point, X o , based on
coordinates of the undeformed configuration.
Xo =
h b , g X
i
i=1
(5.4-41)
where X i are the position vectors of the segment nodes in the undeformed
configuration. We also define a vector that represents the current contact location
point, X , based on coordinates of the undeformed configuration.
X =
h b, g X
i=1
(5.4-42)
Using (5.4-41) and (5.4-42) we can then define the tangential gaps as
gT =
RS g UV =
Tg W
T1
T2
e1o , e2o
bX X g
o
(5.4-43)
Note that the tangential gaps are related to the undeformed configuration, with the
only variable being the current closest point location in the local
system.
b, g coordinate
The penalty parameter is computed using geometric and material properties from the
elements that lie beneath the contact surface and surround the current segment under
consideration. The fixed penalty parameter, , is defined as
330
1 N
i
N i =1
(5.4-44)
i = sfac,i
ki li
2t i
(5.4-45)
i = sfac,i
ki Ai
Vi
(5.4-46)
s fac is the stiffness scale factor, k is the bulk modulus. For two dimensions l is a
characteristic length of the element and t is the thickness of the element. For three
dimensions A i and Vi are representatives areas and volumes respectively, taken as
the average of the areas and volumes of the surrounding elements. N is the number
of nodes defining the contact segment.
However, for a non-uniform mesh the stiffness of the adjacent elements will not be
the same in which case there will be a discontinuity in the penalty parameter across
the slideline. This may result in convergence problems and non-smooth movement as
a node moves across a segment. To remove this discontinuity LUSAS uses a variable
penalty parameter definition which varies linearly across a segment. For two
dimensions we have
= 1 1 + 2
(5.4-47)
h
i=1
where
(5.4-48)
i i
Formulations have been developed for both the fixed (5.4-44) and the varying
(5.4-47) penalty parameter in two dimensions. The variable penalty parameter
definition is the default specification in LUSAS for two dimensional problems. The
fixed penalty parameter definition can be used in 2D by specifying OPTION 353.
In three dimensions, however, the consistently linearised contact formulation is based
on the fixed penalty parameter definition from (5.4-46) and (5.4-48). The penalty
parameter is then averaged across the entire slideline to remove any discontinuities.
331
q icN = t N a
(5.4-49)
where t N is the normal contact force scalar which for the penalty method is
tN = g N
(5.4-50)
tN = N + g N
(5.4-51)
The vector a is obtained from a first variation of the normal penetration and
represents the normal contact force interpolation for the contact element, i.e.
g N = a T p
(5.4-52)
b g
K tcN = aa T + K tc t N
(5.4-53)
b g
K tc t N is the initial stress matrix and is associated with the second variation of the
normal penetration.
If a variable penalty parameter is being used (5.4-47) then the internal force vector is
modified to
q icN = t N a +
FG 1
H2
21 N
IJ
K
g 2N
f
lo
(5.4-54)
where the vector f has arisen from a first variation of the variable penalty parameter
in (5.4-47) and 21N is the difference between the normal penalty parameters of the
adjacent contact segments. The tangent stiffness matrix contribution is now
b g
K tcN = aa T + K tc t N + K tc1N
332
(5.4-55)
where K tc1N represents all the additional terms that have arisen out of the use of a
variable penalty parameter in the normal direction and specifically those associated
with the first and second variations of .
Normal contact in 3D
q icN = t N F n
where
(5.4-56)
t N is the normal contact force scalar, which for the penalty method is
tN = g N
(5.4-57)
tN = N + g N
(5.4-58)
g N = n T F p
(5.4-59)
where
F = I 3 , h1 I 3 , K , h N I 3
(5.4-60)
where I3 is a 3x3 unit matrix, N is the number of nodes defining the contact segment
and n is the unit normal vector.
b g
K tcN = N F T nn T F + K tc t N
b g
where K tc t N
variation of
(5.4-61)
gN .
Sticking friction occurs when a frictional slideline has been chosen but the tangential
force scalar has not violated the yield function (see section 5.4.4.7 for details of the
yield function). With sticking friction the contact contribution to the energy function
associated with the tangential gap is
333
PcT =
1
Tg T2 in 2D
2
(5.4-62)
PcT =
1
T g TT g T in 3D
2
(5.4-63)
A cT =
1
Tg 2T + Tg T in 2D
2
(5.4-64)
A cT =
1
T g TT g T + TT g T in 3D
2
(5.4-65)
The internal force vector contribution for sticking friction is obtained from a first
variation of either (5.4-62) or (5.4-64) and is
q icT = t T f
(5.4-66)
where tT is the tangential force scalar, which for the penalty method is given by
tT = T g T
(5.4-67)
tT = T + T g T
(5.4-68)
The vector f in (5.4-66) is derived from a first variation of the tangential gap and in
this context represents the interpolation of the tangential contact force across the
contact element as a result of sticking friction.
g T = f T p
(5.4-69)
b g
K tcT = T f f T + K tc t T
(5.4-70)
bg
K tc tT is the initial stress matrix and is associated with the second variation of the
tangential gap.
334
If a variable penalty parameter is being used then the internal force vector
contribution is modified to
q icT =
FG t
H
IJ
K
1
g2
21T T f
2
lo
(5.4-71)
b g
K tcT = T f f T + K tc t T + K tc1T
(5.4-72)
where K tc1T represents all the additional terms that have arisen out of the use of a
variable penalty parameter in the tangential direction and specifically those associated
with the first and second variations of T .
If we combine both the normal and tangential components of the internal force vector
contribution we obtain
q ic = B t
T
where
(5.4-73)
RSf UV
Ta W
RS t UV
Tt W
B =
t =
and
(5.4-74)
Similarly, combining the normal and tangential components of the tangent stiffness
matrix contribution gives
bg
K tc = BT C B + K tc t
where
C =
LM
N0
OP
Q
and
(5.4-75)
bg
b g
b g
K tc t = K tc t T + K tc t N (5.4-76)
If we now consider the use of a variable penalty parameter, the combined internal
force vector is now given by
T
q ic = B t +
FG
H
IJ
K
1
g2
g2
21 N + 21T T f
2
lo
lo
335
(5.4-77)
where the vector f , although the same as in (5.4-66), now does not have a unique
definition but is more a result of the mathematical derivation.
The combined tangent stiffness matrix contribution is now
bg
K tc = BT C B + K tc t + K tc1
(5.4-78)
where
(5.4-79)
With cross-segment movement the form of the internal force vector and tangent
stiffness matrix contributions is the same except that we now have
B =
where f
RSf UV
Ta W
csm
T
csm
T
(5.4-80)
the initial stress matrix and terms arising from the use of a variable penalty parameter
are now different [A7]. The cross-segment movement formulation reduces to the
single segment movement formulation when movement is within the same contact
segment.
If the augmented Lagrangian method is being used with sticking friction then the
tangential Lagrangian multiplier update is
kT+1 = kT + Tg T
(5.4-81)
The tangential Lagrangian multipliers are carried out for as long as the current node is
active in the normal direction. This also applies to the case where the normal
Lagrangian updates have resulted in the normal penetration satisfying the pre-set
tolerance, indicating that no more normal Lagrangian updates are required. The
tangential Lagrangian multiplier updates are carried out until the pre-set tolerance for
the tangential gap has been satisfied. The internal force vector and tangent stiffness
matrix contributions are the same in form as those for the penalty method except that
they are now based on the forces in (5.4-51) and (5.4-68).
Sticking friction in 3D
For three dimensional sticking friction the internal force vector contribution is given
by
1
q icT = YD AX t T
(5.4-82)
336
where
tT =
LM g OP
N g Q
T T1
(5.4-83)
T T2
and where
bg
YT = A T F + g N n
A X = e1o , e2o
X , X
(5.4-84)
Ln C OP ,
b ng = M
MNn C PQ
T
(5.4-85)
C = 0, h1 I 3 , h 2 I 3 , h 3 I 3 , h 4 I 3
(5.4-86)
C = 0, h1 I 3 , h 2 I 3 , h 3 I 3 , h 4 I 3
(5.4-87)
The term YD AX is derived from a first variation of the tangential gap and in this
context represents the interpolation of the tangential contact forces across the contact
element as a result of sticking friction.
g T = AX D 1 YT p
(5.4-88)
K tcT = T Y D AX AX D Y
b g
+ K tc t T
(5.4-89)
b g is the initial stress matrix for sticking friction associated with the
where K tc t T
second variation of the tangential gaps and the vector of tangential force scalars.
Combining the normal and tangential contributions to the internal force vector and
tangent stiffness matrix contribution we have
q ic = B t
T
(5.4-90)
bg
and
K tc = BT CB + K tc t
where
K tc t = K tc t N + K tc t T
bg
b g
(5.4-91)
b g
337
LA D Y OP , C = LM I
B = M
MN n F PQ
MN 0
1
where
OP , t = RS t UV
PQ Tt W
T
(5.4-92)
The concept of friction is analogous to plasticity and is dealt with in a similar manner
[M7, C17]. With Coulomb friction the yield function is given by
f = sTtT + s N t N
(5.4-93)
f = t T + s N t N
where
tT
tN
, sN =
tT
tN
sT =
and where
(5.4-94)
(5.4-95)
The forces at the elastic trial point are given by (5.4-50) and (5.4-67) in two
dimensions, and by the following equations in three dimensions.
t NB = N g N
t TB =
(5.4-96)
RSt UV = RS g UV
Tt W T g W
T1
T T1
T2
T T2
(5.4-97)
If the forces at the elastic trial point result in f < 0 the friction is sticking and the
formulation of section 5.4.4.6 is applied. If, however, these forces result in the yield
function in (5.4-93) exceeding zero the forces are in the slip region and need to be
returned to the yield surface to ensure that f = 0 . In LUSAS a backward Euler return
procedure is used to give a simple return mapping.
The returned contact force is given by
338
t C = t A + C g g p
(5.4-98)
where the subscript C indicates the returned position and A indicates the status at the
end of the last increment. The matrix C is defined in (5.4-76). g are the
incremental gaps
g =
RS g UV
T g W
T
(5.4-99)
and g is the plastic slip, used to return the forces to the yield surface. It is made up
p
g p = b
(5.4-100)
With friction a non-associative flow rule has to be used. Using an associative flow
rule would result in plastic slip in a direction normal to the contact surface which is
physically unrealistic. The plastic slip is therefore given by
g p =
RS UV = b
T W
sT
f
=
0
t T
(5.4-101)
t B = t A + C g
(5.4-102)
t C = t B C b B
(5.4-103)
t NC = t NB
(5.4-104)
t TC = sTs N t NB
(5.4-105)
339
q ic = B t C
T
(5.4-106)
RS t
Tt
Rt
= S
Tt
tC =
where in 2D
tC
while in 3D
UV
W
UV
W
TC
(5.4-107)
NC
TC
NC
(5.4-108)
The tangent stiffness matrix is obtained from a first variation of the internal force
vector contribution.
T
K tc p = q ic = at NC + t NC a + ft TC + t TC f
(5.4-109)
Since changes have been made at the force level using a non-associative flow rule,
this will result in a non-symmetric tangent stiffness matrix.
b g
K tc = BT C t B + K tc t C
where for 2D
Ct =
LM0
N0
sTs N N
N
(5.4-110)
OP
Q
(5.4-111)
and in 3D
LM s
MM t
MM
N
N
Ct =
N NB
TB
LM I
N
s N N
t TB
t TB t TB
t TTB t TB
OP
Q
OP
PP (5.4-112)
PP
Q
0
0
t TB
The initial stress matrix is unchanged in form from that derived for sticking friction,
except that it is now based on the returned forces in (5.4-104) and (5.4-105).
If we are using a variable penalty parameter (2D only), the internal force vector
contribution is modified to
q ic = t NC a + t TC f +
FG
H
IJ
K
1
g2
g2
21 N + 21T T f
2
lo
lo
(5.4-113)
b g
K tc = BT C t B + K tc t C + K tcf1
(5.4-114)
where K tc1 contains all those terms that have arisen out of the use of a variable
penalty parameter.
gN
T
f f
lo
(5.4-115)
With cross-segment movement the form of the internal force vector contribution and
the tangent stiffness matrix contribution are the same except that the matrix B is now
defined in (5.4-80). The details of each contribution, are however, different. This
change applies to all of the frictional formulations to follow, both penalty and
augmented Lagrangian [A7].
Note that since the tangent stiffness matrix contribution is non-symmetric, frictional
slidelines require the use of OPTION 64 to specify the use of the non-symmetric
solver. This requirement applies to all non-symmetric slideline formulations that are
to follow. The option is set by default in LUSAS, except for explicit dynamics
problems.
Augmented Lagrangian method (2D only)
With the augmented Lagrangian method the formulations for the yield function, the
internal force vector and the tangent stiffness matrix are similar in form to those
obtained with the penalty method. The difference is that the forces at the elastic trial
point are given by (5.4-51) and (5.4-68). If these forces result in the yield function
(5.4-93) exceeding zero, the forces are in the slip region and need to be returned to
the yield surface. Using the backward Euler procedure and the procedure briefly
outlined in section 5.4.4.7 the returned forces are
t NC = t NB = N g N + N
(5.4-116)
t TC = sTs N t NB = sTs N N g N + N
(5.4-117)
The internal force vector contribution and the tangent stiffness matrix contributions
are the same as those for the penalty method, for both fixed and varying penalty
parameters, except that they are now based on the returned forces in (5.4-116) and
(5.4-117). The Lagrangian multiplier updates for sliding Coulomb friction in the
tangential direction are different to those for sticking friction.
kT = kT1 + T g T g Tp
341
(5.4-118)
kT = t TC
(5.4-119)
Other forms for the update can be found in [A7, L6, S14]
5.4.4.8 Symmetrisation of Coulomb friction - Augmented
Lagrangian 2D
f = sT t T s N N
where
s N =
(5.4-120)
kN
kN
(5.4-121)
t NC = t NB = N g N + N
(5.4-122)
t TC = s N sT N
(5.4-123)
q ic = t NC a + t TC f
(5.4-124)
The tangent stiffness matrix is obtained, as usual, from a first variation of the internal
force contribution. However, the returned tangential force is now based on the normal
Lagrangian multiplier which is fixed within the Newton Raphson iterative loop. The
variation of t TC is therefore zero. This means that the source of non-symmetry in the
tangent stiffness matrix has now been removed.
t NC = N a T p
(5.4-125)
t TC = 0
(5.4-126)
342
b g
K tc = BT C t B + K tc t C
(5.4-127)
where the initial stress matrix is based on the returned forces in (5.4-122) and
(5.4-123). The matrix in (5.4-127) is now symmetric where C t is now of the form
Ct =
LM0
N0
OP
Q
(5.4-128)
If the variable penalty parameter definition is being used then the internal force vector
contribution is now
q ic = t NC a + t TC f +
FG
H
IJ
K
1
g2
g2
21 N + 21T T f
2
lo
lo
(5.4-129)
bg
K tc = BT C t B + K tc t + K tc1
(5.4-130)
Note that because of (5.4-126) the matrix that accounts for terms arising out of the
f
use of the variable penalty parameter is now K tc1 from (5.4-79) rather than K tc1
from (5.4-115) thus removing the effect of friction on the variable penalty parameter
terms. See section 5.4.4.7 for changes associated with cross-segment movement.
Although the symmetrised augmented Lagrangian method can increase the speed of
the solution it generally lags one augmentation behind the non-symmetric version. It
requires a reasonable value for the normal Lagrangian multiplier, N , for accurate
results, which may mean that the method will require at least one Lagrangian
multiplier update for an accurate solution to be obtained. The method can be used by
specifying OPTION 354.
5.4.4.9 Corner Regions
A contact surface definition that has a discontinuous slope at segment junctions will
have regions below the surface that are either assigned to both adjacent contact
segments (convex surface) or assigned to neither adjacent segment (concave surface).
The latter is more problematic since a discontinuity exists below the surface in the
contact status and hence in the application of force and stiffness. This can result in
chatter and consequent convergence problems.
343
In two dimensions LUSAS deals with corner regions by recognising the fact that the
contact problem is effectively node-on-node. With straight sided segments a new set
of unit vectors, e sc1 and e sc 2 , is defined in the corner region that rotate with the
current node as it moves through the corner region. These are based on a vector that is
defined between the current node and corner node, which is the closest point on the
contact surface, i.e. the local node (see Figure 5.4-12). This vector, x sc , is then used
in the definition of the normal penetration and the internal force vector and tangent
stiffness matrix contributions. This definition ensures a truer reflection of the nodeon-node nature of the contact and will reduce chatter and consequent convergence
problems.
Within this philosophy the normal penetration is defined as
T
g N = xsc e sc1
(5.4-131)
The internal force vector contribution is derived from a first variation of the contact
contribution to the energy function of the system and is given by
q ic = N g N c sc
(5.4-132)
where csc is derived from a first variation of the normal penetration in (4.2-49). The
tangent stiffness matrix contribution, derived from a first variation of the internal
force vector contribution, is
K tc = N c sc cTsc +
tN
a sc a Tsc
gn
(5.4-133)
344
esc1
s - contact node
esc2
c
xsc
Corner region
Figure 5.4-12: Corner regions and the definition of the associated vectors.
With the augmented Lagrangian method the normal contact force scalar is
t N = NgN + N
(5.4-134)
q ic = t N c sc
(5.4-135)
K tc = N csc c sc +
T
tN
T
a sc a sc
gN
(5.4-136)
Alternative strategies that have not been adopted include assigning unit vectors from
the closest segment (the current segment) to the corner region (achieved within
LUSAS using internal slideline extensions) and redefining the unit vectors so that
they are an average of those from both adjacent segments (previously present within
LUSAS when no internal slideline extensions were specified). These, as well as a
number of other strategies, still have problems with chatter and the associated
convergence difficulties because of the definition of the unit vectors in the corner
region. Some additionally pose a problem with a viable consistent linearisation in the
LUSAS slideline algorithm.
For frictional problems a redefinition of the unit vectors is not necessary. The
combination of the normal penetration and tangential gap vectors should ensure a
smooth movement across the corner region [A7].
Corner regions in 3D
The bi-linear definition of each contact segment means that geometric discontinuities
exist at the boundaries between segments for both concave and convex surfaces. In
three-dimensions LUSAS deals with corner regions by recognising the fact that the
345
q icN = N g N F n c
T
(5.4-137)
and the tangent stiffness matrix contribution in the normal direction is modified to
b g
K tcN = N FT n c n cT F + K tc t N
(5.4-138)
The modification of the closest point in the corner region has to be such that the
following assumption (see section 5.4.4.3 regarding equation (5.4-26)) is always
maintained.
T
xsr A = 0
(5.4-139)
346
The closest point modification will, therefore, mean that at least one of the local
b, g variables will always be fixed. This will be reflected in the first and second
variations of the normal penetration, in that certain terms will be simplified or deleted
because derivatives and variations with respect to one or both of b , g will be zero.
The most obvious change will be that the form of the initial stress matrix for each
formulation will be different for each type of corner region.
The 3D LUSAS corner region formulation should, therefore, firstly ensure a realistic
modelling of contact in such regions and secondly ensure as smooth a movement as
possible through such regions.
5.4.4.10 Quadratic patch curved contact
The curved contact philosophy is based on improving the geometric definition whilst
aiming at the correct contact force distribution. This essentially means that two
interpolation functions are used, one for the geometric definition and the other for the
force distribution. The two function are imposed at the force level which means that
the tangent stiffness matrix contribution will naturally be non-symmetric. The curved
contact philosophy is analogous to a Petrov-Galerkin approach, whilst the standard
contact formulation is based on a Bubnov-Galerkin approach.
Research has shown that using contact with higher order elements will not pass the
contact patch test, except in special circumstances [C19].
Following the philosophy outlined above, the shape functions used to define the
geometry will be quadratic whilst those used to define the contact force distribution
will be linear. If we consider a linear two noded segment in two dimensions, this
means that the curved contact geometry is defined using three nodes. In which case
we have to consider a patch of two segments, one being the closest segment and the
second being the segment adjacent to the closest segment. This patch of elements will
be referred to as a quadratic patch. The set-up is illustrated in figure 5.4-13.
contact node
closest segment
closest adjacent segment
closest node
Figure 5.4-13: The 2D quadratic patch made up of two, two noded segments.
347
For a quadrilateral face in three dimensions, the curved contact geometry is defined
using nine nodes. In which case we consider a patch of four elements (the quadratic
patch) surrounding the closest point to the contact node on the contact surface. The
set-up is illustrated in figure 5.4-14.
contact node
Figure 5.4-14: The quadratic patch of four noded quadrilateral contact segments. The
shaded segment is the closest four noded segment to the contact node.
The same will also apply to triangular faces on the contact surface. The contact
geometry will be defined by a set of four, three noded triangles (the quadratic patch).
For the nodal contact force distribution, however, only the closest linear/bi-linear
segment will be considered with all quadratic patch configurations, since this will
provide the linear shape functions required to distribute the contact forces.
The contact problem
The general contact problem for frictionless contact has been described in section
5.4.4.1. With the proposed curved contact formulation the internal force vector in its
variational form is modified to
b g b g
q icN p = N g N h g N
(5.4-140)
b g is the normal penetration defined using the lower order shape functions
while bg g is the normal penetration based on the higher order shape functions.
where g N
N h
The change in (5.4-140) is designed to improve the accuracy of the force distribution
b g
in (5.4-
140) ensures that the force distribution is based on the lower order shape functions.
348
b g
geometry is mapped out, based closely on the higher order shape functions.
bt g
N h
b g
= N gN
(5.4-141)
The modified tangent stiffness matrix contribution is then derived from a first
variation of (5.4-140), so that we have
b g b g
pT K tcN p = N g N l g N
b g b g
+ N gN h 2 gN
(5.4-142)
The first observation of (5.4-142) is that the tangent stiffness matrix is nonsymmetric. The second is that the initial stress matrix, K tc
dbt g i , is unchanged
N h
from that based on the lower order shape functions, except that it now uses the higher
b g.
dbt g i = bt g bg g
pT K tc
N h
N h
(5.4-143)
N l
The following sections will derive the specific internal force and tangent stiffness
contributions.
The Quadratic Patches
The two dimensional quadratic patch is made up of two adjoining contact segments
(see figure 5.4-15), with each segment defined in figure 5.4-6. For example, nodes 1
and 2 in figure 5.4-6 correspond to either of the linear sub-elements in figure 5.4-15,
such as the segment defined by nodes 2 and 3.
s
n
2
1
t
3
Figure 5.4-15: The curved contact surface defined using the quadratic patch. s is the
contact node while r is the closest point to it on the curved surface.
The quadratic patch contact surface is described via conventional isoparametric shape
functions.
349
bg
r =
hb g x
i
i=1
(5.4-144)
g
b1 g , h
h l = h1 , h 2 , h 3
where h1 =
1
2
(5.4-145)
2
= 1 2 , h3 =
1
2
1 +
(5.4-146)
The displacement vector for the quadratic patch is
where d i =
lu , v q , and where
i
coordinate directions
figure 5.4-15.
(5.4-147)
The displacement vector associated with the linear lower order segment is
(5.4-148)
pl = Tlh pl
(5.4-149)
350
where p is the lower order displacement vector in its lower order format (5.4-148)
l
(a 6x1 vector) while p is the lower order displacement vector assembled such that it
l
In three dimensions the quadratic patch is made up of four contact segments, with
each contact segment defined in figure 5.4-9. For example, the quadrilateral segment
in figure 5.4-9 with nodes 1, 2, 3 and 4 would correspond to either of the linear subelements defined in Figure 5.4-16, such as the element defined by nodes 1, 5, 9 and 8.
3
2
s
5
6
9
8
r
1
7
4
Figure 5.4-16: The higher order quadrilateral and triangular contact patches,
showing the local axes and the patch definition nodes. s is the contact node while r is
the closest point to the contact node on the quadratic patch. Note that each patch
contains four corresponding contact segments of the type shown in figure 5.4-9.
The quadratic patch contact surface in three dimensions is also described via
conventional isoparametric shape functions.
b g
r , =
hb, g x
i=1
(5.4-150)
b g
r is the position vector of a point on the quadratic patch, , are the nondimensional coordinates used in the definition of the quadratic patch, h i are the
quadratic shape functions and x i is the current position vector of node i.
351
The integer n in (5.4-150) is the number of nodes defining the element configuration
under consideration. For the lower order definition there are four nodes defining the
quadrilateral contact segment, n = 4 , and three nodes defining the triangular contact
segment, n = 3 , while for the higher order definition there are nine nodes defining
the quadrilateral quadratic patch, n = 9 , and six nodes defining the triangular
quadratic patch, n = 6 . See figure 5.4-9 and figure 5.4-16 for each configuration.
For the lower order quadrilateral contact segment the shape functions can be found in
(5.4-20) while for the lower order triangular contact segment they can be found in
(5.4-21).
Considering the quadratic patch, the shape functions for a quadratic quadrilateral
patch are
h h = h1 , h 2 , h 3 , h 4 , h 5 , h 6 , h 7 , h 8 , h 9 (5.4-151)
where
b gb g , h = b1 gb1 + g ,
= b1 gb1 g , h = b1 + gb1 g ,
= c1 hb1 + g , h = b1 gc1 h
= c1 hb1 g , h = b1 + gc1 h ,
= c1 hc1 h
h1 =
1
4
h3
1
4
h5
h7
h9
1 + 1 +
1
2
1
4
1
2
1
2
1
4
1
2
h h = h1 , h 2 , h 3 , h 4 , h 5 , h 6
where
gb
(5.4-152)
h1 = 1 1 2 2 , h 2 = 2 1 ,
h 3 = 2 1 ,
h 4 = 4 1 ,
h 5 = 4
h6
b
g
= 4b1 g
pT = d1T , d T2 , ..., d Tn
(5.4-153)
352
lu , v q in 2D and d
T
i
lu ,
where d i =
respectively.
We also define a new vector
where
b g
= ,
In order to determine whether a node has penetrated the curved contact surface or not,
a computation of the closest point to the contact node on the surface is required. The
fact that the surface with quadratic patches is curved means that this is a non-trivial
process and requires an iterative procedure. The closest point is evaluated by solving
the following unconstrained minimisation
T
(5.4-154)
(5.4-155)
Minimise : A cp =
1
2
Minimise : A cp =
1
2
The Newton Raphson method can be used to solve these minimisations. The solution
to such a minimisation problem has already been derived for 3D bi-linear segments
and can be found in section 5.4.4.3, and the reader is referred to that section for full
details. In this section only those differences that are specific to quadratic patches in
both two and three dimensions will be highlighted.
Two dimensions
Acp = x Tsr x sr
x sr = r
where
r =
h i
x
i=1
is
(5.4-156)
where
(5.4-157)
(5.4-158)
Acp = x Tsr r
(5.4-159)
353
vector will be orthogonal to the vector x sr , which means that at this point the first
variation of Acp should be zero.
Acp = 0
(5.4-160)
Let us define a new term, a cp , representing the first variation of Acp such that
a cp = r T x sr
(5.4-161)
At the closest point this vector should be zero. Carrying out a Taylor series expansion
of a we have
bg
a cp + = a cp +
a cp
(5.4-162)
a is obtained from
The variation of
a cp = r T x sr
(5.4-163)
a cp = x srT r r T r = D
Incorporating (5.4-164) into (5.4-162) and noting that a cp
new estimate for
d + i = 0 (i.e. the
0 = r T x sr + D
The iterative change in
(5.4-164)
(5.4-165)
is therefore
1 T
r x sr
D
(5.4-166)
k +1 = k +
(5.4-167)
354
Starting with an initial estimate for the contact location point, the Newton Raphson
procedure is able to locate the point on the surface that satisfies the minimum of (5.4154). The criteria to check whether the initial estimate and all subsequent estimates
from the closest point iterations are acceptable is the norm of the first derivative of
Acp .
LM A OP
N Q
cp
(5.4-168)
If the estimate for does not satisfy this criteria another iteration is performed to
compute a new estimate. The iterative procedure is continued until the criteria in (5.4168) is satisfied.
The Newton Raphson procedure can be summarised as
7. Begin with an estimate for
. In LUSAS this is = 0 .
via (5.4-166).
via (5.4-167).
This iterative procedure is used to compute the closest point to the higher order
contact patch h . Since the closest point iterations have been consistently linearised
they should be quadratically convergent.
*
Three dimensions
In three dimensions, the main difference with the solution in section 5.4.4.3 is that the
second order partial derivatives with respect to and are no longer zero. This
means that the matrix D (c.f. (5.4-29) is now
T
D = E A A
(5.4-169)
where
355
E =
LMx r
MNx r
T
sr
T
sr
xsr r
T
xsr r
OP
PQ
(5.4-170)
The remainder of the solution and the procedure in locating the closest point is the
same as that in section 5.4.4.3. Note, however, that for the lower order function, r
and r are zero, which means that the diagonal terms in E (5.4-170) will also be
zero.
Frictionless curved contact
Normal penetration
Definitions
The magnitude of the penetration normal to the quadratic patch is
g N = xs r =
xsr xsr
(5.4-171)
where xs is the position vector of the contact node. The unit vector normal to curved
contact surface is defined as
n =
1
1
xsr =
xsr
xsr
gN
(5.4-172)
R| r U|
S| r V|
T W
R| r U| R| r
and n = S
|T r V|W S|T r
n = e3
in two dimensions
(5.4-173)
U| in three dimensions
V|
W
(5.4-174)
Both r and r are tangential to the curved contact surface while e3 is the unit
vector out of the page (according to the right hand rule). The advantage of the
definitions in (5.4-173) and (5.4-174) is that they also define the correct direction for
n out of the contact surface.
To assign the correct sign to the normal penetration we therefore have
356
g N = xsr n
(5.4-175)
t =
and
in two dimensions
r
e1 =
r
r
e2 = n e1
in three dimensions
(5.4-176)
(5.4-177)
g N = nT F ph
(5.4-178)
b g
gN
di
= al p
(5.4-179)
a lh = TTlh a l
(5.4-180)
In three dimensions the variation of the lower order normal penetration is evaluated in
the same way as for the higher order penetration, except that only lower order terms
are used. The variation can be found in (5.4-59) and is repeated here for convenience.
b g
gN
= n Tl F l p
(5.4-181)
357
the nodal force distribution we use the lower order function. In two dimensions,
substituting for g N l from (5.4-179) into (5.4-140) we have
h
q icN = N (g N ) h a l = t N h a l
b g
q icN = N g N h F l n l
(5.4-182)
l
N h
d i
In three dimensions, substituting for bg g
h
K tcN = N a l n F + K tc t N h
(5.4-184)
N h
and
b g
gN
181) into (5.4-142) gives the curved contact tangent stiffness matrix contribution as
d i
K tcN = N F Tl n l n Th F h + K tc t N h
l
(5.4-185)
The lower and higher order definitions use a different number of nodes to define the
relevant contact segment/patch. The lower order terms are therefore assembled at
those points in the patch configuration that relate to the closest lower order segment.
Curved contact and friction
Introduction
The underlying philosophy behind the quadratic patch approach will also be used
with frictional curved contact. The calculation for the tangential gap will be based on
the curved geometry while the internal force vector contribution will be based on, and
applied to, the closest linear/bi-linear segment. Details of the basic frictional
formulation for linear/bi-linear segments can be found in sections 5.4.4.6and 5.4.4.7
as well as [A7, C16].
In this section we cover the extensions to the quadratic patch curved contact
formulation that are required to encompass Coulomb friction. All formulations will be
derived for the penalty method.
358
Preliminary definitions
Modelling friction requires an estimation of the slip between the current and initial
points of contact. For curved surfaces this involves an integration across the surface
to compute the tangential gap. However, because of the complexities in computing
this integral and the fact that the first and possibly second variations of this integral
may be required, it has been decided, for the time being at least, to define the slip
using a linear approximation between the current and initial points of contact.
Preliminary definitions in two dimensions
Two tangential gap definitions are required, based on the lower and higher order
functions. The lower order definition, g Tl , can be found in equation (5.4-16) in
section 5.4.4.2 .
To define the higher order tangential gap we need to make a number of definitions
(see figure 5.4-17). We firstly need to store the initial contact location point, o . We
also require the unit normal and tangential vectors at this point, n o and t o
respectively, where
to =
r o
r o
no = e3 t o
(5.4-186)
and where r is the position vector of the closest point on the segment.
no
to
r( o )
r()
, X
o, X o
Figure 5.4-17: The curved contact surface defined using the quadratic patch. s is the
contact node while r is the closest point to it on the curved surface.
Xo =
h b
i=1
gX
(5.4-187)
359
where X i are the position vectors of the patch nodes in the undeformed configuration
b g are the shape functions for the quadratic patch. We also define a vector
and h
X =
h b gX
i=1
(5.4-188)
Using (5.4-187) and (5.4-188) we can then define the higher order tangential gap as
gTh = X X o t o
T
(5.4-189)
Sticking friction in 2D
Using the penalty method, the contact contribution to the energy of the system
resulting from the tangential gap is
cT =
1
2
Tg T2
(5.4-190)
The internal force vector contribution is usually derived from a first variation of
(5.4-190). With the proposed curved contact formulation, however, the internal force
vector is modified so that we now have
T
q icT p = Tg Th g Tl
(5.4-191)
Like the frictionless case, using lower order shape functions in the first variation of
the tangential gap results in a force distribution that is also based on the lower order
shape functions.
Following the work in [A7, C16] (see also section 5.4.4.6, the first variation of the
lower order tangential gap is
360
g T = f Tl pl
(5.4-192)
t Th = Tg Th
(5.4-193)
q icT = t Th f l
h
(5.4-194)
T
where f l = Tlh f l
(5.4-195)
where Tlh is a transformation matrix that reassembles the lower order vectors and
The tangent stiffness matrix contribution is derived from a first variation of the
modified internal force vector in (5.4-191).
pT K tcT p = t TT g T + t T 2g T
h
(5.4-196)
The first observation of (5.4-196) is that the tangent stiffness matrix is nonsymmetric, as is the case with frictionless contact. The second is that the initial stress
d i
matrix, K tc t Th , is unchanged from that based on the lower order shape functions
(see section 5.4.4.6), except that it now uses the higher order contact force scalar,
t Th .
d i=t
pT K tc t T
Th
2g T
(5.4-197)
To compute (5.4-196) we require the first variation of the higher order tangential gap
g T = t To X = t To X
(5.4-198)
is the variation of the closest point location in its local coordinate. This is more
general that that in the closest point computations since we now account for the
iterative displacements.
=
where
1 T
Y ph
D
(5.4-199)
bg
YT = g N h n + r T F
361
(5.4-200)
bg
n = nT C = nT 0, h1 I, ..., h n I
(5.4-201)
F = I, h1 I, ..., h n I
(5.4-202)
D = x srT r r T r
(5.4-203)
g T =
h
1 T
T
t o X Y ph
D
(5.4-204)
Using (5.4-192) and (5.4-204) in (5.4-196) gives the tangent stiffness matrix
contribution as
K tcT =
T
D
h T
d i
f l t o X Y + K tc t Th
T
(5.4-205)
Combining the normal and tangential contributions to the internal force vector and
tangent stiffness matrix contribution we have
ch
q ic = B l t h
(5.4-206)
cBh CcBh + K bt g
where K bt g = K d t i + K d t i
LMdf i OP
Lt X Y OP ,
where B =
, B = M
MNda i PQ
MN n F PQ
L 0 OP , t = RS t UV
C = M
N0 Q
Tt W
T
and K tc =
tc l
tc l
tc l
Nh
h T
l
tc l
T
0
h T
l
(5.4-208)
Th
(5.4-207)
(5.4-209)
Sticking friction in 3D
Using the penalty method, the contact contribution to the energy of the system
resulting from the tangential gap vector in three dimensions is
362
cT =
1
2
T g TT g T
(5.4-210)
As in two dimensions, the internal force vector contribution with the proposed curved
contact formulation is derived by modifying the first variation of (5.4-210), so that we
have
e j e j
q TicT p = T g T g T
h
(5.4-211)
e j are the tangential gaps defined using the lower order shape functions
while eg j are the tangential gaps based on the higher order shape functions. Using
the variation eg j in (5.4-211) ensures that the force distribution is based on the
lower order shape functions. eg j can be found in (5.4-88).
where g
T l
T h
T l
T l
The vector of tangential contact force scalars for the higher order contact definitions
is
bt g
T h
e j
= T gT
(5.4-212)
Following the work in [C16] (see also section 5.4.4.6) the internal force vector
contribution from (5.4-211) therefore becomes
q icT = YD A X
j bt g
l
(5.4-213)
T h
It is important to take care with the subscripts l and h in (5.4-213) since they define
the contact surface definition to which each term relates.
The tangent stiffness matrix contribution is then derived from a first variation of the
modified internal force vector in (5.4-211), so that we have
b g e j + bt g eg j
T
pT K tcT p = t T l g T
T h
(5.4-214)
T l
As has been observed earlier with the two dimensional case, the tangent stiffness
cb g h , is unchanged from
that based on the lower order shape functions (see section 5.4.4.6), except that it now
uses the higher order contact force scalars (5.4-212).
cb g h = bt g eg j
pT K tc t T
T h
T l
363
(5.4-215)
K tcT = T YD A X
j dA
l
D Y
+ K tc
cbt g h
T h
(5.4-216)
Combining the normal and tangential contributions to the internal force vector and
tangent stiffness matrix contribution we have
ch
q ic = B l t h
and
where
(5.4-217)
c h c h + K bt g (5.4-218)
K bt g = K db t g i + K cbt g h
(5.4-219)
LA D Y OP , C = LM I 0 OP , t = RSt UV
B = M
MN n F PQ
MN 0 PQ
Tt W
T
K tc = B l C B
tc l
N h
tc l
where
tc l
tc l
T h
T 2
T
(5.4-220)
A full description of friction in two dimensions can be found in [A7, C16] while in
three dimensions it can be found in [C16], as well as section 5.4.4.7 for both. Brief
details relevant to extending the theory to cover the quadratic patch curved contact
philosophy will be presented here. Note that the computations to determine whether a
node is in a slip or stick state and the return of the contact forces to the yield surface,
are all based on the higher order contact definitions.
The yield function for Coulomb friction can be found in (5.4-93) for two dimensions
and (5.4-94) for three dimensions. With quadratic patches all terms in those equations
relate to the higher order contact definition. The forces at the elastic trial point (B) are
given by
NB h
= Ng Nh
(5.4-221)
in 2D
bt g
bt g
TB h
= Tg Th
(5.4-222)
in 3D
bt g
TB h
RSt UV
Tt W
T1
T2
=
h
RS g UV
T g W
T T1
T T2
364
(5.4-223)
h
If the forces at the elastic trial point violate the yield function in (5.4-93) or (5.4-94),
the forces have to be returned to the yield surface. In this case we use a backward
Euler return procedure with a non-associative flow rule (see section 5.4.4.7, as well as
[A7, C16, M7] for further details), giving
bt g
bt g
b g
= bs s t g
L
O
bt g = MM bbst t g g PPbt g
Q
N
= t NB
NC h
in 2D
in 3D
TC h
(5.4-224)
(5.4-225)
T N NB h
N NB h
TC h
(5.4-226)
TB h
TB h
b g
Rt
where in 2D bt g = S
Tt
Rt
while in 3D bt g = S
Tt
T
q ic = B l t C
C h
TC
NC
C h
(5.4-227)
TC
NC
UV
W
UV
W
(5.4-228)
h
(5.4-229)
h
The first variation of the internal force vector leads to the tangent stiffness matrix
contribution as
ch ch
L 0
= M
N 0
T
K tc = B l Ct B
where in 2D C t
while in 3D
cbt g h
b s s g OP
b g Q
+ K tc
C h
N N T h
(5.4-230)
(5.4-231)
N h
LML s t LI t t OO
MMMMN t MN t t PQPPQ
MM LM st t OP
Q
N N
N
Ct =
T
TB TB
T
TB TB
N NB
TB
TB
TB
0
h
365
(5.4-232)
OP
PP
PP
Q
There are now two sources of non-symmetry, one from the use of mixed higher-lower
order functions in the contact definitions and the second is the friction moving from a
stick to a slip state requiring a modification of the tangential forces.
Curved tied slidelines
Two dimensions
The curved contact formulation can also be applied to two dimensional tied slidelines.
To do this we will define the displacement normal, g N , and tangential, g T , to the
contact surface, and incorporate both definitions into a single vector, g .
g =
RS g UV = LMt ,
Tg W Nn
T
s
T
s
R|d U|
h t O|d |
PS V
h n Q| M |
|Td |W
s
T
1 s
T
1 s
T
n s
T
n s
h t , K,
h n , K,
(5.4-233)
g = At p
(5.4-234)
where ns and t s are the unit vector normal and tangential to the contact surface
respectively.
For the lower order function we have
d i
g l = A t pl = A t Tlh ph = A t ph
l
(5.4-235)
g h = A t ph
(5.4-236)
Based on the curved contact philosophy outlined earlier, the internal force vector
contribution is
h T
ed i j g
q icN = N A t
h T
ed i j A
= N At
th
ph
(5.4-237)
ed i j A
K tcN = N A t
(5.4-238)
th
366
Once K tcN has been evaluated, the internal force vector contribution in the
q icN = K tcN ph
(5.4-239)
The tangent stiffness matrix is only evaluated once, while the internal force vector is
continually updated as the displacements change.
Three dimensions
The curved contact formulation can also be applied to three dimensional tied
slidelines. To do this we will take the displacement normal to the contact surface,
g N , and the vector of displacements tangential to the contact surface, g , and again
T
R|d U|
d
h e O| |
PSd V
h n Q| |
||dM ||
T W
(5.4-240)
s
R g U Le ,
g = S V = M
Tg W N n
T
t
T
h1 e t , h 2 e t , K ,
T
T
h1 n , h 2 n , K ,
t
T
LM e F OPp
MNn FPQ
T
g =
t
T
(5.4-241)
where n is the unit vector normal to the contact surface and e t is a matrix
containing the two unit tangent vectors e 1 and e 2 .
e t = e1 , e 2
(5.4-242)
pT = d1T , d T2 , ...,
d Tm
...,
d Tn
(5.4-243)
367
Based on the curved contact philosophy outlined earlier, the internal force vector
contribution is
R|SF e U|V g
|T F n |W
T
q icN = N
= N
t
T
(5.4-244)
K tcN = N
t
T
(5.4-245)
h
Once K tcN has been evaluated, the internal force vector contribution in the
q icN = K tcN p
(5.4-246)
As in two dimensions, the tangent stiffness matrix is only evaluated once, while the
internal force vector is continually updated as the displacements change.
Corner regions
With the quadratic patch curved contact algorithms the issue of corner regions
(regions at the junction between segments that are not covered by the definition of
any adjacent segments/patches) has not been eliminated completely. This is because
the definition of the curved geometry can cause the location of a closest point to lie
outside the region of the closest segment or the closest quadratic patch. In such
instances the contact problem is now node-on-node since the closest point is a node
rather than a segment or a patch.
Both two and three dimensional quadratic patches therefore use corner region
formulations developed earlier that deal with the node on node nature of such
problems. These formulation are independent of the geometric definition of the
adjacent segments/patches and have been successful in dealing with corner regions
with linear/bi-linear surfaces.
Both curved contact algorithms use the normal slideline extension philosophy to deal
with nodes that are on or close to slideline edges.
Non-standard 3D patch configurations
Not all surfaces can be modelled using the patch configurations in figure 5.4-16. In
order to provide an improved geometric definition when the standard patch
definitions are not available, for example at slideline edges and corners, a number of
additional patch configurations have been implemented.
368
All of these non-standard configurations are based on the four noded bi-linear
segment. Although each configuration has a different set of shape functions, the rest
of the derivations in this section (i.e. section 5.4.4.10) are the same, such as the
closest point computation and the internal force vector and tangent stiffness matrix.
The three segment, eight noded patch
8
7
6
3
h h = h1 , h 2 , h 3 , h 4 , h 5 , h 6 , h 7 ,
where
h1 =
1
4
gb
h 5 = 12
h 7 = 12
(5.4-247)
g , h = b1 gb1 + g ,
b1 + gb1 g , h = c1 hb1 + g ,
b1 gc1 h ,
h = c1 hb1 g ,
b1 + gc1 h
1 + 1 +
h 3 = 14
h8
1
4
369
1
2
1
2
s
5
r
3
6
4
h h = h1 ,
where
h1 =
h 2 , h3, h 4 , h5 ,
1
4
gb
1 + 1 +
g,
gb
h6
(5.4-248)
h 3 = 14 1 1 , h 4 =
1
4
c1 hb1 + g ,
1
2
h5 =
1
2
gb
h 2 = 14 1 1 + ,
h6 =
gb g ,
c1 hb1 g
1 + 1
2
370
using the standard solution procedure. The values for the slave nodes are then
interpolated from the local master segment.
The coordinates are subsequently updated normally.
5.4.5.1 Contact Cushioning
Contact problems regularly suffer from convergence problems when the status of a
contact node, as to whether it is in or out of contact, is being determined. The
convergence problems are caused by a discontinuity in the internal force vector and
tangent stiffness matrix when a node switches from being in contact to out of contact.
This applies to methods such as the penalty method that incorporate the inequality
contact constraint into the energy function to be minimised and have discontinuous
first and second derivatives across the admissible and inadmissible regions.
A node that is continuously switching between the two contact states will therefore
introduce such a discontinuity into the solution of the problem and will naturally lead
to a deterioration in convergence. Such a situation can arise when a contact node is
about to come into contact, about to leave the contact surface or very close to the
surface itself, whether below or above, when very small movements of the structure
can put a node just above or below the surface. Such problems generally occur within
the early iterations of an increment and can lead to an ultimate failure of convergence
if the status of a node is not fixed and settled quickly. This type of problem is
commonly referred to as chatter.
It is, therefore, desirable to have a method that is less sensitive to such a problem.
Contact cushioning is one such technique.
Contact cushioning formulation
The contact problem is defined in section 5.4.4.1. Zavarise et al., [Z7] propose a
method that ensures continuity in the first and second derivatives of the objective
function (here the contact contribution to the energy function, c , of the system)
between the admissible and inadmissible regions of the inequality constraint.
Translated to contact, this means that the internal force vector and tangent stiffness
matrix contributions are continuous between in contact and out of contact states.
The method they propose uses an exponential function to define c . The function
reduces the stiffness gradually as one moves away from the contact surface. In this
way the discontinuity between in and out of contact states is removed. At the limits
the function takes the form of the penalty and barrier methods.
The formulation should improve the convergence characteristics of contact problems
in general but specifically those that have a continually changing set of active contact
nodes. The function is shown graphically in figure 5.4-20.
371
The contact contribution, c , depends upon whether the node is above or below the
surface. When the node is above the surface, the contact contribution is
$t i
R| $
d
exp S
$
T| $t
U|
V|
W
c =
g N if g N 0
(5.4-249)
1
c = $ N g 2N + $t N g N
2
d $t i
N
$ N
if g N < 0
(5.4-250)
where t$N is an estimate of the normal contact force while $ N is the linear penalty
parameter chosen to give an acceptable level of penetration below the surface.
The internal force vector contribution is derived from a first variation of the energy
contribution and is given by
and q
q icN = t N a for 2D
(5.4-251)
= t N F n for 3D
(5.4-252)
icN
RS
T
$
t N = s$ N $t N exp N g N
s$ N $t N
UV
W
(5.4-253)
where
s$ N =
$t N
$t N
(5.4-254)
t N = $t N + $ N g N
(5.4-255)
The tangent stiffness matrix contribution is derived from a second variation of the
energy and is given by
372
b g
K tc = N aa T + K tc t N
in 2D
(5.4-256)
b g
K tc = N FT nn T F + K tc t N in 3D
and
(5.4-257)
b g is the initial stress matrix. Details of the initial stress matrices can
where K tc t N
be found earlier in section 5.4.4. For a node above the surface the penalty parameters
contribution to the tangent stiffness matrix contribution in (5.4-256) and (5.4-257) is
given by
RS
T
N = $ N exp
$ N
s$ N $t N
gN
UV
W
(5.4-258)
while for a contact node below the surface the contribution is given by
N = $ N
(5.4-259)
These changes affect all penalty formulations in section (5.4.4), such as the corner
region formulations, in a similar way.
Estimating
t$N
The contact cushioning formulation relies upon an estimate for t$N . This is only
computed at converged equilibrium states by making it equal to the total normal
contact force scalar at the end of the last converged equilibrium state, i.e.
t$Ni+1 = t iN
(5.4-260)
where i in this case represents the increment number. This effectively means that the
contact cushioning formulation does not begin to operate until after the first
converged equilibrium state has been reached. For nodes in contact the estimate
before the first converged equilibrium state is based on the penalty method
t$N = $ N g N
(5.4-261)
while for a node above the surface the estimate is based on the barrier method
t$N =
1
$ N g 2N
(5.4-262)
The estimate for t$N can be improved via an augmentation procedure similar to that
adopted by the augmented Lagrangian method. The update for t$N is
373
(5.4-263)
where k is the augmentation number. The convergence criteria for the augmentation
procedure is
cg
k +1
N
g kN TOL
(5.4-264)
Some points concerning the choice of t$N should be borne in mind. If t$N is less than
the exact value of the contact force then a certain amount of penetration will take
place. However, the solution obtained will be better than what would be obtained if
the penalty method were used. If t$N is larger than the exact value then there will be a
certain amount of gap opening and the solution obtained will be better than what
would be obtained if the barrier method were used.
Factoring of normal contact force estimate
The LUSAS system parameter SLFNCS allows the estimate for the normal contact
force scalar, t$N , to be factored for contact nodes that are above the surface. The
reason for its specification is that in some instances the estimate for t$N can either be
too large or too small for nodes above the surface. Force estimates that are too high
will produce an overall normal contact force that can increase the gap between the
contact node and the contact surface significantly. The use of the parameter allows
the experienced user some control over this estimate.
SLFNCS is used to (1) multiply the initial contact force scalar estimate, (2) multiply
the normal contact force scalar estimate at the beginning of an increment if the node
is above the contact surface according to
t$Ni+1 = SLFNCS $t Ni
(5.4-265)
where t$N is the value at the last converged equilibrium state, and (3) factor the force
estimate from the previous increment when the following condition applies at the
beginning of an increment when a node is above the surface.
i
NgN
i +1
then t$N
= SLFNCS $t Ni
(5.4-266)
Apart from initial estimates, the factoring by SLFNCS only takes place at the
beginning of the iterative loop and should not affect the iterative performance of the
formulation.
Continuous contact contributions above and below contact surface
The contact contribution to the energy function of the system in (5.4-249) and
(5.4-250) ensures continuity of its first and second derivatives between in contact
374
and out of contact states. A typical contact energy contribution is illustrated in figure
5.4-20 showing a smooth transition between admissible and inadmissible regions.
The first derivative of the energy function leads to the internal force vector
contribution. Figure 5.4-21 shows a typical variation of the normal contact force
scalar ,showing the smooth transition in both value and slope between in contact and
out of contact states.
The second derivative of the energy function leads to the tangent stiffness matrix
contribution. Figure 5.4-22 shows a typical variation of the normal penalty parameter
contribution in (5.4-258) and (5.4-259). The graph shows that there is a continuity in
value between in and out of contact states.
penetration
-2 .0
-1.5
0
-1.0
-0 .5
-50
0 .0
0 .5
1.0
1.5
2 .0
-10 0
-2 50
-3 0 0
-3 50
-4 0 0
energy modification
-150
-2 0 0
Figure 5.4-20: Typical graph showing the variation of the contact contribution to the
energy function of a system between in contact and out of contact states.
375
-1
-0.5
0.5
1.5
0.0
penetration
-1.0
-2.0
-3.0
-4.0
-5.0
-2
Figure 5.4-21: Typical graph showing the variation of the normal contact force scalar
between in contact and out of contact states.
3.0
2.5
2.0
penalty parameter
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-2.0
-1.5
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
penetration
Figure 5.4-22: Typical graph showing the variation of the penalty parameter between
in contact and out of contact states.
5.4.5.2 Separate Iterative Loop for Contact
376
a breakdown of the material model computations. These problems are due to the
computation of unrealistic deformations when the contact conditions are unresolved.
An alternative iterative strategy when significant material and contact nonlinearity is
present, is to separate the iterative solution for contact from the material response, by
maintaining constant material properties from the beginning of an increment until the
equilibrium conditions for contact have been satisfied. After the contact conditions
have been determined material nonlinearity is introduced and the solution allowed to
proceed to convergence. This dual pass approach should lead to a more stable
solution procedure.
The content of the two passes is as follows.
First pass
Second pass
In the first loop the material non-linearity is kept constant so that the only sources of
non-linearity are contact and geometric. For most non-linear material models this is
achieved by computing a tangent modulus matrix, D p , that is fixed and by
computing the stresses using an elastic relationship. With the rubber and crushable
foam material models the philosophy is slightly different but is still aimed at
removing the non-linear nature of the material model in the first loop.
Most non-linear material models
In the pre-solution of the problem the tangent modulus matrix is computed using
stresses and strains computed at the last converged increment. In this way D p , and
hence the stiffness matrix computed using D p , will remain fixed throughout the first
loop of the proposed procedure.
In the post solution of the problem, the stresses are computed according to the
following equation.
t = t 1 + D p
where
(5.4-267)
computed using
t1 , and
The rubber material model, implemented for large strain elements, offers four
different types of rubber specfication - Hencky, Ogden, Mooney-Rivlin and NeoHookean. In reality, however, there are only two basic models, Hencky and Ogden,
with the Mooney-Rivlin and Neo-Hookean special cases of the Ogden model. The
Mooney-Rivlin and Neo-Hookean models are processed in LUSAS by converting
377
their parameters into equivalent Ogden parameters and then solving for the equivalent
Ogden model.
In the context of a separate iterative loop for contact it is important to note that unlike
most other material models, rubber does not have a simple linear material model
component. The existing Hencky material model can, however, be regarded as a
generalisation of the linear material model for large strain problems. Indeed the
tangent modulus matrix relating the strain rates to the Jaumann rate of Kirchoff stress
for this material model reduces to the standard linear modulus matrix for all terms
related to the direct stress-strain rates. The shear term is close to the shear modulus,
provided the stretches are reasonably close to each other, so that the tangent modulus
matrix relating the strain rates to the Jaumann rate of Kirchoff stress may be given as:
h FGH K
D ijkl = ik jl + il jk +
IJ
K
2
ij kl
3
(5.4-268)
In the first loop of the separate iterative loops a tangent modulus matrix definition is
required that approximates the state of the material within the current increment in a
linear fashion, thus removing the non-linear nature of the material. For this reason the
Hencky material model definition is used in the first loop since it provides a
reasonable linear estimate of the general Ogden material models tangent modulus
matrix.
To achieve this approximation the parameters of the general Ogden model are
converted into an equivalent set of Hencky model parameters. The bulk modulus is
already defined for the Ogden model so that only a computation of the shear modulus,
G, is required. This is computed as follows
G=
1
p p
2 p
(5.4-269)
These parameters set up the equivalent Hencky model for the first loop. In the second
loop the analysis reverts back to the original Ogden material model definition.
Crushable Foam
The stress calculations for the crushable foam material model are based on a
relationship between pressure and relative volume, which means that it is not possible
to simplify the model into a linear relationship of the form in (5.4-267). However, in
order to achieve the same objective of linearising the calculations in the first loop, it
is possible to construct an equivalent linear relationship between the volumetric
pressure and the volumetric strain. The relationship is as follows.
pn = pn 1 ( v ,n v ,n 1 )sn1
(5.4-270)
and
378
sn = sn1
(5.4-271)
where:
is the volumetric pressure;
R|1U|
||11||
= S V
||0||
|T00|W
(5.4-272)
The deviatoric stresses are then calculated using the shear modulus, G , and the
deviatoric strains.
d = 2G d
(5.4-273)
= d
R|1U|
||11||
p S V
||0||
|T00|W
(5.4-274)
This formulation should give a reasonable linearised formulation for the first loop of
the separate iterative loops. In the second loop LUSAS reverts back to using the
standard crushable foam formulation.
Elements for which separate iterative loops apply
The elements that have been modified to enable them to function in the separate
iterative loops philosophy as presented in this section, are given in table 5.4-1.
379
ISTYP
Element Group
LUSAS elements
10
QPN4L, QAX4L
12
TSL6, QSL8
14
35
36
TSR6
41
HX16L, PN12L
(3D)
surface tolerance =
segment connected to local node
For a contact node that lies above the surface but within the surface tolerance,
the normal penetration, g N , is set to zero. When passed through the slideline
algorithm this has the effect of applying a stiffness at the surface, but no force.
It is this application of stiffness without force that helps stabilise problems suffering
from chatter and avoids rigid body motions when contact is initially being
established. In most cases only a factored stiffness is applied in the close contact
region and not the full stiffness. The stiffness is factored in the following ways.
380
The default value for SLSTCC is 0.001 and for SLSTPC the default is 1.0.
When using the closest contact facility a number of things have to be borne in mind.
The use of close contact can have an effect on the convergence performance of
a problem, slowing the rate of convergence. This can be overcome by
decreasing the system parameter SLSTCC so that the applied stiffness is small.
Reducing it to as low as 1e-6, say, will have removed much of the effect of
close contact on the convergence performance.
If chatter is still a problem after using close contact then use contact
cushioning instead. If this is not feasible then one can try to alleviate the
problem by increasing the close contact detection parameter and decreasing
SLSTCC to a small number, say 1e-6. This increases the surface tolerance to
capture nodes that are suffering from larger oscillations between in and out of
contact states, but then applies a small stiffness to ensure that the rate of
convergence does not deteriorate too much.
The close contact detection facility is not available for explicit dynamics.
5.4.5.4 Pre-contact detection
(5.4.275)
Subject to:
gN = 0
(5.4.276)
The constraint (5.4.276) effectively means that there should be no gap between the
contact node and the opposite surface. This means that the contact node will always
be pushed towards the opposite surface regardless of whether the node lies above the
surface or below it. The two surfaces of a slideline specified as being in pre-contact
381
will, therefore, be pulled together such that no gap exists between the surfaces at any
point along the slideline.
The effect of this will be that two bodies that are apart initially will be pulled into
contact, by the application of force and stiffness coming form the equality constrained
definition, and the externally applied load. The direction in which the free body
moves, however, is dependent the support conditions on the free body as well as these
forces.
After the bodies have been pulled together by the pre-contact procedure in the first
iteration, the standard slideline algorithm is then used to proceed with the rest of the
problem. Pre-contact is also only applicable to static analyses and is required when an
initial gap exists between slideline surfaces that should be in contact and a loading
type other than PDSP or TPDSP is applied.
The internal force vector and tangent stiffness matrix contributions, in form, will be
the same as those derived in section 5.4, the only difference being that this force and
stiffness will always be applied. The penalty parameter that is used can be factored
using the system parameter SLSTPC. The default value of SLSTPC is 1.0.
There are a number of issues to note, however, with the use of the pre-contact facility.
Incorrect use of this procedure can lead to initial straining in the bodies or to
an undesired starting configuration. This can occur if the pre-contact facility is
used indiscriminately, since this will force all slideline surfaces together. If a
reasonable estimation can be made of where initial contact will occur, it is
recommended that pre-contact is used selectively on only the relevant
slidelines, minimising initial straining and giving more control over the
direction of the rigid body movement can be exercised.
If an estimation of possible contact regions is not possible then more, if not all,
of the slidelines can be specified as pre-contact. The system parameter
SLSTPC should then be decreased to a small number, such as 1e-6, to
minimise initial straining. However, since pre-contact is only applied in the
first iteration, the effects of the initial straining, if it does occur, should
disappear after the iterations of the first increment lead to convergence. The
initial applied loading should also be small enough to prevent unrestrained
rigid body motion since the contact forces may be relatively small depending
upon the initial configuration. This approach tends to be less stable and is
therefore not recommended.
In practice a combination of the two approaches may be necessary. In order to satisfy
oneself that the correct starting configuration has been attained, warning messages are
printed to the output file for each iteration of the first increment if the surface of any
slideline defined as being in pre-contact are not in contact.
***WARNING***
THE SURFACES OF SOME SLIDELINES WHICH HAVE BEEN DEFINED FOR PRECONTACT ARE NOT IN CONTACT:
NO CONTACT HAS BEEN DETECTED FOR SLIDELINE NUMBER
a
NO CONTACT HAS BEEN DETECTED FOR SLIDELINE NUMBER
b, etc.
382
This information can be used to re-asses which slidelines to include for pre-contact,
or even carry out a redefinition of the slidelines themselves, if convergence
difficulties are experienced in the first increment.
Slideline Modelling Considerations
There are a number of implications of this statement which will be considered. With
force loading the displacements induced in the first iteration of the first increment will
be unrestrained since the two bodies will be initially unconnected initially. This
unrestrained motion may not be recoverable in subsequent iterations and, hence, the
solution will not converge. It is, therefore, necessary to apply restraints to any bodies
which are initially unrestrained.
Typical examples in which this problem will be found are
Independent washers between mating parts
Centrally supported pin within lug
Problems in which slidelines constitute the only support for the component
Note that the contact process over the first 2-3 increments typically requires small
load increments in order to establish and stabilise the contact conditions, but which
may subsequently be increased as the analysis progresses. There are currently three
options open to the user in order to eliminate this mechanism
Dummy supports
Apply dummy support conditions to the free body which will permit a small
amount of deformation and hence generate contact elements which will 'join' the
two bodies together. Released these dummy supports in the second load case to
allow the complete deformation to take place.
Initial pdsp
Using PDSP loading eliminates any problem because of the control on the
deformations involved in this loading type.
Initial tied slideline
By using a tied slideline, the load may be incremented to establish contact
conditions at which point the tied slideline is changed to a penalty slideline.
Summary of slideline modelling considerations
Only the expected region of contact should be defined as a slideline surface for
tied slideline analyses.
Explicit dynamics elements only may be utilised to define a slideline surface
in an explicit dynamics analysis
383
384
be compatible with the slideline algorithm. This is generally not advised since
it may lead to a slightly stiffer solution.
385
For convection across an open gap, two situations are identified. If the gap is
considered narrow enough, links will be set up between the surfaces; for larger gaps,
where it is expected that convection will play a decisive role in heat transfer, heat will
be released to environmental nodes, whose role will be to approximate the behaviour
of the combined air mass filling the gap. The environmental nodes will have a
specific heat capacity associated with them, along with a means of releasing energy to
the general environment via conductivity. They may also be connected to other
environmental nodes with links. Heat will then be able to flow between surfaces
connected to the node without directly specifying the mechanism of heat transfer.
This procedure must be included since, if no links are provided at a surface, then that
surface becomes insulated, leading to overheating.
Diffuse radiation is considered when gaps are large between surfaces that absorb all
incident energy and reflect none since each surface radiates a fraction of its total
radiative energy to the surfaces of which it has a direct view. This re-radiation
depends on the temperatures of the surfaces so, in order to model radiative exchange
between the surfaces, the radiation view factors for all the element faces need to be
computed. These are used to assemble a conductance matrix that fully describes the
diffuse radiative exchange between all the element faces including re-radiation from
any element faces.
One of the key concerns in the formulations is that of numerical efficiency. The
update of the conduction/convection links and radiation conductance must be
performed speedily and with reasonable accuracy since during coupled problems they
may need to be updated iteratively as well as incrementally.
q = hc A t j t i
(5.5-1)
t i and t j the nodal temperatures. The minus sign appears as the temperature drops in
The effective area is defined as the average of the areas connected by the link. The
energy flowing along the link is constant. From (5.5-1), for fixed nodal temperatures,
A j + Ai j i
q = hc
t t
2
(5.5-2)
386
q = q i Ai = q j A j
(5.5-3)
The nodal areas are calculated by considering a uniform flux applied to the segment
surface. The nodal load of node i produced by the uniform flux is calculated by
integrating
q i = q N i dA
(5.5-4)
Area
where N is the shape function associated with node i. For a unit flux (5.5-4) may be
interpreted as nodal area which is multiplied by a constant flux to calculate the nodal
loads
A Ii = N i dA
(5.5-5)
Area
The capital superscript I has been introduced to denote the segment to which the
nodal area relates, this is shown in figure 5.5-2. More than one nodal area may relate
to one node.
ti
tj
qi
Aj+Ai
2
qj
Ai
Aj
387
node i
Segment I
In order to set up the links the nodal area from each segment is projected onto the
opposing surface along the normal to the surface. To account for the double counting
of projecting two facing surfaces onto each other, the conductivity of the gap is taken
to be one half of that specified in the gap properties.
Further considerations that are required for the conductive and convective links are
described in the following sections.
5.5.2.1 Contact heat transfer
(5.5-6)
In LUSAS, the conductivity of the gas and the spots will be summed to provide a gap
conductivity. On contact the length of the links, , will be negative since contact is
calculated using a penalty algorithm (for penalty algorithms the two surfaces must
overlap to a degree defined by the surface stiffness parameters). The contact surface
area is, therefore, defined to be the sum of those nodal areas connected to the contact
node i which has a negative . An unscaled common normal of the areas is then
defined to be the average of the normals of each of the contributing nodal areas. The
contact force vector F is projected onto the common normal vector to produce the
applied normal force Fn in the direction of the contacted surfaces:
Fn = F .
n avg
(5.5-7)
n avg
The surface pressure is then found by dividing the normal force by the contact
surface area
P=
Fn
(5.5-8)
Mi
M =1
For convection, the normals defining the direction of flow from the nodal areas are
evaluated from edges linking adjacent nodes. The nodal area will be referred to as
A Ii where the uppercase letter signifies the segment and the lowercase the segment
Ii
node. The ray originating from nodal area A is then
r = x + v + n
Ii
Ii
(5.5-9)
where v is defined to be a vector one quarter size of the vector connecting node i to
the segment centroid (see figure 5.5-3). The intersection of this normal with a
segment from either the same surface or an adjacent surface is then sought. The
intersection of the ray direction (5.5-9), with the segment surface yields the local
coordinates of the point of contact and in addition to , the distance between
the node and the surface.
The conductivity across the gap between the elements can be extracted as a function
of the separation of the surfaces . If the gap is too large, no flow is permitted
389
between the surfaces and heat flux will flow directly to an environmental node or to
the environment.
Heat fluxes from unassociated areas given by q
nodes or allowed to convect to the environment via
q Iie = A Ii hc t e t j
Iie
(5.5-10)
nIi
i
v
j
xIi
The heat flow through a two dimensional link connecting node i with the segment
defined by nodes 1 and 2, can be expressed as
390
q = KAN T N t
(5.5-11)
where K is the link conductivity, A is its nodal area, and N and t are defined as
c b g b gh
= bt , t , t g
N = 1,W1 ,W2
t
dq
dK
T
T
= KAN N +
AN N t N
dt
d
(5.5-12)
Two options are available in LUSAS to solve equation (5.5-12). Firstly, the nonsymmetric component of the matrix is symmetricised and secondly, the nonsymmetric solver may be used with the full matrix.
Similar equations can be formulated for three dimensional elements where N is now
a function of the surface coordinates
b,g .
The efficient solution of the intersection of lines with surfaces is of vital importance
since the definition of the heat transfer is in terms of flows in known directions from a
surface. Careful definition of the thermal surfaces will reduce the searching. Two
simple tests are conducted as an initial test for intersection.
The first test checks that the element is facing towards the direction of the nodal ray.
This is done be calculating the angle of the incoming ray r with respect to the
c
segment normal n . Taking the dot product of these vectors evaluates the cosine of
the angle between the vectors. If the cosine of the angle is less than zero then
intersection is possible
n .r < 0
c
(5.5-13)
A second test then checks for the intersection of the ray with a sphere bounding the
element surface (see figure 5.5-4)
391
E. E r. E < r 2
(5.5-14)
where E is the vector connecting the point of emission of the ray r with the
centroid of the element surface; r is the radius of the bounding sphere. If this test is
positive then intersection with the element is almost assured and the equations may be
solved for the intersection location. If the links have already been calculated, an
update of geometry may cause only slight modifications in their point of intersection
with the opposing surface with new links forming with adjacent elements to the initial
intersection. In order to improve the efficiency of the search these segments are
checked in order of increasing distance from the position of the last link.
r.E
E.E
392
The radiative view factor between two surfaces is defined as the fraction of radiative
energy leaving one surface that is incident on the other surface directly. If two
surfaces do not have a direct view of each other then the view factor between them is
zero. The view between two surfaces may be obscured by the surfaces themselves
(self shading) or by other surfaces in the enclosure (third surface shading).
The calculation of radiation view factors is split into three parts for the three
geometry types, 2D planar, axisymmetry and 3D, because each geometry type uses a
different method for the evaluation.
The following symbols are defined for use in all the view factor calculations
Lij
Aij
Ai
Fij
Sij
Sij = Ai * Fij
393
j
dAj
i
r
dAi
From figure (5.5-5) the general equation for a view factor between two surfaces is
given by the double integral over the two surface areas
Fij =
1
Ai
zz
Ai
b g b g
Aj
(5.5-15)
r *r
where
i
j
= angle between the outward normal to surface 1 and the line connecting
surfaces 1 and 2
= angle between the outward normal to surface 2 and the line connecting
surfaces 2 and 1
394
Sij = S ji
Ai * Fij = Aj * Fji
ij
= Ai
j =1
Fii = 0.0
all view factors, irrespective of the geometry, must lie in the range
0.0 Fij 10
.
summation of direct-interchange areas. Consider two surfaces 1 and 2: if
surface 1 is split into two parts A and B then the direct-interchange area from
surface 1 to 2 is equal to the sum of the direct-interchange areas from the subsurfaces of surface 1 to all of surface 2
S12 = SA2 + SB2
If surface 2 were split into two parts C and D then
S12 = SAC + SAD + SBC + SBD
5.5.3.2 2D Planar view factor calculation
The simplest method for the calculation of view factors in 2D planar geometry is
Hottel's Crossed Strings Method [H12]. This method is only applicable to surfaces
with a very high ratio of length to width. In 2D planar geometry this is the case
because the length of the surfaces tends to infinity.
Modifications to the method are necessary for the following cases
Self shading occurs when the orientation of two segments is such that the
view between the two segments is blocked by the segments themselves. For
example, in 2D planar geometry, two segments may be facing away from each
other so they have no view of each other at all, this is total self shading.
Third surface shading occurs when two segments have some view of each
other but their total view of each other is blocked by some other segment or
segments.
In general, to calculate the view factor between two segments with self or third
surface shading, the segments are first split into a number of sub-segments. The view
factor between each sub-segment is then calculated and summed to give the view
factor between the two segments. The number of sub-segments used is controlled by
395
the user and the view factor accuracy will increase as the number of sub-segments
increases.
5.5.3.3 Axisymmetric view factor calculation
In 3D geometry the view factor may be calculated in three possible ways as detailed
in reference [S11]
Area integral
Line integral
MS Line integral
396
are set up. If the sub-segment outward normal forms an angle of more than 90 degrees
with the connecting line then that connecting line can be cancelled because the two
nodes connected by the line cannot see each other. If the connecting line intersects
any of the other segments then again it can be cancelled because the view between the
nodes is blocked by some third surface. Having tested all the connecting lines if all
lines have been cancelled it is then assumed the sub-segments cannot see each other
at all. If some lines remain then the view factor between the sub-segments is
calculated assuming the sub-segments have a full view of each other and this view
factor is then factored by the ratio of connecting lines remaining to the initial number
of connecting lines. This is of course only an approximation to the view factor and the
accuracy will increase as the number of sub-segments is increased.
5.5.3.5 Diffuse radiation matrix method
In this section a matrix connecting nodal temperatures and surface fluxes is derived
for the finite element solution of radiative heat transfer problems.
The following assumptions are made
absorptivity = emissivity
reflectivity = 1 - emissivity
ei
pi
Fij
Ti
Gi
Ji
SB
Ei
Qi
Qij
ei = 10
.
(Kelvin)
(Watts)
= Stefan-Boltzmann constant
(Watts/unit area/Kelvin )
4
(Watts/unit
(Watts)
(Watts)
= area of surface I
Ai
For n radiating surfaces the flux incident on surface i is the sum of the radiosity of the
n surfaces multiplied by their respective view factors to surface i
J i = Ai . ei . Ei + p i . Gi (Watts)
rearranging gives J i pi . Gi = Ai . ei . Ei (Watts)
Substituting for Gi from (5.5-16) gives
LM1 p . F
MM pp .. FF
MN p . F
1
11
12
13
14
p1. F21
p1. F31
p1. F41
1 p2 . F22 p2 . F32
p2 . F42
p3. F23 1 p3. F33 p3. F43
p4 . F24
p4 . F34 1 p4 . F44
OPR| J U| LM A .e . E OP
PP|S JJ |V MM AA ..ee .. EE PP
PQ||T J ||W MN A . e . E PQ
1
lq l
KJ J = A. e. E
(Watts)
(5.5-17)
lJ q = KJ l A. e. Eq (Watts)
1
Qij
Qi = Qi1 + Qi 2 + ........ + Q in
Therefore for a set of 4 surfaces
398
R|Q U| LM F
|SQ |V = M
||Q || MM
TQ W N
1
12
+ F13 + F14
F12
F13
F14
F21
F31
F32
F31 + F32 + F34
F34
F41
OPR| J U|
F
|S J |V
P
PP| J |
F
+ F + F Q |T J |W
F41
42
43
42
43
lQq = KF lJ q
(Watts)
(5.5-18)
lQq = KF
KJ
l A.e. Eq
(Watts)
4
The black body emissive power of surface i, Ei = SB. T i (Watts/unit area), from
which a matrix connecting surface temperatures and radiation fluxes may be obtained.
lQq = KF
KJ
m A.e. SB.T r
4
(Watts)
(5.5-19)
lQq = C .mT r
4
where
(Watts)
For the non-linear finite element solution Newton-Raphson iteration is used so the
derivative with respect to temperature of the vector (Q) is required
(5.5-20)
The above equations are general and allow for the variation of emissivity with
temperature, in which case the derivative term d[C]/dT is non-zero.
It should be noted that this matrix is non-symmetric and in the general case will have
a bandwidth equal to the size of the matrix, that is the number of nodes defining all
the segments in the radiation surface.
5.5.3.6 Symmetry in radiation problems
condensed to remove the symmetrical surfaces that have been generated. The solution
obtained is then exactly the same as would be obtained if the whole problem was
modelled.
The user specifies a series of planes that LUSAS uses successively as mirrors to
generate the whole model. For example: suppose the problem shown in figure (5.5-6)
is symmetric so that only 1/8 of the model (1 -> C -> 2) needs to be used. Three lines
of symmetry would be defined 1->C, 2->C, 3->C. Mirroring the model in line 1->C
would generate 1/4 of the model, mirroring the model in line 2->C would generate
1/2 of the model and mirroring the model in the line 3-C would complete the model.
Commands in LUSAS enable the user to define lines of symmetry (or planes of
symmetry in 3D geometry) which can then be assigned to the radiation surface so that
radiation can be correctly modelled in problems involving symmetry.
400
whole model
2 -> c
->
3 -> c
401
402
Post-Processing Facilities
6 Post-Processing
Facilities
6.1 Nodal Extrapolation
In elements formulated using numerical integration, the stresses are obtained by
integrating the constitutive relationship at the element Gauss points. Nodal stresses
are then obtained by extrapolation from the Gauss points. This is achieved by
1. Defining a fictitious element with nodes at the element Gauss points
2. Extrapolating the stress or strain to the nodal points of the real element using the
shape functions of the fictitious element, i.e.
i i ,i = N I i ,i i
I =1
N
(6.1-1)
i i ,i = N I i ,i i
I =1
(6.1-2)
where N is the number of Gauss points, and subscripts i and I denote nodal and Gauss
point values respectively. The averaged nodal stresses are then obtained by evaluating
the mean of the extrapolated nodal values.
Notes
For shell elements, the local Gauss point stresses and strains are transformed
to global stresses and strains before extrapolation to the nodes. The mean
global stresses are then transformed to the local shell system at the nodal point
before evaluation of the nodal stress resultants.
For elements with a single Gauss point, the stresses and strains are assumed to
be constant over the element.
Stress extrapolation cannot be utilized with the 13-point and 14-point
integration rules of the solid elements (HX16,HX20).
403
failure cracks
t
Ax
Ay
Nxy
Nxy
y
x
Nx
Ny
h
404
Post-Processing Facilities
If the tension design stress at the ultimate limit state of the reinforcement is f and the
reinforcement areas are Ax and Ay , the reinforcement forces are:
N x* = Ax f s
(6.2-1)
N *y = Ay f s
(6.2-2)
For a failure of the slab by yield, associated with the opening of cracks, at a certain
direction n (given by the angle , see (fig.6.2-1)), the resistive force may be expressed
as:
N n* = N x* cos2 + N *y sin 2
(6.2-3)
(6.2-4)
For equilibrium the resistive and applied forces must be the same, i.e.,
N n* = N n
(6.2-5)
cN
*
x
hd
N x N *y N y = N xy2
(6.2-6)
N x* = N x N xy k
(6.2-7)
N *y = N y N xy k
(6.2-8)
where k = tan. In principle, any value for k can be chosen and an infinite number of
*
*
possible combinations of N x and N y capable of resisting a particular set of applied
forces exists. For design purposes, however, if the values for N x , N y and N xy are
*
405
forces obtained above, an extra expression for the concrete force acting parallel to the
failure cracks is computed from the equilibrium in the z-direction and is derived via
*
*
the minimised values of N x and N y . This value can be used to predict failure in the
concrete.
N xb = M x + N x dt / d
(6.2-9)
N xt = M x + N x db / d
(6.2-10)
Note that similar equations will be obtained for the other applied forces.
ct
d
dt
Mx
db
cb
Nxt
Nx
Nxb
406
Post-Processing Facilities
y
b
4
a
3
3
1
1
2
The calculation of equivalent moments for the grillage shown in (fig.6.2-3) is given
below:
Consider the grillage moments acting on node A:
1
element 1: M b1 , M ba
(6.2-11)
element 2: M x2 , M xy2
(6.2-12)
3
element 3: M b3 , M ba
(6.2-13)
element 4: M x4 , M xy4
(6.2-14)
The contribution of the elements 1 and 3 have to be transformed into the global x-y
directions, hence:
1
M 1y = M ba
sin 1 + M b1 cos 1
1
M 1yx = M ba
cos 1 + M b1 sin 1
(6.2-15)
(6.2-16)
407
and
3
M 3y = M ba
sin 3 + M b3 cos 3
(6.2-17)
3
M 3yx = M ba
cos 3 + M b3 sin 3
(6.2-18)
The equivalent plate moments used for the Wood-Armer calculations are computed as
below:
LM
N
1 M x2 M x4
My =
W4
2 W2
Mx =
LM
N
1
3
1 My My
W3
2 W1
M xy =
OP
Q
OP
Q
(6.2-20)
L
i MMLMN MW
N
1
1
M xy M yx =
2
4
(6.2-19)
4
xy
2
M yx
W2
OP LM M
Q NW
3
yx
M 1yx
W1
OPOP
QPQ (6.2-21)
408
Post-Processing Facilities
y
y
GRIL 1
GRIL 2
GRIL 1
42o
42o
45o
GRIL 2
45o
x
x
(a)
(b)
6.2.4 Assessment
There are two options available for assessing the load capacity of a structure that has
already been constructed. For the first assessment option, the k factor is not
minimised but is defined as an input parameter. This allows a particular slab with the
position and areas of reinforcement already established to be assessed to verify its
ability to carry a set of applied loads. In other words, although the amount of
reinforcement in one direction may be less than the minimum computed by the
Wood-Armer equations, the total reinforcement may still be enough to support the
loads. For this approach to be successful there must be some spare capacity in one of
the reinforcement directions.
An alternative way of assessing the reinforcement is to use and input the actual
resistive forces, that would be known (for sub-sections of the slab), and to compute a
utility factor. This utility factor can also be used to assess the capability of the slab
to withstand a particular set of applied loads. The utility factor calculated in LUSAS
is based on the minimisation of the difference of the resistive force and the applied
force and is simply given as:
= N N*
(6.2-22)
where N and N are the resistive force and the applied force calculated at the angle
*
() where ( N N ) is a minimum.
If is negative value is set to zero i.e., no reinforcement is necessary. For values
greater than 1 the slab is under-reinforced and extra reinforcement is required. If is
less than 1, the capacity of the slab has not been exceeded. It should be noted that
409
can only be computed using the total applied load and cannot be applied to live
loads in isolation.
U=
1
2
D dv
D0 dv +
0 dv
(6.3-1)
= D 0 + 0
(6.3-2)
U=
dv
1
2
D dv
(6.3-3)
U=
dv
(6.3-4)
where
U =
1
2
c + pr dv
e
(6.3-5)
Post-Processing Facilities
PW =
1
2
c + pr dv
p
(6.3-6)
where
12 1 2 22 12
+
+
X 2X Y S
f ( ) =
(6.4-1)
It is assumed that the material strengths are equal in tension and compression.
where:
F1 =
F11 =
X'
, F2 =
Y'
, F6 =
S'
1
1
1
, F22 =
and F66 =
X . X '
Y . Y '
S . S '
(6.4-3)
The uniaxial strength data is insufficient to determine the interaction coefficient F12.
For its determination biaxial tests may be required, however, there are alternatives.
For generalised von Mises criteria (default setting in Modeller):
411
F12 =
F11F22
2
(6.4-4)
or Cowin proposed an interaction coefficient which includes shear terms derived as:
1
2S 2
(6.4-5)
(6.4-6)
where the coefficients F1, F2, F11, F22, and F66 are given by the Tasi-Wu definitions in
equation 6.4-3 and B12* is given by:
B12* =
1
2 X . X '
(6.4-7)
These failure criteria predict failure when the function of the in-plane stress state f(s)
exceeds a value of one. Though failure is predicted, it is not possible to differentiate
between the different failure mechanisms possible within composite laminates.
F IJ + d
f ( ) = G
H K
2
2
xy
+ 2xz
S
(6.4-8)
F IJ
f ( ) = G
H K
(6.4-9)
412
Post-Processing Facilities
F + IJ + d
f ( ) = G
H K
2
2
xy
+ 2xz + 2yz y z
2
Y
F F IJ 1I F d + iI + d
f ( ) = G G
H H 2S K JK GH JK
2
Y'
2
xy
+ 2xz + 2yz y z
S2
(6.4-10)
i + FG d + i IJ
GH 4S JK
2
(6.4-11)
413
414
References
7 References
Contact support@lusas.com for details of all references stated in this manual.
415
416