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INTRODUCTION TO DIODES:
THE p-n JUNCTION:
The p-n junction is a homojunction between a p-type and an n-type semiconductor. A pn junction consists of a p-type and n-type section of the same semiconductor materials in
metallurgical contact. The p-type region has an abundance of holes (majority carriers) and a
few mobile electrons (minority carriers); the n-type region has an abundance of mobile
electrons and a few holes. Both charge carriers are in continuous random thermal motion in
all directions. When a section of p-type material and a section of n-type material are brought
in contact to form a p-n junction, a number of interesting properties arise. The p-n junction
forms the basis of the Semiconductor Diode.

IDEAL DIODE:

An ideal diode is a two-terminal device defined by the following non-linear (currentvoltage) i-v characteristic:

From the above, it follows that zero power dissipation occurs in an ideal diode.
Forward Biased Region (v > 0): Zero voltage drop occurs across a forward-biased ideal
diode
i.e., the diode behaves like an ideal short circuit.
Reverse Bias Region (v <0): Zero current flows in a reverse-biased ideal diode i.e., the
diode behave like an open circuit.

The ideal diode characteristic equation is known as the Shockley equation, or simply the
diode equation, given by :

where is the Reverse saturation current, k is Boltzmanns constant.

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TERMINAL CHARACTERISTICS OF JUNCTION DIODES:

1. I-V characteristics of junction diodes:
Diode current:
IS (Saturation current) is proportional to diode area
n (Ideality factor): between 1 and 2.
vT (Thermal voltage): 25 mV at room temperature
The forward-bias region, determined by v > 0.
The reverse-bias region, determined by v < 0.
The breakdown region, determined by v < -VZK
2. Forward-bias region:
The simplified forward bias I-V relationship:
For a given forward voltage:
Due to the exponential I-V relationship
i 0 for v < 0.5V (cut-in voltage)
Fully conduction for 0.6V < v < 0.8V

3.

Temperature dependence:
IS doubles for every 5 degC rise in temperature.
Voltage decreases 2mV/degC for a given current.
Current increases with temperature for a given voltage.

4.

Reverse-bias region:
Reverse current: i = - IS
Ideally, the reverse current is independent of reverse bias.
In reality, reverse current is larger than IS and also increases
somewhat with the increase in the reverse bias.
Temperature dependence: reverse current doubles for every
10degC rise in temperature.

5. Breakdown region:
The knee of the I-V curve is specified as breakdown voltage VZK for Zener breakdown
mechanism.
The reverse current increases rapidly with the associated increase in voltage drop being
very small.
Normally, the reverse current is specified by external circuitry to assure the power
dissipation within a safe range (non-destructive operation).

TYPES OF DIODES:
1. Zener Diodes

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2. Schottky Diodes
3. Avalanche Diodes
4. Varactor Diodes
5. Tunnel Diodes
6. IMPATT Diodes
7. TRAPATT Diode
8. Gunn Diodes
9. LEDs
10. LASER Diode
11. PIN Diode
12. Photo Diode
13. Rectifier Diode
14. Fast Recovery Diode

1.

Zener Diode:

A Zener diode is a diode which allows current to flow in the forward direction in the
same manner as an ideal diode, but also permits it to flow in the reverse direction when the
voltage is above a certain value known as the breakdown voltage, "Zener knee voltage",
"Zener voltage", or "peak inverse voltage". The device was named after Clarence Zener,
who discovered this electrical property. Strictly speaking, a Zener diode is one in which the
reverse breakdown is due to electron quantum tunnelling under high electric field strength
the Zener effect. In ordinary diode if it is operated in this region, it may get damaged due
to high power dissipation at junction.

1.1 Working:
A conventional solid-state diode allows significant current if it is reverse-biased above
its reverse breakdown voltage. When the reverse bias breakdown voltage is exceeded, a
conventional diode is subject to high current due to avalanche breakdown. Unless this
current is limited by circuitry, the diode may be permanently damaged due to overheating. A
Zener diode exhibits almost the same properties, except the device is specially designed so
as to have a reduced breakdown voltage, the so-called Zener voltage. By contrast with the
conventional device, a reverse-biased Zener diode exhibits a controlled breakdown and
allows the current to keep the voltage across the Zener diode close to the Zener breakdown
voltage.

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Modern manufacturing techniques have produced devices with voltages lower

than 5.6 V with negligible temperature coefficients, but as higher-voltage devices are
encountered, the temperature coefficient rises dramatically. A 75 V diode has 10 times the
coefficient of a 12 V diode. Zener and avalanche diodes, regardless of breakdown voltage,
are usually marketed under the umbrella term of "Zener diode".

1.2 Construction:
The Zener diode's operation depends on the heavy doping of its p-n junction. The
depletion region formed in the diode is very thin (<1 m) and the electric field is
consequently very high (about 500 kV/m) even for a small reverse bias voltage of about 5 V,
allowing electrons to tunnel from the valence band of the p-type material to the conduction
band of the n-type material. In the atomic scale, this tunneling corresponds to the transport
of valence band electrons into the empty conduction band states; as a result of the reduced
barrier between these bands and high electric fields that are induced due to the relatively
high levels of doping on both sides. The breakdown voltage can be controlled quite
accurately in the doping process. While tolerances within 0.07% are available, the most
widely used tolerances are 5% and 10%. Breakdown voltage for commonly available Zener
diodes can vary widely from 1.2 V to 200V.

1.3 Applications:

Zener Regulators:

The function of a regulator is to provide a constant output voltage to a load connected in

parallel with it in spite of the ripples in the supply voltage or the variation in the load current
and the zener diode will continue to regulate the voltage until the diodes current falls below
the minimum IZ(min) value in the reverse breakdown region. It permits current to flow in the
forward direction as normal, but will also allow it to flow in the reverse direction when the
voltage is above Zener Voltage.

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A typical Zener diode shunt regulator is shown above. The resistor is selected so that when
the input voltage is at VIN(min) and the load current is at IL(max) that the current through the
Zener diode is at least Iz(min). Then for all other combinations of input voltage and load current
the Zener diode conducts the excess current thus maintaining a constant voltage across the
load. The Zener conducts the least current when the load current is the highest and it
conducts the most current when the load current is the lowest. The voltage across the zener
will remain steady at its break down voltage V Z for all the values of zener current I Z as long
as the current remains in the break down region. Hence a regulated DC output voltage V 0 =
VZ is obtained across RL, whenever the input voltage remains within a minimum and
maximum voltage. If there is no load resistance, shunt regulators can be used to dissipate
total power through the series resistance and the Zener diode. Hence, Shunt regulators have
an inherent current limiting advantage under load fault conditions because the series resistor
limits excess current.
Basically there are two type of regulations such as:

(i) Line Regulation:

In this type of regulation, series resistance and load resistance are fixed, only input
voltage is changing. Output voltage remains the same as long as the input voltage is
maintained above a minimum value.
Percentage of line regulation can be calculated by =

where V0 is the output voltage and VIN is the input voltage and V0 is the change in output
voltage for a particular change in input voltage VIN.

(i) Load Regulation:

In this type of regulation, input voltage is fixed and the load resistance is varying.
Output voltage remains same, as long as the load resistance is maintained above a
minimum value.

Percentage of load regulation =

where

is the null load resistor voltage and

is the full load resistor voltage.

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Meter Protection:

Zener diode can be used in Power supplies to protect meters from excess voltage that is
applied accidently. Refer the figure below.

In this case Zener diode is connected parallel to meter. In case of accidental

overload, most of the current will pass through the Zener diode and so the meter movement
will be saved from damage.

Zener Controlled Output Switching:

Zener diode can produce a sudden change from Low current to High current, so it is
useful for switching applications. It is quite fast in switching operations.

This comparator application makes use of the properties of the zener diode to cause
the output to switch between voltages determined by the zener diodes when the input
voltage difference
changes sign. The output circuit amounts to a zener regulator
which switches from one zener voltage to the other on a transition. This shows the role of
Zener diode in Comparator applications.

Zener Diode as a Clipper/Limiter:

Zener diodes can be used to clip off the peak value of input wave form. The property of
the diode that it will provide approximately constant voltage of Zener Voltage at breakdown
region is used here.

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For positive input half cycle diode D1 is Forward biased and acts like a short circuit
while diode D2 acts like an open circuit till voltage reaches V z. Therefore diode D2 goes into
breakdown and holds the output voltage constant at V z till input voltage falls below Vz in the
latter part of positive half cycle. Similarly voltage will be clipped at V z in the negative half
cycle.

2.

Avalanche Diode:

An Avalanche diode is a diode (made from silicon or other semiconductor) that is

designed to go through avalanche breakdown at a specified reverse bias voltage. The
junction of an avalanche diode is designed to prevent current concentration at hot spots, so
that the diode is undamaged by the breakdown. The avalanche breakdown is due to minority
carriers accelerated enough to create ionization in the crystal lattice, producing more carriers
which in turn create more ionization. Because the avalanche breakdown is uniform across
the whole junction, the breakdown voltage is more nearly constant with changing current
compared to a non-avalanche diode. Both Zener and Avalanche effects are actually present
in any such diode, but one usually dominates the other. Avalanche diodes are optimized for
avalanche effect so they exhibit small but significant voltage drop under breakdown
conditions, unlike Zener diodes that always maintain a voltage higher than breakdown. This
feature provides better surge protection than simple Zener diode and acts more like a gas
discharge tube replacement.

2.1 Working:
Avalanche breakdown is caused by impact ionization of electron-hole pairs. While very
little current flows under reverse bias conditions, some current does flow. The electric field in
the depletion region of a diode can be very high. Electron/holes that enter the depletion
region undergo a tremendous acceleration. As these accelerated carriers collide with the
atoms they can knock electrons from their bonds, creating additional electron/hole pairs and
thus additional current. As these secondary carriers are swept into the depletion region, they
too are accelerated and the process repeats itself. This is akin to an avalanche where a
small disturbance causes a whole mountainside of snow to come crashing down. The
efficiency of the avalanche effect is characterized by a so-called multiplication factor M that
depends on the reverse voltage.

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Difference between Zener diode and Avalanche diode :

The Zener diode exhibits an apparently similar effect in addition to Zener breakdown.
Both effects are actually present in any such diode, but one usually dominates the other.
Avalanche diodes are optimized for avalanche effect so they exhibit small but significant
voltage drop under breakdown conditions, unlike Zener diodes that always maintain a
voltage higher than breakdown. This feature provides better surge protection than simple
Zener diode and acts more like a gas discharge tube replacement.
The important difference between the avalanche diode and the Zener is that the channel
length of former exceeds the mean free path of the electrons, so there are collisions
between them on the way out.
Avalanche breakdown occurs in lightly-doped p-n junctions where the depletion region
is comparatively long. The doping density controls the breakdown voltage. Whereas Zener
breakdown occurs in heavily doped p-n junctions. The heavy doping makes the depletion
layer extremely thin. So thin, in fact, carriers cant accelerate enough to cause impact
ionization.
Avalanche diodes have a small positive temperature coefficient of voltage, where
diodes relying on the Zener effect have a negative temperature coefficient.

2.2 Construction:
The construction of Avalanche diode is similar to that of Zener diode. To design the
breakdown voltage properly, as mentioned above the doping level of Avalanche diode is less
compared to heavily doped Zener diode.

2.3 Applications:

Single Photon Avalanche Detector:

These are made from doped silicon and depend on the avalanche breakdown effect to
detect even single photons. The silicon avalanche photodiode is a high gain photon detector.

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They are ideal for use in high speed, low light level applications. The avalanche photodiode
is operated with a reverse bias voltage of up to hundreds of Volts, slightly below the
breakdown voltage. In this regime, the electron hole pairs generated by the incident photons
colliding get a large amount of energy from the electric field, which creates more secondary
charge carriers. The photocurrent of just one photon can be registered with these electronics
devices.

Voltage Reference:

The voltage after breakdown varies only slightly with changing current. This makes the
avalanche diode useful as a type of voltage reference and regulator, like Zener diode.
Voltage reference diodes rated more than about 5.5V are generally avalanche diodes.

Protection:

If the voltage increases beyond the design limit, the diode is connected in such a way
that it goes into avalanche breakdown, causing the harmful voltage to be conducted to
ground. When used in this fashion, they are often referred to as clamping diodes or
Transient voltage suppressors because they "clamp" the maximum voltage to a
predetermined level. Avalanche diodes are normally specified for this role by their clamping
voltage VCLAMP and the maximum amount of transient energy they can absorb, specified by
either energy (in joules) or
. Avalanche breakdown is not destructive as long as the diode
is prevented from overheating.

RF noise generation:

Avalanche diodes generate Radio Frequency noise. They are commonly used as noise
sources in radio equipment and hardware random number generators. For instance, they
are often used as a source of RF for antenna analyzer bridges. Avalanche diodes can also
be used as white noise generators.

Microwave frequency generation:

If placed into a resonant circuit, avalanche diodes can act as negative resistance
devices, due to its negative temperature coefficient. The IMPATT diode is an avalanche
diode optimized for frequency generation.

3.

Schottky Diode:

The Schottky diode also known as hot carrier diode is a semiconductor diode with a
low forward voltage drop and a very fast switching action. It is named after German physicist
Walter H. Schottky.

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3.1 Working:
When forward current flows through a solid state diode, there is a small voltage drop
across its terminals. A silicon diode has a typical voltage drop of 0.6V to 0.7V, while a
Schottky diode has a voltage drop of 0.15V to 0.45V. This makes it have very much the
same turn on voltage as a Germanium diode. This lower voltage drop can be used to give
higher switching speeds and better system efficiency. Thus Schottky diode also has a much
higher current density than an ordinary PN junction diode.

Schottky diode is called a majority carrier device. This gives it tremendous advantages in
terms of speed. By making the devices small, the normal RC (resistance-capacitance) type
time constants can be reduced, making the Schottky diode an order of magnitude faster than
the conventional PN diodes. This factor is the prime reason why they are so popular in RF
applications.
Thus the main advantages of schottky diodes are:
Low turn on voltage
Fast recovery time: The fast recovery time because of the small amount of stored
charge means that it can be used for high speed switching applications.
Low junction capacitance: In view of the very small active area, often as a result of
using a wire point contact onto the silicon, the capacitance levels are very small.

3.2 Construction:

A MetalSemiconductor junction is formed between a metal and a semiconductor,

creating a Schottky barrier (instead of a semiconductorsemiconductor junction as in
conventional diodes). Typical metals used are molybdenum, platinum, chromium or
tungsten, and certain silicides, e.g. palladium silicide and platinum silicide, SiC, GaAs, SiGe;
and the semiconductor would typically be n-type silicon.[1] The metal side acts as the anode

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and n-type semiconductor acts as the cathode of the diode. This Schottky barrier results in
both very fast switching and low forward voltage drop.

3.3 Application:
The Schottky barrier diodes are widely used in the electronics industry finding many uses
as diode rectifier. Its unique properties enable it to be used in a number of applications
where other diodes would not be able to provide the same level of performance. In particular
it is used in areas including:

RF mixer and detector diode: The Schottky diode has come into its own for radio
frequency applications because of its high switching speed and high frequency
capability. In view of this Schottky barrier diodes are used in many high performance
diode ring mixers. In addition to this their low turn on voltage and high frequency
capability and low capacitance make them ideal as RF detectors.

Power rectifier: Schottky barrier diodes are also used in high power applications, as
rectifiers. Their high current density and low forward voltage drop mean that less power
is wasted than if ordinary PN junction diodes were used. This increase in efficiency
means that less heat has to be dissipated, and smaller heat sinks may be able to be
incorporated in the design.

Power OR circuits: Schottky diodes can be used in applications where a load is driven
by two separate power supplies. One example may be a mains power supply and a
battery supply. In these instances it is necessary that the power from one supply does
not enter the other. This can be achieved using diodes. However it is important that any
voltage drop across the diodes is minimised to ensure maximum efficiency. As in many
other applications, this diode is ideal for this in view of its low forward voltage drop.

Schottky diodes tend to have a high reverse leakage current. This can lead to problems
with any sensing circuits that may be in use. Leakage paths into high impedance circuits
can give rise to false readings. This must therefore be accommodated in the circuit
design.

Reverse current and discharge protection: Because of a Schottky diode's low forward
voltage drop, less energy is wasted as heat making them the most efficient choice for
applications sensitive to efficiency. For instance, they are used in stand-alone (off-grid)
photovoltaic (PV) systems to prevent batteries from discharging through the solar panels
at night, called blocking diodes.

Solar cell applications: Solar cells are typically connected to rechargeable batteries,
often lead acid batteries because power may be required 24 hours a day and the Sun is
not always available. Solar cells do not like the reverse charge applied and therefore a
diode is required in series with the solar cells. Any voltage drop will result in a reduction
in efficiency and therefore a low voltage drop diode is needed. As in other applications,
the low voltage drop of the Schottky diode is particularly useful here.

Clamp diode - especially with its use in LS TTL: Schottky barrier diodes may also be
used as a clamp diode in a transistor circuit to speed the operation when used as a
switch. They were used in this role in the 74LS and 74S families of logic circuits. In these
chips the diodes are inserted between the collector and base of the driver transistor to
act as a clamp. To produce a low or logic "0" output the transistor is driven hard on, and
in this situation the base collector junction in the diode is forward biased. When the

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Schottky diode is present this takes most of the current and allows the turn off time of the
transistor to be greatly reduced, thereby improving the speed of the circuit.

4.

Varactor Diode:

An NPN transistor with Schottky diode

clamp

A Varicap diode, Varactor diode, Variable capacitance diode, Variable reactance diode,
Parametric diode or Tuning diode is a type of diode whose Capacitance and series
resistance varies as a function of the voltage applied across its terminals. The depletion
region at the p-n junction acts as the dielectric and plates of a common capacitor and is
caused to expand and contract by the voltage applied to the diode. This action increases
and decreases the capacitance.

4.1 Working:
Varactors are operated in a reverse-biased state. No current flows, but since the
thickness of the depletion zone varies with the applied bias voltage, the capacitance of the
diode can be made to vary. Generally, the depletion region thickness is proportional to the
square root of the applied voltage; capacitance is inversely proportional to the depletion
region thickness. Thus, the capacitance is inversely proportional to the square root of
applied voltage. All diodes exhibit this phenomenon to some degree, but varactor diodes
are manufactured specifically to exploit this effect and increase the capacitance whereas
most ordinary diode fabrication strives to minimize the capacitance. The size of the depletion
region in a varactor diode is directly related to the bias. The forward biasing causes the
depletion region to decrease, producing a low resistance at the p-n junction and a large
current flow across it. On the other hand, if reverse-bias voltage is applied to the p-n
junction, the size of its depletion region increases as the charged particles on both sides
move away from the junction. This condition produces a high resistance between the
terminals and allows little current flow (only in the microampere range). This is the operating
condition for the varactor diode, which is nothing more than a special p-n junction.The
insulation gap formed by reverse biasing of the varactor is comparable to the layer of
dielectric material between the plates of a common capacitor. Furthermore, the formula
used to calculate capacitance

where, A is the plate area e is permittivity and d is the distance between plates
can be applied to both the varactor and the capacitor. In this case, the size of the insulation
gap of the varactor, or depletion region, is substituted for the distance between the plates of
the capacitor.

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4.2 Construction:

Varactors may be of two types, depending on the level of doping. They are abruptjunction diode and hyperabrupt-junction diode. The doping profile of the abrupt-junction
diode is shown in Fig (a) and that of the hyperabrupt-junction diode in Fig (b). The abruptjunction diode has uniform doping and a capacitive tuning ratio (TR) of 4 : 1. For example, if
its maximum transition capacitance is 100 pF and minimum 25 pF, then its TR is 4:1, which
is not enough to tune a broadcast receiver over its entire frequency range of 550 to 1050
kHz. The hyperabrupt-junction diode has highest impurity concentration near the junction. It
results in narrower depletion layer and larger capacitance. Also, changes in Bias Voltage
produce larger capacitance changes. Such a diode has a tuning range of 10:1, enough to
tune a broadcast receiver.

4.3 Applications:

Voltage controlled oscillators, VCOs: Voltage controlled oscillators are used for a
variety of applications. One major area is for the oscillator within a phase locked loop this is used in almost all radio, cellular and wireless receivers. A varactor diode is a key
component within a VCO.
RF filters: Using varactor diodes it is possible to tune filters. Tracking filters may be
needed in receiver front end circuits where they enable the filters to track the incoming
received signal frequency. Again this can be controlled using a control voltage. Typically
this might be provided under microprocessor control via a digital to analogue converter.
Automatic frequency control device
FM modulator
Adjustable band-pass filter
Parametric amplifier

5.

Tunnel Diode:

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A Tunnel diode or Esaki diode is a type of semiconductor that is capable of very fast
operation, well into the microwave frequency region, made possible by the use of the
quantum mechanical effect called tunneling. They are named after Leo Esaki, who in 1973
received the Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering the electron tunneling effect.

5.1 Working:
While the tunnel diode is a semiconductor device using the same materials as other
forms of diode and active devices, the very high levels of dopant used, cause the devices to
operate in a very different manner.The device theory shows that it does not act as a diode,
but instead exhibits a Negative Resistance Region in the forward direction.

The characteristic curve for a tunnel diode shows an area of negative resistance.
When forward biased the current in the diode rises at first, but later it can be seen to fall with
increasing voltage, before finally rising again. It is also interesting to note that current also
flows in the reverse direction - the reverse breakdown voltage is actually zero and the diode
conducts in the reverse direction. The characteristics near the original are virtually
symmetrical.
The reason for this is that there are a number of different components to forming the
overall curve:
Normal diode current: This is the 'normal' current
that would flow through a PN junction diode.
Tunnelling current: This is the current that arises as a
result of the tunnelling effect.
Excess current: This is a third element of current that
contributes to the overall current within the diode. It results
from what may be termed excess current that results
from tunnelling though bulk states in the energy gap,
and means that the valley current does not fall to zero.

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Tunnelling is an effect that is caused by quantum mechanical effects when electrons pass
through a potential barrier. The tunnelling only occurs under certain conditions. It occurs
within tunnel diodes because of the very high doping levels employed.
At reverse bias, the electrons tunnel from the valence band in the p-type material to
the conduction band in the n-type material, and the level of the current increase
monotonically. For the forward bias situation there are a number of different areas. For
voltages up to Vpe, electrons from the conduction band find increasing availability of empty
states in the valence band and the level of current increases up to a point where the current
equals Ipe. Once this point is reach, it is found that number of empty states available for
electrons with the level of energy they are given by the increased voltage level starts to fall.
This means that the current level falls in line with this. The overall current level falls away
relatively swiftly, dropping to near zero. As the current from the tunnelling effect falls, so
the diffusion current, which is the same action as occurs in a normal PN junction diode
starts to increase and steadily becomes the dominant mechanism.

5.2 Construction:

It is a high-conductivity two-terminal P-N junction diode having doping density

about 1000 times higher as compared to an ordinary junction diode. Tunnel diodes are
usually fabricated from germanium, gallium or gallium arsenide. These all have small
forbidden energy gaps and high ion motilities. Silicon is not used in the fabrication of tunnel
diodes due to low (Ip,Iv) value. A small tin dot is soldered or alloyed to a heavily doped pellet
of n-type Ge, GaSb or GaAs. The pellet is then soldered to anode which is also used for
heat dissipation. The cathode contact is connected to the tin dot via a mesh screen used to
reduce inductance. The diode has a ceramic body and a hermetically sealing lid on top.

5.3 Applications:
Tunnel diode is commonly used for the following purposes :
Ultrahigh-speed switch due to tunneling mechanism which essentially takes place at
the speed of light. It has a switching time of the order of nanoseconds or even
picoseconds;
Logic memory storage device due to triple-valued feature of its curve for current.
Microwave oscillator at a frequency of about 10 GHz due to its extremely small
capacitance and inductance and negative resistance.
In Relaxation Oscillator circuits due to its negative resistance. In this respect, it is very

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similar to the Uni-Junction Transistor(UJT)

They are used in low Power Amplifiers.
They are used in space applications like amplifiers for satellite communications.

6.

IMPATT Diode:

An IMPATT diode (IMPact ionization Avalanche Transit-Time diode) is a form of high-power

semiconductor diode used in high-frequency microwave electronics devices. They have
negative resistance and are used as oscillators to generate microwaves as well as
amplifiers. A main advantage is their high-power capability. A major drawback of using
IMPATT diodes is the high level of phase noise they generate. This results from the
statistical nature of the avalanche process.

6.1 Working:
If a free electron with sufficient energy strikes a silicon atom, it can break the covalent
bond of silicon and liberate an electron from the covalent bond. If the electron liberated gains
energy by being in an electric field and liberates other electrons from other covalent bonds
then this process can cascade very quickly into a chain reaction producing a large number
of electrons and a large current flow. This phenomenon is called Impact Avalanche.
In terms of its operation the IMPATT diode can be considered to consist of two areas,
namely the avalanche region or injection region, and secondly the drift region. These
two areas provide different functions. The avalanche or injection region creates the carriers
which may be either holes of electrons, and the drift region is where the carriers move
across the diode taking a certain amount of time dependent upon its thickness. The two
types of carrier drift in opposite directions.

6.2 Construction:

IMPATT diode are made of silicon as it is cheaper and easier to fabricate using epitaxial
groth. The gold alloy contact is used as it has low ohmic and thermal resistance.

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6.3 Applications:

This diodes are used as microwave oscillators such as (i) microwave generators (ii)
Modulated Output oscillators (iii) receiver local oscillators (iv) par amp pumps
Negative resistance amplification.
Used in alarm n/w, police Radar and low power microwave transmitter
Useful in FM Telecommunication transmitters and CW Doppler radar

7.

Gunn Diode:

A Gunn diode, also known as a Transferred Electron Device (TED), is a form of diode,
a two-terminal passive semiconductor electronic component, with negative resistance,
used in high-frequency electronics. Its largest use is in electronic oscillators to generate
microwaves, in applications such as radar speed guns and microwave relay data link
transmitters.

7.1 Working:
This diode is made of a single piece of N-type semiconductor such as Gallium Arsenide
and Indium Phosphide. GaAs and some other semiconductor materials have one extraenergy band in their electronic band structure instead of having only two energy bands, viz.
valence band and conduction band like normal semiconductor materials. And this extra third
band is empty at initial stage.
If a voltage is applied to this device, then most of the applied voltage appears across the
active region. The electrons from the conduction band having negligible electrical resistivity
are transferred into the third band because these electrons are scattered by the applied
voltage. The third band of GaAs has mobility which is less than that of the conduction band.
Because of this, an increase in the forward voltage increases the field strength (for field
strengths where applied voltage is greater than the threshold voltage value), then the
number of electrons reaching the state at which the effective mass increases by decreasing
their velocity, and thus, the current will decrease. Thus, if the field strength is increased, then
the drift velocity will decrease; this creates a negative incremental resistance region in V-I
relationship. Thus, increase in the voltage will increase the resistance by creating a slice at
the cathode and reaches the anode. But, to maintain a constant voltage, a new slice is
created at the cathode. Similarly, if the voltage decreases, then the resistance will decrease
by extinguishing any existing slice.

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7.2 Construction:
Gunn diodes are fabricated from a single piece of n-type semiconductor. The most
common materials are Gallium Arsenide, GaAs and Indium Phosphide. However other
materials including Ge, CdTe, InAs, InSb, ZnSe and others have been used. The device is
simply an n-type bar with n+ contacts. It is necessary to use n-type material because the
transferred electron effect is only applicable to electrons and not holes found in a p-type
material.
Within the device there are three main areas, which can be roughly termed the top,
middle and bottom areas.

The most common method of manufacturing a Gunn diode is to grow and epitaxial
layer on a degenerate n+ substrate. The active region is between a few microns and a few
hundred micron thick. This active layer has a doping level between 1014cm-3 and 1016 cm-3 this is considerably less than that used for the top and bottom areas of the device. The
thickness will vary according to the frequency required. The top n+ layer can be deposited
epitaxially or doped using ion implantation. Both top and bottom areas of the device are
heavily doped to give n+ material. This provides the required high conductivity areas that are
needed for the connections to the device.

7.3 Applications:

Used as Gunn oscillators to generate frequencies ranging from 100mW 5GHz to 1W

35GHz outputs. These Gunn oscillators are used for radio communications, military and
commercial radar sources.
Used as sensors for detecting trespassers, to avoid derailment of trains.
Used as efficient microwave generators with a frequency range of up to hundreds of
GHz.
Used for remote vibration detectors and rotational speed measuring tachometers.
Used as a microwave current generator (Pulsed Gunn diode generator).
Used in microwave transmitters to generate microwave radio waves at very low powers.
Used as fast controlling components in microelectronics such as for the modulation of
semiconductor injection lasers.
Used as sub-millimeter wave applications by multiplying Gunn oscillator frequency with
diode frequency.

8.

Light Emitting Diode (LED):

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A Light-Emitting Diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a p-n

junction diode, which emits light when activated. When a suitable voltage is applied to the
leads, electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing
energy in the form of photons. This effect is called Electroluminescence, and the color of
the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap
of the semiconductor.

8.1 Working:
An LED is a p-n junction with a heavily doped n-type semiconductor (n+) and a lightly doped
p-type. The device works if it is forward biased. When p-side of the junction is connected to
the positive terminal of a battery and the n-side to the negative terminal, the barrier height
gets reduced and the carriers diffuse to the other side of the junction. As the p- side is lightly
doped, much fewer number of holes cross over to the n-side than the number of electrons
which diffuse to the n-side. Recombination takes place in the depletion region (also called
the active layer) and light is emitted. The emission takes place in random direction. If the
width of the p-side is made much thinner than the width of the n-side, the emitted light can
escape from the device without getting reabsorbed by the material.

8.2 Construction:

Light output

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There are two basic configurations for the LED structure.:

Surface emitting LED structure: This form of LED structure emits light perpendicular
to the plane of the PN junction.
Edge emitting LED structure: This form of LED structure emits light in a plane parallel
to the junction of the PN junction. In this configuration the light can be confined to a
narrow angle.

The active films of the LED structure are normally grown epitaxially - often by liquid
phase or vapour phase epitaxy. The substrates are chosen to have a close lattice match to
the active layers. Common substrates are GaAS, GaP, InP. The p-n junction can be created
by either impurity diffusion, ion implantation, or it can be incorporated during the epitaxial
growth phase. The silica provides passivation/device isolation and carrier confinement.
Commercially, LEDs exist in a variety of forms, ranging from individual LED indicators where
there is just one LED per package, through a variety of displays, right up to vast arrays of
LEDs in LED screens.

8.3 Applications:

Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive

lighting, advertising, general lighting, and traffic signals.
Infrared LEDs are also used in the remote control units of many commercial products
including televisions, DVD players and other domestic appliances.
LEDs are also used in seven-segment display.
Data communication and other signaling

9.

LASER Diode:

A laser diode, or LD, is an electrically pumped semiconductor laser in which the active
medium is formed by a p-n junction of a semiconductor diode similar to that found in a Lightemitting diode(LED).

9.1 Working:
There are three main processes in semiconductors that are associated with light:

Light absorption: Absorption occurs when light enters a semiconductor and its energy
is transferred to the semiconductor to generate additional free electrons and holes. This
effect is widely used and enables devices like to photo-detectors and solar cells to
operate.
Spontaneous emission: The second effect known as spontaneous emission occurs in
LEDs. The light produced in this manner is what is termed incoherent. In other words the
frequency and phase are random, although the light is situated in a given part of the
spectrum.

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Stimulated emission: Stimulated emission is different. A light photon entering the

semiconductor lattice will strike an electron and release energy in the form of another
light photon. The way in which this occurs releases this new photon of identical
wavelength and phase. In this way the light that is generated is said to be coherent.

The key to the laser diode operation occurs at the junction of the highly doped p and n
type regions. In a normal p-n junction current flows across the p-n junction. This action can
occur because the holes from the p-type region and the electrons from the n-type region
combine. With an electromagnetic wave (in this instance light) in passing through the laser
diode junction diode junction it is found that the photo-emission process occurs. Here the
photons release further photons of light occurs when they strike electrons during the
recombination of holes and electrons occurs.
The structure of the laser diode creates an optical cavity in which the light photons have
multiple reflections. When the photons are generated only a small number are able to leave
the cavity. In this way when one photon strikes an electron and enables another photon to be
generated the process repeats itself and the photon density or light level starts to build up. It
is in the design of better optical cavities that much of the current work on lasers is being
undertaken. Ensuring the light is properly reflected is the key to the operation of the device.

9.2 Construction:

Apart from the basic semiconductor requirements, there are a number of optical
requirements that are needed to enable the laser diode to operate. It needs an optical
resonator. This must occur in the plane of the required light output. To achieve this the two
walls of the laser diode that form the resonator must be almost perfectly smooth, forming a
mirror surface from which the light can be reflected internally. One of the walls is made
slightly less reflecting to enable the light to come out from the laser diode. Another
requirement is that the two mirror surfaces must be perfectly perpendicular to the junction,
otherwise the laser action does not occur satisfactorily. The two other surfaces perpendicular
to the one of the required light output are roughened slightly to ensure that the laser action
does not occur in this plane as well. In this way a resonant optical cavity is created.

9.3 Applications:

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Pumping of solid-state and fiber lasers

Material processing (welding of plastic materials, soldering and annealing of metals)
Medical equipment (hair removal, surgery, dentistry and ophthalmology)
Lighting
Measuring equipment
Printing industry
Science and Research

10.

PIN Diode:

A PIN diode is a diode with a wide, undoped intrinsic semiconductor region between a ptype semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor region. The p-type and n-type regions are
typically heavily doped because they are used for ohmic contacts. The wide intrinsic region
is in contrast to an ordinary PN diode. The wide intrinsic region makes the PIN diode an
inferior rectifier (one typical function of a diode), but it makes the PIN diode suitable for
attenuators, fast switches, photo detectors, and high voltage power electronics applications.

10.1 Working:
A PIN diode operates under what is known as high-level injection. In other words,
the intrinsic "i" region is flooded with charge carriers from the "p" and "n" regions. The diode
will conduct current once the flooded electrons and holes reach an equilibrium point, where
the number of electrons is equal to the number of holes in the intrinsic region. When the
diode is forward biased, the injected carrier concentration is typically several orders of
magnitude higher than the intrinsic level carrier concentration. Due to this high level
injection, which in turn is due to the depletion process, the electric field extends deeply into
the region. This electric field helps in speeding up of the transport of charge carriers from P
to N region, which results in faster operation of the diode, making it a suitable device for high
frequency operations.

10.2 Construction:

The PIN diode consists of a semiconductor diode with three layers. The usual P and
N regions are present, but between them is a layer of intrinsic material a very low level of
doping. This may be either N-type or P-type, but with a concentration of the order of 13^13
cm^-3 which gives it a resistivity of the order of one k-ohm cm. The thickness of the intrinsic
layer is normally very narrow, typically ranging from 10 to 200 microns. The outer P and Ntype regions are then heavily doped. The high resistivity decreases capacitance between
P and N regions as it is inversely proportional to the separation between these regions. It
allows a faster response for the diode. There are two ways in which the PIN diode can be

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realized : one is to fabricate the p-i-n diode in a planar structure, and the other is to use a
mesa structure.

10.3 Applications:

as a switching diode for signal frequencies upto GHz range.

as an AM modulator of very high frequency signals.
Used in Photodetector and photovoltaic cell.

11.

Photo Diode:

A Photodiode is a semiconductor device that converts light into current. The current is
generated when photons are absorbed in the photodiode. A small amount of current is also
produced when no light is present. Photodiodes usually have a slower response time as its
surface area increases.

11.1 Working:
A photodiode is a pn junction or PIN structure. When a photon of sufficient energy
strikes the diode, it creates an electron-hole pair. This mechanism is also known as the inner
photoelectric effect. If the absorption occurs in the junction's depletion region, or one
diffusion length away from it, these carriers are swept from the junction by the built-in electric
field of the depletion region. Thus holes move toward the anode, and electrons toward the
cathode, and a photocurrent is produced. The total current through the photodiode is the
sum of the dark current (current that is generated in the absence of light) and the
photocurrent, so the dark current must be minimized to maximize the sensitivity of the
device.

Photovoltaic mode: When used in zero bias or photovoltaic mode, the flow of
photocurrent out of the device is restricted and a voltage builds up. This mode exploits
the photovoltaic effect, which is the basis for solar cells a traditional solar cell is just a
large area photodiode.
Photoconductive mode: In this mode the diode is often reverse biased. This reduces
the response time because the additional reverse bias increases the width of the
depletion layer, which decreases the junction's capacitance. The reverse bias also
increases the dark current without much change in the photocurrent.

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11.2 Construction:

Silicon photodiodes are constructed from single crystal silicon wafers similar to those
used in the manufacture of integrated circuits. The major difference is that photodiodes
require higher purity silicon. The purity of silicon is directly related to its resistivity. A cross
section of a typical silicon photodiode is shown above. N type silicon is the starting material.
A thin "p" layer is formed on the front surface of the device by thermal diffusion or ion
implantation of the appropriate doping material (usually boron). Small metal contacts are
applied to the front surface of the device and the entire back is coated with a contact metal.
The back contact is the cathode, the front contact is the anode. The active area is coated
with silicon nitride, silicon monoxide or silicon dioxide for protection and to serve as an antireflection coating. The thickness of this coating is optimized for particular irradiation
wavelengths.

11.3 Applications:

P-N photo diodes are used in similar applications to other photo detectors
Photo diodes are used in consumer electronics devices such as compact disc players,
smoke detectors, and the receivers for infrared
Photo diodes are often used for accurate measurement of light intensity in science and
industry.
They are also widely used in various medical applications, such as detectors for
computed tomography and pulse oximeters.
Used in fiber optic communication.

12.

Rectifier Diode:

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Diodes can be subdivided into two main classes: Rectifier diodes (standard recovery)
and Fast diodes. Rectifier diodes are generally used for conversion of AC (alternating
current) to DC (direct current). A Rectifier diode lets electrical current flow in only one
direction and is mainly used for power supply operation. Rectifier diodes can handle higher
current flow than regular diodes and are generally used in order to change alternating
current into direct current. They are designed as discrete components or as integrated
circuits and are usually fabricated from silicon and characterized by a fairly large p-n junction
surface. This results in high capacitance under reverse-bias conditions. In high-voltage
supplies, two rectifier diodes or more may be connected in series in order to increase the
peak-inverse-voltage (PIV) rating of the combination. While optimized for low conduction
losses, Rectifier diodes withstand only moderate dynamic stress in transition from
conducting to the blocking state.
The two important arrangement of rectifier diodes for the specialized purposes are :
(i)
Half-Wave Rectifier
(ii)
Full-Wave Rectifier

Applications:

Low frequency Rectification Applications

Power Rectifier Diodes are used in applications such as battery charging and DC power
supplies as well as AC rectifiers and inverters.
Due to their high current and voltage characteristics, Power Rectifier Diodes can also be
used as free-wheeling diodes and snubber networks.

13.

Fast Recovery Diode:

Step Recovery Diode, Fast Recovery diode, is also Voltage Variable Capacitor
(VVC),having a graded doping profile where doping density decreases near the junction.
This results in the production of strong electric fields on both sides of the junction.

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At low frequencies, an ordinary diode acts as a rectifier. It conducts in the forward

direction but not in the reverse direction i.e. it recovers immediately from ON state to the
OFF state. However, it is found that when driven forward-to-reverse by a high-frequency
signal (above a few MHz), the diode does not recover immediately. Even during the
negative half-cycle of the input signal when the diode is reverse-biased, it keeps conducting
for a while after which the reverse current ceases abruptly in one step. This reverse
conduction is due to the fact that charges stored in the depletion layer during the period of
forward bias take time to drain away from the junction.

Fig (a) shows a Step-recovery diode being driven by a 20-MHz signal source. It
conducts in the forward direction like any diode. During the reverse half-cycle, we get
reverse current due to the draining of the stored charge after which current suddenly drops
to zero. It looks as though diode has suddenly snapped open during the early part of the
reverse cycle. That is why it is sometimes called a snap diode.

Applications:

Frequency multiplier in high-frequency harmonic generator circuits.

Used in Pulse and Digital circuits for generating very fast pulses with rise time of less
than 1 nanosecond.
As a Switching Diode in high speed switching applications.