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Rock and Soil

Rocks and Soil

Rock (Minerals)
Rock or stone is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of minerals and/or mineraloids. The Earth's
outer solid layer, the lithosphere, is made of rock. Three majors groups of rocks are defined:
igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. The scientific study of rocks is called petrology. Based on
their composition, rocks can be classified into silicate rocks, carbonate rocks, sulphide rocks etc.
Rock Classification
Rocks are generally classified by mineral and chemical composition, by the texture of the
constituent particles and by the processes that formed them. These attributes help differentiate one
piece of rock from another are necessary to recognize rocks. Lets learn about them:
1. Chemical and Mineral Compositions: They are the rock DNA. They play a large part in
determining their place of origin. For example, rocks from deep below the surface contain a
larger proportion of higher metals as compared to others.
2. Texture and Structure: Texture refers to the size, shape and orientation of the grains. In lay
terms, texture is the feeling you get when you rub your fingers over a piece of rock. On large
scale, texture determines the structure and in turn physical properties like permeability,
brittleness, etc.
3. Mode of Occurrence: The process which led to the formation of a rock also determines the
final look and feel of the rock. For example, lava which cools down faster results in rocks
which are more crystalline than the one which cools down gradually.
These indicators separate rocks into three types: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. They
are further classified according to particle size.
A. Igneous Rock
Igneous rocks are rocks formed from a molten or partly molten material called magma. Magma
forms deep underground when rock that was once solid melts. Overlying rock presses down on the
magma, and the less dense magma rises through cracks in the rock. As magma moves upward, it
cools and solidifies. Magma that solidifies underground usually cools slowly, allowing large crystals
to form. Magma that reaches Earths surface is called lava. Lava loses heat to the atmosphere or
ocean very quickly and therefore solidifies very rapidly, forming very small crystals or glass. When
lava erupts at the surface again and again, it can form mountains called volcanoes.
Igneous rocks commonly contain the minerals feldspar, quartz, mica, pyroxene, amphibole, and
olivine. Igneous rocks are named according to which minerals they contain. The igneous rocks can
be of two types, if the presence of acid forming radical, silicon, is taken as the basis:
Acid Rocks: These are characterised by high content of silica-up to 80 per cent, while the rest is
divided among aluminium, alkalis, magnesium, sodium, potassium, iron oxide, lime.

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Basic Rocks: These rocks are poor in silica (about 40 per cent). Magnesia content is up to 40 per
cent and the remaining 40 per cent is spread over iron oxide, lime, aluminium, alkalis, potassium
etc. due to low silica content, the parent material of such rocks cools slowly and thus, flows and
spreads far away.
Igneous rocks can be of different types on the basis of cooling of the magma:
Coarse-Grained Rocks are the result of slow cooling of the magma deep inside the earth, e.g.
granite.
Fine Grained Rocks are produced by rapid cooling near the earths surface e.g. basalt
Glassy Rocks are a result of extremely rapid cooling.
Examples
Acidic (High Silica
Neither Basic Nor
Content)
Acidic
Plutonic / Intrusive
Granite
Diorite
Volcanic /
Rhyolite
Andesite
Extrusive

Basic (High in Basic

Oxides)
Gabbro
Basalt

B. Sedimentary Rock
Sedimentary rock forms when loose sediment, or rock fragments, hardens. Geologists place
sedimentary rocks into three broad categories:
(1) Mechanically formed rocks or clastic rocks, which form from clasts, or broken fragments, of
pre-existing rocks and minerals;
(2) Chemically formed rocks, which form when minerals precipitate, or solidify, from a solution,
usually seawater or lake water; and
(3) Organically formed rocks: They are formed by the remains of living organisms such as shell
fishes and corals. The Great Barrier Reef of Australia is a great example of it. Limestone, Coal
and Chalk are also examples of these types of rocks. They are sub-classified as:
Calcareous: Formed by the remains of living organisms. Some examples are Limestone and
Chalk.
Carbonaceous: Formed by the remains of Vegetative matter -swamps and forests. Its
examples are Peat and Lignite.
The most common types of clastic rocks are sandstone and shale (also known as mudrock).
Sandstone is made from sand, and shale is made from mud. Sand particles have diameters in the
range 2.00 to 0.06 mm (0.08 to 0.002 in), while mud particles are smaller than 0.06 mm (0.002 in).
Sand and mud form when physical or chemical processes break down and destroy existing rocks.
The sand and mud are carried by wind, rivers, ocean currents, and glaciers, which deposit the
sediment when the wind or water slows down or where the glacier ends.

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Generally sediment is deposited in layers, followed by its compaction and cementation. The
resultant thick layer of the sediment is called beds.
Evaporites are one of the most common types of chemical rocks. They are formed by evaporation of
seawater or lake water and the dissolved elements in this water cystallizes to form minerals like
gypsum.
Limestone is most common organic rock found over the earth surfaces. It is formed by the
accumulation of skeletons of marine organisms which after their death sink to sea floor and get
compressed with the due course of time due to over lying pressure of the subsequent skeletons of
other animals.
Coal is another common organic rock. Coal comes from the carbon compounds of plants growing in
swampy environments. Plant material falling into the muck at the bottom of the swamp is protected
from decay. Burial and compaction of the accumulating plant material can produce coal, an
important fuel in many parts of the world. Coal deposits frequently contain plant fossils.
Examples
Sedimentary Rock Type Examples
Mechanically SedimentationSandstone, Mudstone (clay), Gravel (sand)
Organically Sedimentation Limestone, Chalk, Peat, Lignite, Coal, Corals
Chemically Sedimentation Rock Salt, Gypsum, Potash, Nitrate
ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Sedimentary rocks are not as rich in minerals of economic value as the igneous rocks, but important
minerals such as haematite iron ore, phosphates, building stones, coals, petroleum, and material
used in cement industry are found is sedimentary rocks. The decay of tiny marine organisms yields
petroleum.
Petroleum occurs in suitable structures only. One of such structure is the existence of a previous
stratum like sandstone between tow strata of impervious rocks like shale. Its further movement is
stopped by the impermeable rock, and pressure helps it to rise in the porous rocks. If the rocks are
bent upwards as in an anticlinal fold, oil tends to rise to the top, being lighter than water. Important
minerals like bauxite, manganese, tin are derived from other rocks but are found in gravels and
sands carried by water. Sedimentary rocks also yield some of the richest soils.
C. Metamorphic Rock
Metamorphic rock forms when pre-existing rock undergoes mineralogical and structural changes
resulting from high temperatures and pressures. These changes occur in the rock while it remains
solid (without melting). In a metamorphic rock, one mineral assemblage changes to another when
its atoms move about in the solid state and recombine to form new minerals. This change from one

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mineral assemblage to another is called metamorphism. As temperature and pressure increase, the
rock gains energy. This fuels the chemical reactions that cause metamorphism.
Thin plate-shaped minerals, such as mica, align perpendicular to the direction of maximum
pressure, giving rise to a layering in the rock that is known as foliation. Compositional layering, or
bands of different minerals, can also occur and cause foliation. At low pressure, foliation forms fine,
thin layers, as in the rock slate. At medium pressure, foliation becomes coarser, forming schist. At
high pressure, foliation is very coarse, forming gneiss. Commonly, the layering is folded in complex,
wavy patterns from the pressure.
Examples
Metamorphism
From
Clay
Limestone
Sandstone
Granite
Shale
Coal

Example
Slate
Marble
Quartzite
Gneiss
Schist
Graphite

Rock Cycle
It is easy to define metamorphic rocks. But its definition opens a Pandora's Box of convertibility of
rocks. This process of conversion of one type of rocks into another is a continuous one and is called
Rock Cycle.
Rock Cycle is a way to depict the changes in rocks from one form to another in a recurring
sequence. It was first suggested by James Hutton, the founder of Modern Geology. Let us examine
the Rock Cycle. The diagram above contains 5 crucial agents.
Weathering and Erosion: This refers to the action of wind and water. It leads to the segmentations
and layering of other types of rocks.
Deposition and Diagenesis: After weathering and erosion the rocks are remain buried. They
undergo chemical, mechanical and biological change called diagenesis to form sedimentary rocks.
Pressure and Heat: This refers to the conditions of underground rocks which undergo high
pressure and temperatures and are turned into metamorphic rocks.
Conversion of Rocks back to Magma: This happens around seismic zones. When two tectonic
plates strike each other, chances are that one of them will slide underneath. This layer then turns
into magma and gets recycled on some other part of the earth.

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Crystallization: This has already been discussed in Igneous Rocks section.

Features of Some Common Rocks

Igneous rocks Granite - is light colored with large inter-locking crystals. It can't be scratched easily.
Gabbro - is dark colored with large inter-locking crystals. It can't be scratched easily.
Basalt - is dark colored with small crystals. It can't be scratched easily.
Sedimentary rocks Limestone - is made from shells, corals and calcite. It can be scratched with nail.
Sandstone - is made from sand grains. It can't be scratched easily.
Shale - is made from mud and fossils. It can be scratched with nail and easily broken.
Metamorphic rocks Marble - is converted from limestone. It can be scratched with nail
Slate - is converted from shale. It can be scratched with nail and easily broken.
Quartzite - is converted from sandstone. It can't be scratched easily.

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Soil
Soil covers a major portion of the earth's land surface. It is an important natural resource that either
directly or indirectly supports most of the planet's life. Life here depends upon soil for food. Plants
are rooted in soil and obtain needed nutrients there. Animals get their nutrients from plants or from
other animals that eat plants. Many animals make their homes or are sheltered in the soil. Microbes
in the soil cause the breakdown and decay of dead organisms, a process that in turn adds more
nutrients to the soil.
Soil may be defined as a thin layer of earth's crust which serves as a natural medium for growth of
plants. It is the unconsolidated mineral matter that has been subjected to, and influenced by, genetic
and environmental factors-- parent material, climate, organisms and topography all acting over a
period of time. Soil differs from the parent material in the morphological, physical, chemical and
biological properties. Also, soils differ among themselves in some or all the properties, depending
on the differences in the genetic and environmental factors. Thus some soils are red, some are
black; some are deep and some are shallow; some are coarse textured and some are fine-textured.
They serve as a reservoir of nutrients and water for crops and provide mechanical anchorage. The
components of soil are mineral matter, organic matter, water and air, the proportions of which vary
and which together form a system for plant growth; hence the need to study the soils in perspective.
Soil is a mixture of mineral and organic materials plus air and water. The contents of soil vary in
different locations and are constantly changing. There are many different kinds of soils. Each has
certain characteristics including a specific colour and composition. Different kinds of soils support
the growth of different types of plants and also determine how well that plant life grows. Soil is
formed slowly, but can be easily destroyed. Therefore, soil conservation is important for continued
support of life. The formation of a soil is influenced by
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Organisms
Climate
Topography
Parent material, and
Time

Organic Activity
A mass of mineral particles alone do not constitute a true soil. True soils are influenced, modified,
and supplemented by living organisms. Plants and animals aid in the development of a soil through
the addition of organic matter. Fungi and bacteria decompose this organic matter into a semisoluble chemical substance known as humus. Larger soil organisms, like earthworms, beetles, and
termites, vertically redistribute this humus within the mineral matter found beneath the surface of a
soil.

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Translocation
When water moves downward into the soil, it causes both mechanical and chemical translocations
of material. The complete chemical removal of substances from the soil profile is known as leaching.
Leached substances often end up in the groundwater zone and then travel by groundwater flow into
water bodies like rivers, lakes, and oceans. Eluviation refers to the movement of fine mineral
particles (like clay) or dissolved substances out of an upper layer in a soil profile. The deposition of
fine mineral particles or dissolved substances in a lower soil layer is called illuviation.
Agents of Soil Formation
Physical Weathering:
The principal agents of physical weathering are given below.
1.
Temperature: The differential expansion and contraction of minerals in the rocks due to
variations in temperature set up internal tensions, form weaker zones and gradually break
them apart. High temperatures accelerate the process of chemical weathering, especially in
warm humid regions.
2.
Water: Torrential rains and flowing waters dislocate the solid particles on the rocks and
expose the inner portion to the agents of weathering. The dislodged particles are carried down
and deposited elsewhere as alluvium. Similarly, the sea-waves wear off the rocks on the
shore, and the glaciers in the high mountains exert an erosive and transporting influence on
the rocks and their fragments.
3.
Wind: Wind exerts abrasive action, detaches the particles from the rocks and acts as a
carrying agent. Sand-storms in the deserts and high winds on the sea shore have both erosive
and transport action.
4.
Plants and Animals: Lichens and mosses growing on bare rocks cause their gradual
disintegration. Grasses, shrubs and trees growing in rocks' crevices help to extend the cracks
by the growth of their roots. The decomposition of litter and decayed matter accelerates the
chemical weathering owing to the release of organic acids.
Chemical weathering:
The chemical decomposition of rocks is brought about by solution, hydration, hydrolysis,
carbonation, oxidation and reduction. Chemical weathering taking place in the lower layers may be
termed as geochemical weathering whereas that taking place at the surface and below the surface
may be termed pedochemical weathering.
1.
Solution: The solvent action of water is an important means of weathering rocks containing
soluble salts; e.g. gypsum and limestone. The solvent action is increased in the presence of
carbon dioxide and organic acids released during the decomposition of organic matter. Salts
of sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium are readily removed in solution.
2.

Hydration: Hydration implies the association of water molecules with minerals. It provides a
bridge or entry for the hydronium ions to attack the structure.

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3.

Hydrolysis: It is the most important process of chemical weathering. During hydrolysis, the
hydronium ions from water attack the weatherable minerals and alter them completely or
modify them drastically. In the process, hydroxides of potassium, iron, magnesium, calcium,
etc. are formed.

4.

Carbonation: The hydroxides produced during hydrolysis react with the dissolved carbon
dioxide to form corresponding carbonates which may either leach out or accumulate according
to drainage or weather conditions.

5.

Oxidation and Reduction: Oxidation is an important reaction in well-aerated rocks and soil
material where oxygen supply is high and biological demand is low. For example the oxidation
of iron is a disintegrating weathering process in minerals containing ferrous iron as part of
their structure and the ferric iron due to its size and structure breaks up the mineral.
During reduction (the reverse of oxidation), when the supply of oxygen is low but the biological
demand is high, the ferric ion is reduced to the ferrous ion, which being more mobile, may
leach downwards. In this manner, oxidation and reduction are responsible for weathering
minerals.

Soil Classification
Brief descriptions of the major soil groups along with their modern nomenclature are as follows:
Alluvial soils: These include the deltaic alluvium, calcareous alluvial soils, coastal alluvium, and
coastal sands. This is by far the largest and most important soil group of India contributing the
largest share to the agricultural wealth. The streams, draining the Himalayas, bring with them the
products of weathering of rocks constituting the mountains in various degrees of fineness and
deposit them on the plains. It is highly fertile.
Black soils: These vary in depth from shallow to deep. There is no change in colour up to a
thickness of 2 to 3 meters. Black soils are highly argillaceous, fine grained and dark and contain a
high proportion of calcium and magnesium carbonates. They are sticky when wet. Due to
contraction on drying, large and deep cracks are formed. They contain abundant iron, lime
magnesia and alumina. They are poor in phosphorus, nitrogen and organic matter. Cotton,
sugarcane, groundnuts, millet, rice, wheat and oilseeds are mainly grown in Black soil.
Red soils: The ancient crystalline and metamorphic rocks on weathering have given rise to the red
soils. The red colour is due to the wide diffusion of iron than to the high proportion of it. They are
generally poor in nitrogen, phosphorus and humus. These soils are poor in lime, potash, iron oxide
and phosphorus. Red soils are also found under forest vegetation. Red and yellow soils are also
seen side by side. The yellow colour is due to the high degree of hydration of the ferric oxide in
them than that in the red soils. Ragi, Groundnut, millet, tobacco, potato, rice, wheat and sugarcane
are mainly grown in Red soil.

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Laterites and Lateritic soils: Laterite is a formation peculiar to India and some other tropical
countries with an intermittently moist climate. It is composed essentially of a mixture of the hydrated
oxides of aluminium and iron with small amounts of manganese oxides, titania etc. It is derived from
the atmospheric weathering of several types of rocks. Under the monsoon conditions of alternating
wet and dry seasons, the siliceous matter of the rocks is leached away almost completely
during weathering. Tea, coffee, cashew, rubber and coconut are chiefly grown in these soils.
Desert soils: Desert Soil is a mantle of blown sand which, combined with the arid climate results in
poor soil development. The most predominant component of the desert sand is quartz in wellrounded grains. The desert, owing to the physiographic conditions of its situation, receives little rain.
The sands which cover the area are partly derived from the disintegration of the subjacent rocks, but
are largely blown in from other regions. Some of these soils contain high percentages of soluble
salts, high pH, low loss on ignition, a varying percentage of calcium carbonate and are poor in
organic matter.

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