AIAA 2009-219

47th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting Including The New Horizons Forum and Aerospace Exposition
5 - 8 January 2009, Orlando, Florida

Experimental and Theoretical Investigation of Aerospike

Nozzles in a Hybrid Rocket Propulsion System
James Robert Stoffel1
University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195-2400
An experimental and theoretical investigation was conducted on an annular aerospike
plug nozzle and its compatibility with a hybrid fuel propulsion system. The higher efficiency
of an aerospike nozzle, low operating costs, improved safety, throttleability, restartability,
and characteristics of a hybrid rocket propulsion system meet the high mass-ratio of SingleStage-To-Orbit vehicles and enable it to be met in an environmentally-friendly manner.
Ignition of the hybrid rocket motor using nitrous oxide and polyvinyl chloride with an
aerospike nozzle was achieved. The thrust profile of the hybrid spike plug nozzle motor was
qualitatively similar to the conventional hybrid rocket motor. The aerospike nozzle
efficiency was calculated to be 0.95 from exhaust plume simulations. Theoretical results of
the nozzles, hybrid rocket motors, and ground data acquisition system are described in
detail.

Nomenclature
A
a
C
cp
cv
d
G
I
M
m
n
P
r
r
t
T
F

O/F

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

area
regression rate constant
nozzle coefficient
specific heat at constant pressure
specific heat at constant volume
diameter
propellant mass flux (kg / m2 s)
impulse
Mach number
mass
regression rate constant
pressure
radius
fuel regression rate
time
temperature
thrust
half angle (nozzle)
oxidizer to fuel ratio
velocity
length of spike

Greek

=
=
=
=

expansion area ratio

nozzle efficiency factor
density
specific heat ratio

Superscript

= flow rate

Subscripts
c
e
i
f
o
t
x
y

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

chamber
exit
initial
final
stagnation
throat
x-direction
y-direction
ambient
thrust

I. Introduction1
N todays realm of aeronautics and astronautics, the reality of costs to access space has been astoundingly high,
making it quite difficult to make space access affordable. Some of the biggest contributing factors to the high cost
in accessing space are in the design of the propulsion system, fuel cost, and regulations. It is given that improved
rocket nozzles can lead to heavier payloads, less weight, longer range, and much lower costs. The multi-purpose
low-cost reusable Single-Stage-To-Orbit (SSTO) transportation system concept is a strong trend of aerospace

I
1

Undergraduate, Department Aeronautics & Astronautics, Department of Physics, Guggenheim Hall

Box 352400, and Student AIAA Member.
1
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
Copyright 2009 by James Robert Stoffel. Published by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., with permission.

technology development. For this type of system, the aerospike nozzle is critical. Over the years, the aerospike
nozzle has already attracted much attention with its outstanding advantages of automatic altitude compensation
ability of altitude performance, which would complement of SSTO applications.
Several studies with static and flight tests in the past few years have been performed on aerospike nozzle
technology. Recent tests by a joint academic/industry team from California State University, Long Beach (CSULB)
and Garvey Spacecraft Corporation, successfully demonstrated a flight test of a liquid-propellant powered aerospike
engine in the Mojave Desert on September 20, 2003 [1]. Further progress of aerospike nozzle development came in
March 2004 when two tests were carried out at the NASA Dryden Flight Research Center with Blacksky
Corporation. The two rockets were solid-fuel powered and fitted with non-truncated toroidal aerospike nozzles.
They reached an apogee of 26,000ft and peak velocity of about Mach 1.5.
As of yet, no one has done any static ground or flight tests of an aerospike nozzle in a hybrid propulsion system.
It has become apparent that a hybrid rocket motor is quite proficient and capable as a space access propulsion
system. On October 4, 2004, SpaceShipOne of Scaled Composites rocketed into history, becoming the first private
manned spacecraft to exceed an altitude of 328,000 feet twice within the span of a 14 day period and claiming the
ten million dollar Ansari X-Prize [2]. Its propulsion system was based on the advantages on hybrid rocket motors.
This study will perform static tests of a hybrid propulsion system complimented with an aerospike nozzle for flight
tests planned for later this year.
A. Rocket Nozzle Theory
Rocket motor nozzles have typically represented the shape of a cone/conical (De Laval Nozzle), or a bell shaped
nozzle designed to the specific altitude. These nozzles suffer from reduced efficiency at low and high altitude
because of the difference between the pressure of the exhaust gases and the ambient pressure of the atmosphere [3].
At low altitudes, the exhaust
gases are lower in pressure
than the atmospheric pressure.
This causes the jet exhaust to
constrict and become separated
from the nozzle walls reducing
the amount of thrust generated.
This condition is known as
over expansion as shown in
Fig. 1a. [4]. When the exhaust
pressure is the same as the
ambient pressure, a column
shaped exhaust plume is
formed.
This condition
Figure 1. Bell nozzle behavior during flight [Ref. 3].
corresponds to thrust at
maximum efficiency as shown
in Fig. 1b. At high altitude,
the exhaust gases are at a
higher pressure than ambient
and continue to expand past
the nozzle exit as shown in
Fig. 1c. Since additional
expansion occurs outside of
the nozzle, the under-expanded
exhaust plume results in thrust
loss
and
lower
nozzle
Figure 2. Aerospike nozzle behavior during flight [Ref. 3].
efficiency.
B. Aerospike Nozzle Theory
An aerospike nozzle utilizes a similar principal for propulsion, except that the exhaust remains attached to the
center-body, also known as a plug or aerospike [1]. Since the aerospike has no outer walls, the pressure of the
atmosphere (outer free jet boundary), causes the exhaust gases to hug its outer surface. At low altitudes, high
ambient pressure forces the exhaust gases inward increasing the pressure on the spike as shown in Fig. 2a. At
2
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

optimal pressure (exhaust pressure equals ambient pressure), the flow becomes column shaped, much like a bell
nozzle, for maximum thrust efficiency as shown in Fig. 2b. When operating at low ambient pressure, the flow is
constrained by expansion and compression waves that direct the exhaust axially to maintain the thrust force on the
spike shown in Fig. 2c. Many believe that this characteristic of aerospike nozzles is their ultimate strength, a concept
called, altitude compensation.
Altitude compensation results from the fact that the outer plume boundary is acted on by the ambient pressure of
the atmosphere. A full aerospike nozzle has a full-length conical or isentropic spike, where as a truncated aerospike
nozzle has a truncated conical or isentropic spike in which an "aerodynamic spike" is created from the re-circulating
flow aft of the flat nozzle base. Losses from truncating the aerospike can be offset by adding a secondary gas flow
(base bleed). This modification can help add pressure to the base portion of the spike, therefore aiding in the overall
thrust performance of the truncated aerospike. The base bleed is found to be efficient when using only 0.3-3% of the
total exhaust flow of the nozzle according to past studies [3]. In addition, the base region is open to high ambient
pressure resulting in a greater "base" thrust component.
Experimental data on altitude compensation using full and truncated aerospike nozzles collected by Rocketdyne
are shown in Fig. 3 [5]. According to theory, the full aerospike should meet or exceed the performance of the bell
nozzle at all altitudes due to the inherent characteristics of altitude compensation. In some though, experimental data
have shown that these predictions are not
necessarily true for all cases. There needs to be
actual flight tests to evaluate both sets of data. On
that note, there are many potential sources of
performance losses in the design of a practical
engine.
In the design process of an aerospike nozzle,
many shapes are considered. The most common
shapes of aerospike nozzles are annular/conical,
annular/isentropic curve (ideal shape), and linear
versions of the plug, sometimes with truncation.
Performance losses in a conical nozzle instead of
an isentropic aerospike can be than 1% for cone
half-angles up to 30. The aerospike shape allows
the exhaust gases to expand through an isentropic
(constant entropy) process. This process allows
the nozzle efficiency to be maximized. Even
Figure 3. Nozzle thrust coefficient efficiency vs. nozzle
though the isentropic spike is the most efficient
pressure ratio data for theoretical and experimental
shape, it is realistically longer and weighs much
aerospike nozzle [Ref. 4].
more than a conical nozzle.
In summary, the advantages of aerospike nozzle altitude compensation result in higher nozzle efficiency at all
altitudes and a truncated aerospike can be far smaller than a typical full aerospike and bell nozzle for nearly the
same performance. In contrast, the disadvantage of an aerospike nozzle is much greater heat flux than a typical
conical or bell nozzle. One of the solutions to this problem can be fixed by truncating the spike to reduce the
exposed area and to cool the aerospike by regenerative cooling. A base bleed or that is, secondary flow, can also
help reduce the temperatures of the spike with increasing the performance of a truncated nozzle. The aerospike
nozzle is more complex and difficult to manufacture than the conical or bell nozzle. As a result, this can be more
costly. There have been very few aerospike flight tests in rocket or space applications.
C. Hybrid Rocket Propulsion System
In its simplest form, a hybrid rocket motor consists of a pressurized tank full of oxidizer that leads into a valve
and then into a combustion chamber lined with a solid fuel grain. To ignite the motor, the valve is opened to allow
oxidizer to reach the fuel grain and an ignition source is supplied to start the combustion process. The combustion
burns along the inside surface of the chamber called a 'port' [4, 6, 7]. Some of the common hybrid rocket oxidizers
are: Nitrous Oxide (N2O), Gaseous Oxygen (O2), Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2), Liquid Oxygen (LOX), Nitrogen
Tetroxide (N2O4), and Nitric Acid (HNO3). Some of the common hybrid rocket fuels are: Polyethylene (PE), PolyMethyl Methacrylate (PMMA, Acrylic or Plexiglas), Poly-Vinyl Chloride (e.g., PVC), and Hydroxyl Terminated
Poly-Butadiene (HTPB). Some of the inherent benefits of a hybrid propulsion system are safety during fabrication,
storage, or operation (0 TNT-level USAF); restart capabilities; simplicity; low system cost; higher specific impulse

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American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

than solid rocket motors and higher density-specific impulse than liquid bipropellant engines; variable thrust
(throttling); and if chosen appropriately, an environmentally friendly propulsion system. Some disadvantages of
hybrids are that the motors become oxidizer rich near the end of the burn for the fuel grain and relatively low
regression rates. Recent advances in hybrids to alleviate these problems have included vortex/swirl injection
schemes and fuel grains that have showed regression rates three-fold higher than typical hybrid performances. This
has allowed hybrid propulsion systems very competitive and desirable amongst the typical solid and bi-propellant
propulsion systems.
E. Propellant and Fuel Selection
For testing purposes, a commercial hybrid rocket motor was selected from West Coast Hybrids in Vancouver,
B.C. Commercial high power rocket motors are defined as publicly available rocketry motors above model rocket
motors. Hybrid motors from WCH offer high power with consistent reliability and availability; and they use a
readily available oxidizer (N2O) and fuel grain (PVC) for its propellant system.
G. Solid Fuel Grain
Polyvinyl Chloride is a widely used plastic throughout the world and it is one of the most valuable products of
the chemical industry [9]. Over 50% of PVC manufactured is used in design and construction globally. PVC was
selected for a few reasons: cheap, no HAZMAT restrictions or special storage conditions, and readily available by
the vendor of the hybrid rocket motor or other local resources. The physical properties of two typical thermoplastics
are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. PVC Properties.
Thermoplastic Specific
Gravity

Tensile
Yield
Strength
(10-3 psi)

Tensile
Modulus
(10-3 psi)

Coefficients
of Linear
Expansion
(106 in/in oF)

Thermal
Conductivity
(Btu in /h ft2 oF)

Specific
Heat
(Btu/lb oF)

Maximum
Temperature
Limit
(oF/oC)

ABS

1.08

340

60

1.35

0.34

180/80

PVC

1.4

410

30

1.1

0.25

150/65

H. Oxidizer
Nitrous Oxide is widely used in the medical field, the motor
sports industry, and in commercial high power hybrid rocket motors
[4, 7, 8, 9]. The physical properties of N2O are displayed in Table 2.
Of the oxidizers, N2O is also the easiest to attain, use, and transport.
For instance, liquid oxygen is cryogenic and requires another level
of safety in terms of cleanliness of equipment, cryogenic capable
flow lines, etc. The byproducts of hydrogen peroxide are quite
friendly to the environment, but are much harder to obtain in useful
concentrations, high cost, and more unstable or reactive.
I. Method of Ignition
There are many methods for rocket motor ignition. Typically in
the high power commercial hybrid motors, three types of ignition
are used [10, 11]. The first method uses a section of a composite
fuel grain, usually Ammonium Perchlorate Composite Propellant
(APCP), ignited by a small gauge igniter wire with a pyrodex
mixture at the head of the two leads. This pre-heater grain method
burns through the nylon fill line in the combustion chamber
releasing nitrous oxide into the chamber and heating the surface
area of the fuel grain simultaneously. The disadvantages of this
method are acquiring a Low Explosives User Permit (LEUP)
required by the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms (BATF).

Table 2. Nitrous Oxide Properties.

Dinitrogen
Name
Oxide
N2O
Chemical formula
Formula weight
(g/mol)
Melting point (K/C)
Boiling point (K/C)
Critical temperature
(K/C)
Critical pressure
(Mpa)
Density (liquid)
(g/cm3)
Ratio of Specific
Heats g = Cp/Cv
Individual Gas
Constant R (kJ/kg
K)

4
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

44
182/-91
185/-88
309.6/36.4
7.245
1.2
1.27
0.18

The second method uses no composite grain, but medical grade gaseous oxygen to fill the chamber with a fill stem
and electrically ignited with steel wool or a high electrical arc inserted into the chamber. The advantage of using
this method avoids acquiring a LEUP and has faster ignition with little or no delay time. The disadvantages are the
costs of attaining appropriate ground support/launch equipment, which can be quite expensive. The third method
uses pyrodex pellets attached to the fill line in the combustion chamber with tape and ignited by an igniter wire with
either pyrogen or a resistor in series between the two leads. The advantages of this method are: no LEUP, very
cheap, easily attainable at any gun/ammo retailer, and safer. Pyrodex was originally made as a substitute for black
powder in muzzle loading guns. It is the only synthetic black powder "performance" substitute in common use. It is
classified as a smokeless powder by the Department of Transportation (DOT), and bears little resemblance to
traditional black powder in actual weight or grain size. It is a bit harder to ignite than black powder, and is safer to
handle, use, and store due to this fact. It is also not as impact-sensitive as is true black powder. Pyrodex is not
classified as an explosive as is black powder, and is sold at many chain stores due to this fact.

II. Nozzle Analysis and Design

An ideal rocket propulsion system uses the basic principles of thermodynamics. These principles can be
expressed with simple mathematical relationships. These equations ideally describe one-dimensional nozzle flow for
the design process two or three dimensional behavior. In a real nozzle scenario, the measured actual performance of
a chemical rocket propulsion system is usually 1-6% below the ideal or calculated values.
The thrust coefficient CF is a function of gas property , the nozzle area ratio , and the pressure ratio across the
nozzle Pa/Pc, but independent of chamber temperature. From isentropic flow theory, the ideal thrust coefficient was
calculated using Eq. (1).

CFideal =

Pa
1- P
c

(1)

When the pressure ratio is fixed or Pa=Pc, the thrust coefficient CF and F have an optimum thrust coefficient or
CFactual. The thrust coefficient CF is defined as the thrust divided by the chamber pressure and the area of the throat.
This gives the actual nozzle thrust coefficient and was calculated using Eq. (2).

CFactual =

F
Pc A t

(2)

The rocket nozzle efficiency, , is defined as the ratio of the actual nozzle thrust coefficient divided by the ideal
thrust coefficient as seen in Eq. (3) [12, 13, 14]:

CFactual
CFideal

(3)

The Mach number at the exit can be found from using Eq. (4) or more effectively used in finding the area ratio of
the nozzle.

Ae
1 2
-1
2
=
1+(
Me

At
M e +1
2

+1

2 -1

(4)

A. Aerospike Nozzle Analysis

The aerospike nozzle uses an annular/toroidal and full conical spike configuration [1, 4, 12, 14]. The geometry
and design of the nozzle is based off of the identical throat areas for the conical nozzle that came with the hybrid
rocket motor. This was done in order for the experimental data to be comparable in both nozzle systems. One of the
most important parameters in rocket nozzle design is the expansion area ratio, as shown in Eq. (5).

Ae
At

(5)

For aerospike nozzles, the throat area is the difference of the exit area, Ae, and plug area, Aspike. This expansion
area ratio was calculated by using Eq. (6) and (7) below.

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American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

A t = Ae - Aspike
Ae
=
Ae - Aspike

(6)
(7)

Since the flow area around the plug, rather than the 8 ports in the secondary chamber, At=Aspike. Therefore, the
expansion ratio is approximately 3.83. This expansion ratio falls within the optimal efficiency for sea level
conditions in booster applications. To calculate the thrust for the spike configuration, Eq. (8) was used accounting
for the geometric constraints as shown in Eq.s (9) through (10).

Fspike = PdAsin

(8)

dA = 2 rdz
r = zcos

(9)
(10)

2 sin cos zdzp(z)

F=

(11)

With the given parameters of this hybrid propulsion system, two other parameters needed to be considered. The
velocity at the exit of the nozzle is based on the gas coefficient and pressure ratio of the system. Therefore the exit
velocity was calculated using Eq. (12)

2
P -1

ve =
RTc 1- e
Pc
-1

(12)

The mass flow rate is determined by the total propellant before and after use during a certain duration or time as
seen in Eq. (13).

m=

mi -mf
dt

(13)

Finally, the total thrust for an aerospike nozzle was calculated using Eq. (12) below.

F = Fspike + m ve

(14)

In previous designs, other academic and industry groups used aerospike nozzles with a center shaft from the
main injector bulkhead down to the aft end of the combustion chamber that supported the spike. Previous results
have had design issues with the central graphite shaft fracturing and leading to catastrophic rocket motor failures.
Different methods of modifications were used to compensate for this problem. UCLSB incorporated a solid metallic
alloy rod down the center of the graphite spike for their bipropellant aerospike rocket motor. Boston University used
a steel rod with a solid fuel grain molded around the support shaft for their solid propellant aerospike rocket motor.
Both methods proved too heavy in material and added unnecessary weight to the rocket motor.
Two different aerospike nozzle designs shown below in Fig. 4 are being considered in this investigation. Both
nozzles incorporate a short compact version of the aerospike,
eliminating the need for a central support shaft for the spike.
Coincidentally, both aerospike nozzle designs had ported heads into
an aft mixing chamber. Both aerospike nozzles had 8 ports (flow
passages) with a total area greater than the choked exit area. The
post mixing chamber not only eliminates the need for the support
shaft, but it also aid in the mixing process of the oxidizer and fuel
grain before expulsion of the exhaust gases for improved thrust
efficiency.
The full aerospike design (Fig.4-left) was fabricated from mild
steel (1018). The aerospike nozzle also had a greater mixing
chamber total volume. The steel aerospike nozzle had countersunk
flow passages to improve oxidizer turbulence and flow. The
Figure 4. Photos of steel aerospike
graphite aerospike nozzle also had a similar feature where the entire
nozzle (left) and graphite truncated
head end of the graphite aerospike nozzle was ramped towards the
aerospike nozzle (right).
center axis. The steel aerospike nozzle was designed with a full6
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

length conical spike and the graphite aerospike nozzle was 22% truncated
conical spike. This was done with intent to avoid damage to the brittle tip.
Conical shapes were chosen over the ideal isentropic shape based on negligible
performance losses as discussed previously in this paper and ease in
fabrication.
Two major differences between the aerospike nozzles are the
beginning/transition of the spike and the actual shape of the spike. The steel
aerospike nozzle was designed more like a traditional spike with a 45
divergent conical surface followed by a half angle 15 convergent conical
spike. The maximum diameter of the spike was equal to the exit area. The
convergent section of the spike begins within the post mixing chamber aiding
in exhaust gases to converge on the surface area of the spike.
The graphite aerospike nozzle in (Fig. 4-right) was designed without the
divergent 45 conical surface, but instead with the same maximum diameter of
the spike as a cylindrical shaft from the ported head to the 15 convergent
section of the spike. The maximum diameter of the shaft was less the diameter
of the exit diameter. The spike did not converge in the mixing chamber, but
Figure 5. Schematic and flow
actually converged either at or slightly after the exit area. The designer
path of steel aerospike nozzle.
believed that it was not necessary to converge the gases at the surface area of
the spike, but allow the ambient pressure push the exhaust gases inward on the
surface area of the spike. In the original calculations and design of the aerospike nozzle, the At and Ae actually used
were exactly perpendicular to the axis of symmetry at the most choked area as shown in Fig. 5. As typical nozzle
dynamics explain, the exhaust gases push perpendicular against the nozzle wall (in this case the aerospike).
Because of the finite difference between the two different Aspike and Ae, the first measurements were used for these
nozzles calculations. Because the aerospike nozzle was
designed with a conical aerospike instead of an isentropic
aerospike for simplicity in manufacturing, there is also no
turn-back-angle.
For comparative design analysis, Aerospike 2.4 and
Hybrid Design Program 1.1.3 software were used in
conjunction with mathematical computations to design an
approximate and optimal aerospike nozzle design for the
WCH rocket motor [15, 16]. Aerospike 2.4 is a software
program that uses the method of characteristics to design an
ideal isentropic aerospike nozzle in either an annular or linear
configuration. Hybrid Design Program 1.1.3 is a software
program that aids you in designing hybrid rocket motors. The
program calculates numerous parameters and simulates the
burn of the motor. The aerospike nozzles were also designed
with the same divergent/convergent half angles and throat
areas of the original conical nozzle designed for this hybrid
rocket motor. With these given parameters, the following
ideal aerospike behavior is shown in Fig. 6.

III. Research Approach

For the past two years, the author has been carrying out
independent research in aerospike theory to make affordable,
easy to manufacture, and efficient altitude compensating
nozzles for future space launch applications. Membership in
the Tripoli Rocketry Association (TRA) and National
Association of Rocketry (NAR) has given opportunity to
further these studies for application to sounding rockets.
A. Forward bulkhead modification
Since the aerospike nozzle has an annular instead of a

Figure 6. Aerospike nozzle design by method of

characteristics for M, P/Pc, T/Tc [15].

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American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

conventional circular throat, the typical commercial hybrid rocketry method of filling the oxidizer tank could not be
accommodated through the nozzle throat. Instead, the WCH hybrid motor forward bulkhead/closure was modified
with an addition of a fill port.
B. U/C Valve Modification
The original U/C valve contains five injectors for the
oxidizer as shown in Fig. 7. The injector configuration has a
main injector in the center and four 1/8 injectors that are
symmetrical around the main injector. Since the main injector
is no longer used as the fill port, one of two injector
modification considerations was used in order to preserve
similar thrust characteristics with a conventional motor firing.
Small 4 inch sections of the nylon tubing were crimped and
heat-treated on one end to seal the tube. Physical loads and
Figure 7. Original injector design (left) and
low-pressure tests were performed to evaluate the seam of the
injector modification 2 (right).
tube. Neither tests opened or separated the nylon tube seal. The
injector was assembled similarly to the original configuration, with only a short section of nylon tubing protruding
from the main injector. This modification was chosen first in order to have comparable data to the original design of
the motor with a conventional nozzle. This method kept the original setup for its two-step impulse concept. The
two-step impulse is achieved by burning and igniting the main injector fill tube first, while the steel wool protects
the secondary injectors. After a couple seconds of combustion, the steel wool combusts and leaves the secondary
injector tubing exposed for burn-through and resulting in all five injectors operating at a higher total mass flow rate.
The second U/C valve modification eliminated the odd numbered injector
and fill tube (central injector and fill orifice). The main injector was
removed and a plug was put in its place as shown in Fig. 7. The original
total area of the five injectors was divided up into 4 new injectors. This
would eliminate the hassle of any possible oxidizer leaks and tank fill
failures. The two nylon tubes that loop together in parallel form will now
cross each other in aiding in retaining the pyrodex pellets and igniter
wire. Due to the removal of the main injector, the two-step impulse is
taken away and the performance and thrust curve will change.
C. Rocket Motor Test Stand
The design of the hybrid rocket motor uses a monotube system (type
of construction in which the tanks and motor are integral with airframe)
and Urbansky-Colburn (U/C) valve (floating piston/injector). The motor
must be tested in a vertical setup for proper venting at the top of the
motor. A trailer was fabricated into a static rocket motor test stand and
launch pad for future sounding rockets as shown in Fig. 8. It incorporates
modular adapters and a 16 ft. hydraulic triangular truss tower. The trailer
also included appropriate emergency equipment, generator, and storage
box. Even though it was not ready for launch capability, it was
completed enough for rocket motor static tests and was load tested to
handle safely hybrid rocket motors which is identified by both rocketry
associations on their websites [10, 11].
D. Instrumentation System
An integral part of recording data is acquiring a capable data
acquisition system. Table 3 shows all instrumentation that was acquired
for static tests. In order to observe, manipulate, analyze, and record data
in a proficient manner, a Dell Notebook Inspiron 710m was acquired for
its light and rugged durability for field research data [17]. The data
acquisition unit, amplifier, and load cell were purchased from
Aeroconsystems Inc. for their wide range of aerospace supplies [18].

Figure 8. Test stand with aerospike

hybrid rocket motor.

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American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

Table 3. Instrumentation List for Spike Nozzle Rocket Motor Ground Test.
Measurement
Manufacturer
Model
Range
Data acquisition
Dell Notebook
Inspiron
Intel Pentium
system
Computer
710m
M Processor 735

Specifications
1.7GHz

Data acquisition unit

DATAQ
Instruments

DI-194RS

10V analog
measurement

240 samples second

Thrust, strain, chamber

pressure
Load cell

WinDaq
software
CNCEII

WinDaq/Lit
e
PA6140

Display Up To 32
Channels
0-2500 lb

Record Up To 240
Channels
<2% of Full Scall

Video

Sony

DCRTRV140

20X Optical/560X
Digital Zoom

500 lines of
horizontal resolution

E. Test Facilities and Safeguards

Prior to any actual tests, proper training and dry run exercises for the ground support crew were performed for all
the procedures and possible scenarios in case of emergency [4, 7]. A designated safe blasting area was established
in a secluded rock quarry with appropriate safety equipment. An Emergency Medical Technician was standing by
for medical emergencies with appropriate fire suppression equipment. The minimum safe standoff distance of 350 ft
was used for the particular class motors as stated by the Tripoli Rocketry Bylaws [10].

IV. Discussion and Analysis

On day one, a new site was acquired in Wilkeson Sandstone Quarry, WA. On the second attempt to fill/fire the
motor, nitrous oxide had leaked again through the combustion port and graphite aerospike nozzle during the fillphase of the motor. The fill and fire sequence was aborted again till the motor was safe to approach. The sealing
method did not held up to the 750 psi and reopened under over pressurization of the oxidizer [4, 7]. The burst
pressure rating for the 1/4 Parflex Nylon tubing was 1800 psi at ambient temperatures [19]. The working pressure
was rated at 425 psi. This time, sufficient time was allowed for the motor to warm up to safe temperatures before
disassembly. Upon disassembly, it was observed that the super cold temperatures had fractured the nozzle along the
top rim and pieces of graphite had stuck to the O-ring and dielectric grease. This made the nozzle unusable for
further tests. The motor was completely checked over and reassembled with the steel aerospike nozzle. A larger
bead was heat-sealed on the end of the tubing in attempt to hold higher N 2O pressure.
On attempt number two of the day, the motor filled, vented appropriately, and fired with success. The motor ran
approximately 3.5 seconds, short of the 4.2-second burn with the original design of the motor. During the successful
firing of the rocket motor, it was observed that the support shroud adapter for the rocket motor may have been
slightly too large due to the motor moving about in the xy-plane direction and hitting the sides of the motor casing.
It was later confirmed that the tank had not fully filled due to premature shut off sequence. Unfortunately, the data
acquisition unit had not picked up any data for unknown reasons. A few days later, the file was analyzed and no data
were found. Further testing of the data acquisition unit, load cell, and amplifier were performed. Initially, no data
was shown on the oscilloscope file. Prior to day two, additional wire was acquired of a different brand to increase
the safety distance from the motor and test stand. Upon removal of the wire extension, tests showed that the data
acquisition unit, load cell, amplifier, and laptop were all working appropriately. It was concluded that the minimum
supplied power (18V) to the amplifier was not enough to carry a signal the safe standoff distance of 250 ft as stated
previously in the standoff safety table. The amp was rated to receive 18-36V. Remnant wire from the original
wiring was attached and then confirmed that it was in working order before day 3.
On day two, issues continued with the heat-sealed tubing which led to two more additional leaks and venting
through the nozzle. This has clearly become an unsuitable method of injector modification to the original design.
With the second injector modification, the hybrid rocket motor was fired successfully and the data acquisition
system worked properly. As can be seen below in Fig. 9, the experimental and certified thrust curves show
qualitatively similar performance [11, 16]. After analyzing video and still images, it was concluded that the motor
and nozzle had behaved as predicted.

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American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

Figure 9. Thrust vs. Time comparison of WCH with conical and aerospike nozzle[16].
Based on the performance simulated and actual performance of the two firings, the third static test showed
comparative performance values that would be expected of a typical hybrid propulsion system. Table 4 shows the
results of the simulated and actual static tests. The difference in total impulse did not differ significantly and
produced similar average thrust. Due to funding, a pressure transducer for chamber pressure was not attained for
static tests. The aerospike hybrid rocket motor performed as expected to the original classical configuration of the
hybrid rocket motor.
Table 4. Results from Simulation and Actual Aerospike Hybrid Rocket Motor Static Tests.
Static Test

Fuel Grain
Mass (lb)

Fuel (Post
Fire) (lb)

Oxidizer
mass (lb)

IspT
(lbfs)

Favg
(lbf)

Isp

Pc
(psi)

CFactual

CFideal

Simulated

1.02

0.57

2.18

451

103

171

350

N/A

1.2

0.98

Run #3

1.02

0.62

1.92

394

101

171

UNK

1.54

1.2

0.95

In Fig. 10 below, the

plume profiles exhibited
typical over expansion
characteristics that would
occur near sea level
conditions.
During
disassembly
and
inspection of the motor,
all components of the
hybrid propulsion system
were intact, no damage,
and reusable. There was
Figure 10. Photographs of the aerospike during start-up and full thrust profile.
typical residual carbon
build-up on the steel nozzle with no deformities. Nozzle erosion was measured with venier calipers and telescopic
calipers showing closely to either finite or no erosion ( 0.002).

V. Conclusion
This independent study was successful in carrying out hybrid rocket motor tests with an aerospike nozzle. We
were able to test the design of a compact aerospike nozzle without a center support shaft through the combustion
chamber and supported at the main injector as done by other university and private studies. The aerospike nozzle
was proven to be compatible with a hybrid propulsion system and ignition was successfully achieved. The plume
displayed typical Prandtl-Meyer expansion waves and Mach/shock diamonds with over expansion at near sea level
conditions. No motors catastrophically failed and data were collected for the next phase of analysis.
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American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Recommendations
More static tests and analysis is needed for quantitative data.
A separate combustion chamber jacket from the liquid propellant tank is currently desirable.
A new injector for an efficient ignition method, pressure transducer, and thermal instrumentation is needed.
An upgrade in data acquisition system for faster sampling.
Add higher power amplifier for the data acquisition unit for remote transmitting.
Video and audio upgrade for observational analysis.
Thermal imaging is desirable for aerospike heat analysis.

Acknowledgements
The author would like to acknowledge Department of Physics Undergraduates Christopher Stoffel and Eric
Sherwood for technical ground support. The author would also like to recognize John Stoffel for his help in
designing and fabricating the static test stand and launch pad trailer for this study. I would like to also thank Scott
Harrison of West Coast Hybrids for his input and modified hybrid rocket motor, and Mike Fisher of Binder Design
for his design and input of an aerospike nozzle. Id like to thank Chuck Nelson of Wilkeson Sandstone Quarry for a
safe and available test site for this and future endeavors. Finally, I'd like to thank Dr. Carl Knowlen for being my
Faculty Advisor and mentor in this project.

References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.

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American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics