Basic Engine and Compressor Analysis

Basic Reciprocating Engine &
Compressor Analysis
Techniques
Azonix-Dynalco
Kathy Boutin, B.Sc.
Ben Boutin, P.Eng.
2003 DYNALCO CONTROLS
GMRC 2003 GAS MACHINERY CONFERENCE

BASIC ENGINE & COMPRESSOR ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
Focus of this course

In this course, we illustrate engine and
compressor behavior using data taken from

running machinery
The data were recorded by analysts running
their own predictive maintenance programs
We show faults that are seen in recip
equipment and present techniques to detect
them

SHORT COURSE: BASIC ENGINE & COMPRESSOR ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
Short Course Outline

Analysis Programs
Characterizing engines and compressors
Data types
Testpoint Locations
Sequence of events
2-stroke engines
4-stroke engines
Compressors
Analyzing engine faults
Analyzing compressor faults
Analyzing auxiliary equipment faults

Analysis Programs
Objectives
Types of analysis
Analysis process

Analysis Programs
Objectives of analysis programs
Eliminate expensive, unnecessary maintenance
Decrease maintenance costs
Increase machine availability
Decrease down time
Improve performance
Reduce emissions
You cant improve what you dont measure

Analysis Programs
Types of machinery analysis
Maintenance Analysis
Identifies incipient failure so that you can turn unscheduled
maintenance into scheduled maintenance
Helps avoid in-service failures
Goal is to reduce maintenance cost
Performance Analysis
Characterizes the engine/compressor operating potential
Efficiency
Fuel consumption
Horsepower
Throughput

Analysis Programs
The analysis process
Gather data from the machine

Reduce the data to measures of performance
and condition
Organize and present the reduced data
Infer performance and condition
Report findings
Take action
Follow up

Characterizing Engines and

Compressors
Data Types
Testpoint Locations

Characterizing Engines and Compressors

Special data types
Process data
Tell about the process
Examples: suction temperature and pressure
Phase-marked data
Data is referenced to the flywheel
Example: pressure versus time data
Non-phased data
Sampling is a function of time only
Example: acceleration data from a
turbocharger bearing


Measuring flywheel position
Once-per-degree
Shaft encoder
360 pulses per
revolution
Better accuracy
Once-per-turn
Magnetic, active or
optical pickups are
common
1 pulse per revolution
Usually permanently
mounted

10

Example of phase-marked pressure (PT)
C402 - C cylinder 2 09/09/1998 12:02:53 PM HE Period 5, CE Period 5
1700
1600
1500
Head and
crank end
pressure
traces on a
compressor
cylinder
Pressure (psig)
1400
1300
1200
1100
1000
900
800
700
600
500
0
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270
315
360

11

Free-running, non-phased data
Data is recorded independent of crankshaft position
Returns
Overall vibration level
Spectrum showing frequency components
Common applications:
Structural vibration
Supports, foundations
Turbochargers
Oil and water pumps
Pressure pulsation

12

Example of free-running, non-phased, spectrum data
UNIT #4-E Testpoint OPEH 7/17/2002 10:51:55 AM
1.0
Testpoint
: OPEH VIB
No. Of Lines
: 400
No. Of Averages : 5
Calc Overall
: N/A
Trap Overall
: 1.325
1 times
run speed
0.9
0.8
Peak At Frequency
1.020 at 322.5
0.507 at 1305.0
0.122 at 652.5
0.110 at 487.5
0.098 at 1627.5
0.079 at 2932.5
0.073 at 1357.5
0.061 at 1140.0
0.061 at 1020.0
0.061 at 975.0
2 times
run speed
mil (pseudo-pk-pk)
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
4 times
run speed
0.3
Spectrum from
engine frame
near anchor
bolts. Mils peakpeak, oil pump
end, horizontal
direction.
Engine speed
323 RPM
0.2
0.1
0.0
0
500
1000
1500
cpm
2000
2500
3000

13
Engine Data
Cylinder exhaust temperatures
Infrared temperature wand
pyrometer
Turbocharger/blower
Standard accelerometer
mounted on bearings and near
turbine and compressor wheels
Frequency domain vibration
Ignition secondary
Inductive connection to unshielded
spark plug cable
Multi-period sampling statistics
Ignition secondary patterns
Cylinder, valve, wrist pin

and bearing vibration
Ultrasonic microphone
Time domain data phased to
crankshaft position
Cylinder pressure
Pressure transducer
crankshaft position
Peak pressure statistics
Ignition primary (not shown)

Connection to primary box
Ignition primary firing patterns
TDC Reference
Shaft encoder
Magnetic pickup
Phased data
RPM
Frame vibration (displacement)

Tri-axial accelerometer (H, V, A)
taken at opposite corners of
engine frame
Frequency domain data

Typical 2-stroke engine PT/VT
20905-E Cylinder P5 3/27/2002 8:57:46 AM Period 0
600
118
137
Fuel 213
PT
550
223 Intake
242 Exhaust
273
--------------
500
VT
Pressure (psig)
450
- P5 VT4
400
350
300
- Scale 2.4
250
200
150
-
100
50
--------------
0
0
45
90
135
180
Angle (deg)
225
270
315
360

15

Typical 4-stroke engine PT/VT
5302-E Cylinder 2L 12/3/2001 9:15:58 AM Period 1
1100
Intake 281
140
Fuel 315
620
391 Exhaust
--------------
583
1000
900
VT
Pressure (psig)
800
- 2L VT4
700
600
- Scale 5.0
500
-
400
300
200
PT
100
--------------
0
0
45
90
135
180
225
270
315 360 405

Angle (deg)
450
495
540
585
630

675
720
16
Compressor Data
Crosshead Vibration
crankshaft position
Relate to rod load
Valve cap temperatures

thermocouples, RTDs
TDC Reference
Shaft encoder
Magnetic pickup
Phased data
RPM
Suction/discharge temperatures
thermocouples, RTDs
Suction/discharge valve vibration
Compressor ring leak vibration
Liner scoring
Ultrasonic microphone
crankshaft position
Head/crank end pressure
Pressure transducer
crankshaft position
Rod Motion
Proximity probes
Time-domain data phased to
crankshaft position
Rod displacement trends
Suction/discharge nozzle pressure

Pressure transducer
Time domain data phased to crankshaft
position (valve/passage loss calculations)
Frequency domain (pulsation spectrum)
Frame vibration (displacement)

Tri-axial accelerometer (H, V, A)
taken at opposite corners of
engine frame
Frequency domain data

Typical HE compressor pattern
K200 - C cylinder 4 9/23/1998 9:52:15 AM HE Period 5, CE Period 7
-------------- 4HD1 VT1
- Scale 3.0
- 145 DGF
---------------4HD2 VT1
- Scale 3.0
- 146 DGF
--------------- 4HS1 VT1
- Scale 3.0
- 84 DGF
--------------- 4HS2 VT1
- Scale 3.0
- 84 DGF
---------------
CE PT
600
Pressure (psig)
550
HE PT
500
450
HE VT
400
350
300
250
0
45
90
135
180
225
270
315
360
Crank Angle (deg)


18
Sequence of events
2-stroke, spark-ignited engine

4-stroke, spark-ignited engine
Double-acting, reciprocating compressor

19
Understanding Machine Faults

To recognize faults in compressors and
engines, we must understand how they

behave in normal operation
Do the mechanical events you expect to see
actually happen?
Do the events appear to be normal?
when do they occur?

what is the relative magnitude?
do they look the same as they did last time?
do they look the same as the next machine?
What is the performance of the machine?

20
10
Sequence of events
for a 2 stroke engine
Pressure versus crank angle (PT)

Pressure-Volume (PV)
Vibration versus crank angle (VT)

21
Sequence of events for a 2-stroke engine

PT: start of cycle
Ignition has occurred

Flame front travel has begun
Pressure
Mixture is superheated air and fuel
0
90
180
Crank Angle (Deg)

270
360
22
11

PT: combustion
Flame travels through chamber

Heat is released, pressure rises
Temperature at flame front is
about 3500F
Pressure
Peak occurs 10-15 deg ATDC

Speed of propagation is critical
Too fast, detonation
Too slow, soft fire
0
0
90
180
360
270
Crank Angle (deg)

23

PT: power
Combustion is complete
Pressure drives piston down
Pressure
As volume increases, pressure decreases
0
0
90
180
360
270
Crank Angle (deg)

24
12

PT: exhaust blowdown
Piston uncovers exhaust port

Pressure drops more rapidly (blowdown)
Pressure
Temperature is now about 800F
0
0
90
180
360
270
Crank Angle (deg)

25

PT: air intake
Intake port is uncovered

Cylinder pressure intake pressure
Pressure
Fresh air under pressure sweeps and cools
0
90
180
Crank Angle (Deg)

270
360
26
13

PT: scavenging
Scavenging continues until intake closes
Pressure
Cylinder cooling continues
0
0
90
180
360
270
Crank Angle (deg)

27

PT: fuel intake

This is the lowest pressure in the cylinder
Fuel is injected just prior to exhaust closure
Pressure
Open exhaust port drags fuel down

Port closes before any fuel escapes
0
0
90
180
360
270
Crank Angle (deg)

28
14

PT: compression
Fuel injection ceases, ports are closed

Pressure begins to rise
Air-fuel charge is turbulent
Pressure
Turbulence mixes the air-fuel charge

Temperature rises
0
0
90
180
360
270
Crank Angle (deg)

29

PT: ignition
Ignition occurs 5-10 degrees BTDC

Advance gives time to initiate combustion
and for flame front travel
Pressure
Air-fuel charge is superheated
0
0
90
180
360
270
Crank Angle (deg)

30
15

PT: end of cycle
Pressure
Flame front begins propagating

through chamber
0
0
90
180
360
270
Crank Angle (deg)

31

PV: start of cycle (TDC)

Pressure
0
0
25
50
100
75
Swept Volume (%)

32
16

PV: combustion

Temperature at flame front is
about 3500F
Pressure

Speed of propagation is critical
Too slow, soft fire
0
0
25
50
100
75
Swept Volume (%)

33

PV: power
Pressure
0
0
25
50
100
75
Swept Volume (%)

34
17

PV: exhaust blowdown
Piston uncovers exhaust port

Pressure drops more rapidly (blowdown)
Pressure
Temperature is now about 800F
0
0
25
50
100
75
Swept Volume (%)

35

PV: air intake
Intake port is uncovered

Cylinder pressure intake pressure
Pressure
Fresh air under pressure sweeps and cools
0
0
25
50
100
75
Swept Volume (%)

36
18

PV: scavenging
Pressure
Cylinder cooling continues
0
0
25
50
100
75
Swept Volume (%)

37

PV: fuel intake

This is the lowest pressure in the cylinder
Fuel is injected just prior to exhaust closure
Pressure
Open exhaust port drags fuel down
0
0
25
50
100
75
Swept Volume (%)

38
19

PV: compression
Fuel injection ceases, ports are closed

Pressure begins to rise
Air-fuel charge is turbulent
Pressure
Turbulence mixes the air-fuel charge

Temperature rises
0
0
25
50
100
75
Swept Volume (%)

39

PV: ignition
Ignition occurs 5-10 degrees BTDC

Advance gives time to initiate combustion
and for flame front travel
Pressure
Air-fuel charge is superheated
0
0
25
50
100
75
Swept Volume (%)

40
20

PV: end of cycle
Pressure
Flame front begins propagating

through chamber
0
25
50
100
75
Swept Volume (%)

41

Cylinder vibration: start of cycle
137
118
223 Intake
242 Exhaust
273
Pressure
Fuel 213
45
90
135
180
2 25
Angle (deg)
270

315
360
42
21

Cylinder vibration: combustion
137
118
Fuel 213
223 Intake
242 Exhaust
273
Rings become fully loaded by gas

pressure
Pressure
May see some vibration resulting

from combustion
45
90
135
180
2 25
Angle (deg)
270
315

360
43

Cylinder vibration: power
137
118
Fuel 213
223 Intake
242 Exhaust
273
Pressure
Ring noise
45
90
135
180
2 25
Angle (deg)
270

315
360
44
22
Sequence of events for a 2-stroke engine VT

Cylinder vibration: exhaust blowdown
137
118
Fuel 213
223 Intake
242 Exhaust
273
Pressure
Exhaust
Blowdown
45
90
135
180
2 25
Angle (deg)
270
315

360
45

Cylinder vibration: air intake and scavenging
137
118
223 Intake
242 Exhaust
273
Pressure
Fuel 213
45
90
135
180
2 25
Angle (deg)
270

315
360
46
23

Cylinder vibration: fuel intake
137
118
223 Intake
242 Exhaust
273
Pressure
Fuel 213
45
90
135
180
2 25
Angle (deg)
270
315

360
47

Cylinder vibration: compression
137
118
Fuel 213
223 Intake
242 Exhaust
273
Pressure
Fuel Valve
Closure
45
90
135
180
2 25
Angle (deg)
270

315
360
48
24

Cylinder vibration: ignition
137
118
Fuel 213
223 Intake
242 Exhaust
273
Pressure
Ignition 5-10
degrees BTDC
45
90
135
180
2 25
Angle (deg)
270
315

360
49

Cylinder vibration: end of cycle
137
118
223 Intake
242 Exhaust
273
Pressure
Fuel 213
45
90
135
180
2 25
Angle (deg)
270

315
360
50
25
Sequence of events
for a 4 stroke engine
Pressure and vibration (PT/VT)

Pressure-Volume (PV)

51

PT/VT: top dead center
417 Exhaust
565
137
Intake 300
Fuel 502
611

Flame front propagation has begun
Pressure
0
180
0
1
Combustion
360
Crank Angle (deg)
Exhaust
Intake
720
540
4
Compression

52
26

PT/VT: peak firing pressure
417 Exhaust
565
137
Intake 300
Fuel 502
611
Flame front propagation through cylinder

Pressure and temperature rise
Pressure
Too slow, soft fire

su
re
P
0
180
0
1
Combustion
360
Crank Angle (deg)
Exhaust
Intake
720
540
4
Compression

53

PT/VT: power stroke
417 Exhaust
565
137
Intake 300
611
Pressure
Fuel 502
su
re
P
0
180
0
1
Combustion
360
Crank Angle (deg)
Exhaust
Intake
720
540
4
Compression

54
27

PT/VT: exhaust blowdown
417 Exhaust
565
137
Intake 300
Fuel 502
611
Exhaust gases leave through exhaust

valve port to exhaust header and
then to the turbocharger
Pressure
Blowdown
0
180
0
1
Combustion
360
Crank Angle (deg)
Exhaust
Intake
720
540
4
Compression

55

PT/VT: air intake
417 Exhaust
565
137
Intake 300
Fuel 502
611
Pressure
Exhaust valve
closure
0
180
0
1
Combustion
360
Crank Angle (deg)
Exhaust
Intake
720
540
4
Compression

56
28

PT/VT: fuel intake
417 Exhaust
565
137
Intake 300
Fuel 502
611
Pressure
Intake valve
closure
0
180
0
1
Combustion
360
Crank Angle (deg)
Exhaust
Intake
720
540
4
Compression

57

PT/VT: compression and ignition
417 Exhaust
565
137
Intake 300
Fuel 502
611
Pressure
Fuel valve
closure
0
180
0
1
Combustion
360
Crank Angle (deg)
Exhaust
Intake
720
540
4
Compression

58
29

PT/VT: end of cycle
417 Exhaust
565
137
Intake 300
Fuel 502
611
Pressure
Whats
this?
su
re
P
0
180
0
1
Combustion
360
Crank Angle (deg)
Exhaust
720
540
4
Intake
Compression

59

VT: crosstalk (KVS 412)
K200 - E 9/10/1995 6:51:46 AM
Engine Cylinders: Phased Vibration VT4:
P1
672
-2
2
P2
192
-2
2
P3
432
-2
2
P4
72
-2
2
P5
0
-2
2
P6
552
312
This engine -2has solid lifters

0
90
180
270
360
450
540

630
720
60
30

PV: top dead center
0
0
3
25
COMBUSTION
50
75
100
4 EXHAUST 1 INTAKE 2 COMPRESSION

61

PV: air intake
Fresh air enters cylinder
COMBUSTION

62
31

PV: fuel intake & compression
Fuel intake starts BBDC

Turbulence stirs mixture
0
0
3
25
COMBUSTION
50
75
100

63

PV: ignition
Mixture is compressed and

superheated
Ignition occurs 10-20 deg BTDC
COMBUSTION

64
32

PV: top dead center

COMBUSTION

65

PV: peak firing pressure

If pressure increase is
Too slow, soft fire
COMBUSTION

66
33

PV: power stroke
COMBUSTION

67

PV: bottom dead center
Exhaust valve opens just before BDC
COMBUSTION

68
34

PV: exhaust
Pressure drops rapidly

(blowdown)
COMBUSTION

69

PV: end of cycle
0
0
3
25
COMBUSTION
50
75
100

70
35
Sequence of events
for a double acting
reciprocating compressor
Head End (HE) compression cycle (PV)

Crank End (CE) compression cycle (PV)
HE valve events
HE and CE pressure-time (PT)
HE and CE vibration-time (VT)

71
Sequence of events in a reciprocating compressor

HE compression cycle
HE
Compression
Discharge
1-2
Pd
Clearance Volume
Pressure
HE
Discharge
2-3
Compression
Expansion
HE
Expansion
u
s
re
P
3-4
m
u
o
V
c
rn
a
le
C
Ps
Suction
Swept Volume
Volume
HE
Suction
4-1

72
36

CE compression cycle
CE
Compression
Compression
Expansion
Clearance Volume
Pd
Pressure
1-2
Discharge
CE
Discharge
2-3
CE
Expansion
3-4
1
Ps
Suction
Swept Volume
CE
Suction
Volume
4-1

73

PV: HE compression event
Suction Line Pressure (Ps)
Pd
Clearance Volume
Pressure
Suction
closed
AS
AP
Compression
Cylinder Pressure (Pcyl)
is above Ps and increasing to Pd.
Discharge valve opens when Pcyl
is greater than Pd (2).
1 Discharge
Ps
AP
closed
Volume
AD
Discharge Line Pressure (Pd)

74
37

PV: HE discharge event
3 Discharge
Pd
Clearance Volume
Pressure
Suction
closed
AS
AP
Compression
is above Pd and decreasing to Pd.
Discharge valves closes when Pcyl
equals Pd (3) at TDC.
1 Discharge
Ps
open
AP
Piston Stroke Volume

Volume

75

PV: HE expansion event
3 Discharge
Pd
Clearance Volume
Pressure
Suction
closed
AS
AP
Compression
is below Pd and decreasing to Ps.
Suction valve opens when Pcyl is
less than Ps (4).
Expansion
1 Discharge
Ps
AP
closed
AD
Volume

76
38

PV: HE suction event
3 Discharge
Pd
Clearance Volume
Pressure
Suction
open
AS
Compression
is below Ps and increasing to Ps.
Suction valve closes when Pcyl is
equal to Ps (1) at BDC.
Expansion
1 Discharge
Ps
AP
closed
Suction
AD

Volume

77

Example: HE and CE PV
600
Pressure (psig)
550
500
450
400
350
300
250
0
25
50
75
Percent swept volume

100
78
39

PT: HE and CE
D
Discharge A
Pressure
CE PT
HE PT
Suction
Pressure 1
180
360
Crank Angle (Deg)
Head End: Expansion (A-B)

Crank End: Compression (1-2)
Suction (B-C)
Compression (C-D)
Discharge (D-A)
Discharge (2-3)
Expansion (3-4)
Suction (4-1)

79

HE valve vibration
HE Discharge
1 Suction valve opens

(depends on clearance volume)
4 Discharge valve opens

(typically the loudest)
2 Suction gas fills the cylinder.
5 High pressure gas is

discharged into discharge
line.
3 Suction valve is lowered gently

onto the seat at BDC closing
event is not always visible.
HE Suction
6 Discharge valve is gently

lowered onto the seat at
TDC not always visible.
180
360
Gas blowing noise is loudest at valve
opening and gradually diminishes as
gas velocity through the valve decreases.
80
40

CE valve vibration
CE Discharge
CE Suction
180

360
81

HE and CE valve crosstalk
HE Discharge
CE Discharge
CE Suction
HE Suction
180

360
82
41

Typical HE PT/VT signature
-------------- 4HD1 VT1
- Scale 3.0
- 145 DGF
---------------- 4HD2 VT1
- Scale 3.0
- 146 DGF
--------------- 4HS1 VT1
- Scale 3.0
- 84 DGF
--------------- 4HS2 VT1
- Scale 3.0
- 84 DGF
---------------
600
Pressure (psig)
550
500
450
400
350
300
250
0
45
90
135
180
225
270
315
360
Crank Angle (deg)

83
Quick Recap
So far, weve talked about the normal
behavior of:
2-stroke, spark-ignited recip engine
4-stroke, spark-ignited recip engine
double-acting, reciprocating compressor
Now we know what they are supposed to look
like, we can look at faults

84
42
Analyzing Engine Faults
Combustion
Mechanical

85
Engine faults we can monitor

Combustion Quality
Mechanical Condition
Unbalance
Leaking valves
Detonation
Leaking rings
Misfire
Valve train (cam, guides, lifters, linkage)
Pre-ignition
Worn, scored liner and piston
Excessive Emissions
Port/bridge wear
Operating Performance
Carbon in ports
Indicated horsepower
Wrist pin
Torque
Main bearings, crank pins
Efficiency
Ignition problems
Economic Performance
Turbocharger faults
Fuel cost
Oil Pump, water pump problems
Fuel consumption
Frame, foundation vibration

86
43
Combustion
Many of the problems we face with engines
are due to variable combustion

Engines do not fire the same way each cycle

87
Combustion
Chemical equation of combustion
Engines convert chemical energy to heat

Take a simple gas such as Methane (CH4)
Combine it with oxygen and start the reaction
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O

Produces carbon dioxide plus water vapor
and releases heat of about 1000 BTU/ft3 of

methane consumed

88
44
Combustion
If only it was that simple
Air is primarily O2 (23%) and N2 (77%)

Both are involved in the chemical reaction
The combustion process is neither complete
nor instantaneous
Many intermediate steps and reactions occur
This leads to other exhaust products such as
NOx, HC, CO and particulates (smoke)

89
Combustion
Why is combustion so variable?
incomplete mixing in the cylinder

difficulty burning lean air/fuel mixtures
inconsistent air/fuel charge in each cycle
poor fuel quality
ignition faults
incorrect valve timing
varying ambient conditions

90
45
Combustion
Results of poor combustion
Firing in each becomes inconsistent, high
fires followed by low fires

Stress the engine thermally and mechanically
Reduce the life of engine components
Waste fuel
Increase emissions
This costs a great deal of money

91
Combustion
Typical faults
Unbalance
Dead cylinders
Early firing
Soft firing
Detonation
Pre-ignition

92
46
Engine balance
The manufacturer designed the engine to
handle specific cylinder pressures and

temperatures
Cylinders with high peak pressures develop
much greater mechanical and thermal stress
Engine balancing distributes this mechanical
and thermal stress across the engine to
maximize component life

93
Engine Balance
Cylinder pressures (balanced HBA)
Unit2 4/15/2002 9:21:55 AM
All cylinders - In Bank Order
800
700
P2
Pressure (psig)
600
P1
P4
P8
P5
P6
P3
+10%
P7
+2%
500
-2%
-10%
400
300
200
100
0
0
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270

315
360
94
47
Engine Balance
Pressure rise rate (balanced HBA)
Unit2 4/15/2002 9:21:55 AM
Pressure Rise Rate (dp/d)
35
P2
P4
P8
P5
30
P3
25
P6
P1
20
P7
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
0
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270
315

360
95
Engine Balance
Cylinder pressures (unbalanced HLA)
C2B-E 6/6/2001 7:22:02 AM
700
2
600
7
8
Pressure (psig)
3
500
+10%
+2%
-2%
-10%
1
400
300
200
100
0
0
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270

315
360
96
48
Engine Balance
Pressure rise rate (unbalanced HLA)
C2B-E 6/6/2001 7:22:02 AM
Pressure Rise Rate (dp/d)
20
Highly variable
3
15
8
4
10
5
6
5
0
-5
-10
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270

315
360
97
Detonation
Detonation is rapid and uncontrolled combustion.
Detonation can lead to rapid failure due to high thermal and
mechanical stress.
Causes of detonation:
Mixture too rich
Clogged/dirty air intake (air inlet filters, aftercoolers or
blowers)
Incomplete scavenging
inconsistent fuel composition
Overloaded engine
Ignition timing too advanced
Highly loaded cylinders in an unbalanced engine are more
susceptible to detonation.

98
49
Detonation
Engine PT parade (Ajax DPC-720-LE-H-2)
K203 - E 11/21/1996 2:13:03 PM
600
550
Pressure (psig)
500
P3 Detonating
Cylinder
450
400 P1
350
300
P2
P4
+10%
+2%
-2%
-10%
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
45
90
135 180 225 270

Crank Angle (deg)
315
360

99
Detonation
Multiple PT cycles for a power cylinder (P3)
K203 - E - P3 PT3 11/21/1996 2:13:03 PM
550
500
Detonation
Detonation
Detonation
450
400
350
Misfire
Misfire
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
Samples

100
50
Soft Firing
Soft Firing occurs when the pressure in the cylinder
rises too late (also called late firing).
The PFP is usually low and late.
Causes of soft fires:
incomplete scavenging
air/fuel ratio too lean causing slow flame front
air/fuel ratio too rich for proper combustion
late ignition timing
poor fuel composition

101
Soft Firing
Engine pressure signature comparisons
1A - E 5/22/1997 10:34:26 AM
800
700
P1R
Pressure (psig)
600
500
P3R
P5R
P4R
P3L
P1L
P2R
P4L
P5L
P2L
400
300
200
100
0
0
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270

315
360
102
51
Soft Firing
PT: comparison to normal (HBA)
20905-E Cylinder P8 7/14/1999 6:46:53 AM Period 3
550
137
500
223 Intake
118
242 Exhaust
Fuel 213
450
273
400
Normal
Pressure (psig)
350
300
250
200
Soft (Late)
Fire
150
100
50
0
0
45
90
135
180 225 270

Crank Angle (deg)
315
360

103
Soft Firing
PV: comparison to normal (HBA)
20905-E cylinder P8 7/14/1999 6:46:53 AM Period 3
550
500
450
Pressure (psig)
400
350
300
Normal
250
200
150
100
50
0
Soft (Late)
Fire
0
25
50
% swept volume
75
100

104
52
Soft Firing
Another example comparing engine PTs (CB QUAD)
C402 - E 9/9/1998 12:02:53 PM
All cylinders - In Bank Order - CRC is corrected
1000
Pressure (psig)
900
P3L
800
P4L
P4R
P1R
700
P5L
P2R
P3R
P5R
P6L
P6R
+2%
-2%
-10%
600
500
+10%
P2L
400
300
200
100
0
0
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270
315

360
105
Early Firing
Early firing occurs when the pressure in the cylinder
rises too early.
The PFP is usually high and close to TDC.
Causes of early firing:
air/fuel ratio too rich
early ignition timing
warm air temperature

106
53
Early Firing
engine pressure comparison
1A - E 5/22/1997 10:34:26 AM
800
700 P1R
P3R
Pressure (psig)
600
P5R
P4R
500
P1L
P3L
P4L
P2R
P5L
P2L
400
300
200
100
0
0
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270

315
360
107
Dead Cylinders
Dead cylinders have no discernable
combustion.
Causes of dead cylinders:
ignition problem
improper air/fuel charge

108
54
Dead Cylinders
Cylinder comparisons of peak pressures (QUAD)
C402 - E 9/9/1998 12:02:53 PM
All cylinders - In Bank Order - CRC is corrected
1000
Pressure (psig)
900
P4L
P3L
800
P4R
P1R
700
P5L
P2R
P3R
P5R
P6L
P6R
+10%
+2%
-2%
-10%
600
500
P2L
400
P1L
300
200
100
0
0
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270
315

360
109
Dead Cylinders
Cylinder comparisons of pressure shape & timing
C402 - E 9/9/1998 12:02:53 PM
All cylinders - To Center of Plot - CRC is corrected
1000
900
800
Pressure (psig)
700
600
500
P2L soft fire
400
300
P1L
Dead Cylinder
200
100
0
-180
-135
-90
-45
0
45
Crank Angle (deg)
90
135
180

110
55
Dead Cylinders
Cylinder comparisons of pressure rise rate
C402 - E 9/9/1998 12:02:53 PM
All cylinders - To Center of Plot - CRC is corrected
35
30
Normal
Pressure Rise Rate (dP/d)
25
20
Other cylinders
15
10
P2L Soft Fire
5
0
-5
-10
P1L Dead Cylinder
-15
-20
-180
-135
-90
-45
0
45
90
Crank Angle (deg)
135
180

111
Dead Cylinders
Pressure and pressure rise rate relationship
C402 - E Cylinder P1L 9/9/1998 12:02:53 PM Period 4
CRC is corrected
-103 EXHAUST PORT

-123 INTAKE PORT
1000
900
-125
100
119
-65 FUEL VALVE
Pressure (psig)
800
Normal PT
700
600
500
400
PT
300
200
100
0
-180
-135
-90
-45
0
45
Crank Angle (deg)
90
135
180

112
56
Dead Cylinders
PV comparison to normal
C402 - E cylinder P1L 9/9/1998 12:02:53 PM Period 4
CRC is corrected
1000
900
800
700
600
Normal
500
400
300
200
Dead Cylinder
100
0
0
25
50
75
% swept volume
100

113
Pre-ignition
Pre-ignition is the premature combustion of the air/fuel
mixture before the normal ignition event (autocombustion).
PFP may occur before TDC causing excessive force on
the piston, wrist pin, connecting rod and bearings.
The mechanical and thermal stress resulting from preignition can cause cracked heads, torched or seized
pistons.
Causes of pre-ignition
hot spots in the cylinder caused by ash or carbon
build up
hot spots created by detonation
early ignition timing is not normally considered preignition.

114
57
Pre-ignition
PT comparison to normal
1000
900
-145
5E Cylinder P4 8/15/2002 4:39:48 PM Period 5

-130 Intake
130
-110 Exhaust
110
-77 Fuel
800
Pressure (psig)
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
Normal
0
-180
-135
-90
-45
0
Angle (deg)
45
90
135
180

115
Pre-ignition
PV showing 2 crank revolutions
Negative work
Positive work
Positive work

116
58
Combustion
Analysis summary
Observation
Characteristics
Normal
All cylinder average PFPs fall within 10-15% of the engine
average PFP
Low cycle-to-cycle deviation in cylinder PFP
PFP angle consistent and at expected location
Similar exhaust temperatures among power cylinders
Unbalanced
Uneven average peak firing pressures

High deviation in PFP for cylinder
Uneven exhaust temperatures
Usually accompanied by higher NOx and HC
Detonation
Often audible
High PFP with early PFP angle
Very high pressure rise rate compared to other cylinders
Often develops a shock wave that is seen in the PT
Combustion may make more noise than normal

117
Combustion
Analysis summary (cont.)
Observation
Characteristics
Soft Firing
Type of misfire
Average PFP lower than normal
PFP angle later than normal
Low pressure rise rate when compared to other cylinders (or
history)
May be followed by detonation
Increased exhaust temperature
Early Firing
PFP angle earlier than normal

Average PFP higher than normal
Higher pressure rise rate when compared to other cylinders (or
history)
Lower exhaust temperature

118
59
Combustion
Observation
Characteristics
Dead Cylinder
Pre-ignition
Average PFP at running compression exhibits no cycle

variation, low PFP deviation
Maximum pressure = running compression pressure
Low pressure rise rate when compared to other cylinders (or
history)
Consumes horsepower
Wastes fuel ($100-$200/day/cyl)
Fuel in exhaust manifold is a backfire risk
Low exhaust temperature
Auto-combustion occurring before normal ignition
PFP angle may occur before TDC
Causes mechanical and thermal stress on piston, wrist pin,
connecting rod and bearings

119
Combustion
PT for a dead cylinder, soft fire, and detonation
K203 - E Cylinder P3 11/21/1996 2:13:03 PM Period 1
109
600
126
FUEL VALVE 206
251 EXHAUST VALVE

234 INTAKE VALVE
307
550
500
Pressure (psig)
450
400
Detonation
350
300
250
200
150
Soft (Late) Fire
100
50
Dead
Cylinder
0
0
45
90
135
180
225
270
Crank Angle (deg)
315
360

120
60
Combustion
PV for a dead cylinder, soft fire, and detonation
K203 - E cylinder P3 11/21/1996 2:13:03 PM Period 1
550
500
450
Pressure (psig)
400
350
300
Detonation
250
200
Soft (Late) Fire
150
100
Dead Cylinder
50
0
0
25
50
% swept volume
75
100

121
Analyzing the mechanical

condition of engines
Valves
Liners
Rods and wrist pins
Rings
Ignition systems

122
61
Valve Train
Rocker Arm
Valve Lifter
Push Rod
Valve Springs
Valve Stem
Exhaust Port
Valve Seat
Cam Follower
Cam Lobe

123
Valve Train
Common problems
Mechanical
Loose/worn rocker arm
Improper lifter clearance
Broken springs
Incorrect spring tension
Worn valve guide
Worn or mis-timed cam
Excessive cam gear lash
Leakage
Burnt valves
Deposits on valve seat
Damaged seat
Bent valve stem

124
62
Valve Train
Incorrect clearance
Lift
open and close at the

wrong time
Valve opening event
can be noisy the
clearance is taken up
on the leading edge of
the cam lobe
Can cause noisy valve
closure if the valve is
dropped onto the seat
Crank Angle
Valve opens
late & sharp
Normal
Lift
Excessive
Lash
Vibration
May cause the valve to
Valve closes
early & drops
on seat

125
Valve Train
Hydraulic lifters
Hydraulic lifters maintain correct valve timing
and minimize valve train wear over a wide

range of operating conditions
Oil pressure within the lifter maintains correct
clearances in the valve train
If the lifter collapses
The valve may open late and close early
The vibration pattern shows impacts at
opening and closure

126
63
Valve Train
Excessive EV clearance (KVGR with solid lifters)
K1F - E 12/13/1994 11:19:43 AM
2.5
-2.5
2.5
2.5
0.0
0.0
-2.5
-2.5
2.5
2.5
0.0
0.0
P8
-2.5
-2.5
P9
2.5
2.5
0.0
0.0
P10
P4
P7
P3
0.0
P2
0.0
-2.5
P1
2.5
-2.5
2.5
2.5
0.0
0.0
-2.5
-2.5
2.5
2.5
0.0
0.0
-2.5
-2.5
P
P6
90
180
P11
P12
P5
-2.5
270
360
450
540
630
720
90
180
270
360
450
540

630
720
127
Valve Train
Vibration comparison for a leaking EV (KVGR)
2.5
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
2.5
0.0
0.0
-2.5
-2.5
2.5
2.5
0.0
0.0
-2.5
-2.5
2.5
2.5
0.0
0.0
-2.5
-2.5
2.5
2.5
0.0
0.0
-2.5
-2.5
2.5
2.5
0.0
0.0
-2.5
-2.5
2.5
2.5
0.0
0.0
-2.5
-2.5
90
180
270
360
450
540
630
720 0
90
180
270
360
450
540

630
P7
P8
P9
P10
P11
P12
720
128
64
Valve Train
PT and PV: leaking exhaust valves (KVGR)
Intake 294
500
580
150
390 Exhaust
500
450
400
Pressure (psig)
2 low PFP
400
Normal
Normal
3 low expansion
350
350
300
High exhaust temp
300
250
250
200
150
1 low compression
450
200
150
100
100
50
50
3
0
0
0
45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360 405 450 495 540 585 630 675 720
Angle (deg)
25
50
% swept volume

75
100
129
Valve Train
Worn rocker arms (KVGR)
K1D - E 2/3/1997 10:52:37 AM
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
2.5
2.5
0.0
0.0
-2.5
-2.5
2.5
2.5
0.0
0.0
-2.5
-2.5
2.5
2.5
0.0
0.0
-2.5
-2.5
2.5
2.5
0.0
0.0
-2.5
-2.5
2.5
2.5
0.0
0.0
-2.5
-2.5
2.5
2.5
0.0
0.0
-2.5
-2.5
0
90
180
270
360
450
540
630
720
90
180
270
360
450

540
630
P7
P8
P9
P10
P11
P12
720
130
65
Valve Train
Worn cam gear (KVS)
NO-4 - E 2/28/1995 1:38:59 PM
2
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
-2
90
180
270
360
450
540
630
720 0
90
180
270
360
450
540

630
P7
P8
P9
P10
P11
P12
720
131
Valve Train
Worn cam gear (KVS)
NO-4 - E Cylinder P12 2/28/1995 1:38:59 PM
161
INTAKE VALVE 325
1000
NO-4 - E Cylinder P6 2/28/1995 1:38:59 PM
410 EXHAUST VALVE

575
621
161
INTAKE VALVE 325
1000
410 EXHAUST VALVE

575
621
FUEL VALVE 536
900
900
800
800
700
700
- P6 VT4
600
500
- Scale 2.0
400
400
300
300
200
200
100
100
Pressure (psig)
Pressure (psig)
FUEL VALVE 536
600
500
45
90 135 180 225 270 315 360 405 450 495 540 585 630 675 720
Angle (deg)
45
90 135 180 225 270 315 360 405 450 495 540 585 630 675 720
Angle (deg)

132
66
Valve Train
Leaking fuel valve (HLA)
C2A-E 10/10/2001 6:28:53 AM
Engine Cylinders: Phased Ultrasonic ULT:
1F 0
-5
5F
-5
Hard closures
2F 0
-5
-5
3F 0
Leakage
-5
-5
4F 0
-5
6F
7F
8F
-5
45
90
135
180
225
270
315
3600
45
90
135
180
225
270

315
360
133
Valve Train
Leaking fuel valve (HLA)
C2A-E Cylinder 8 10/10/2001 6:28:53 AM Period 9
130
110
700
230 Intake
250 Exhaust
283
Fuel 213
--------------
- 8FV ULT
600
-- Scale 4.0
500
---------------
Pressure (psig)
Leak as
P rises
- 8 ULT
-- Scale 4.0
400
300
---------------
200
- 8 VT4
-- Scale 2.0
-
100
--------------
0
0
45
90
135
180
225
270
315
360
Angle (deg)

134
67
Valve Train
Analysis summary
Fault
Normal
Characteristics
Valve opening events are quiet or absent
Valve events are similar across the entire engine
Closing events are at expected crank angle, single
impact of short duration

No leakage occurs after valve closure
Worn rocker
bushing
Excessive
lifter
clearance
Multiple impact following normal valve closure

Excessive noise on opening or closure
Valve opens late and closes early
Impact noises on valve closure
Sometimes see impact on opening
Early closing exhaust valves may raise the PV toe

135
Valve Train
Fault
Broken
valve spring
Worn valve
guide
Cam gear
faults
Characteristics
Impact noises on opening and closure
Valve may close late
Roughness seen in vibration pattern as valve opens
and closes
Valve may hang up in the guide and not close at the
correct time
May see gas leakage if valve does not seat properly
Impacts in the vibration as gear teeth pass each other
May cause excessive wear on the cam lobe leading to
rough vibration pattern

When troubleshooting, be prepared to move the
vibration transducer around

136
68
Valve Train
Fault
Leaking
valves
Improper
valve
seating
Characteristics
Blowby pattern appears when pressure rises in the
cylinder
Multiple impacts on valve closure as valve finds the
seat
Look for differences in valve closure across the engine
Can be caused by beat-out seat, worn/broken/incorrect
spring, worn guide, loose rocker arm, bent valve stem
May see blowby pattern when pressure is high in the
cylinder

137
Pistons, Rods, Rings and Liners
SOURCE: navsci.berkeley.edu/ ns10/piston.htm


138
69
Piston slap
Piston slap occurs when the piston skirt
impacts the liner

Tends to occur after peak pressure when the
pressure is high and there are side forces on
the piston
Becomes more pronounced when the
clearance in the upper cylinder increases due
to ring wear

139
Piston Slap
Low frequency vibration showing piston slap (HLA)
C2A-E 6/5/2001 8:23:09 AM
Engine Cylinders: Phased Acceleration VTL:
0 5
-5
-5
0 6
-5
-5
0 7
-5
-5
0
-5
-5
45
90
135 180 225 270 315 360 0
45
90
135 180 225 270 315 360

140
70
Piston Slap
Low frequency vibration showing piston slap (HLA)
130
110
Pressure (psig)
700
Not always visible
in ultrasonic
600
Fuel 213
230 Intake
250 Exhaust
283
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
45
90
135 180 225

Angle (deg)
270
315
-------------- 3FV ULT

-- Scale 20.0
----------------- 3 ULT
-- Scale 4.0
--------------- 3 VTL
-- Scale 6.0
--------------- 3 VT4
-- Scale 2.0
--------------360

141
Piston Rods
Excessive wrist pin and connecting rod
bearing clearances produce impacts at load

reversal in the piston pin bushing
in 4-stroke engines, vibration spikes occur
near TDC
in 2-stroke engines, vibration spikes occur
near BDC
There is usually cycle-to-cycle variability in
the location of the vibration

142
71
Piston Rods
Wrist pin load for a 2-stroke engine
Wrist pin load in a 2 stroke engine
250000
Gas force
Vibration occurs
around BDC
where load is minimal
200000
Total force
Force (lbs)
150000
Inertia
100000
50000
-50000
0
45
90
135
180
225
270
315
360
405
450
495
540
585
630
675
720
Degrees

143
Piston Rods
Wrist pin load for a 4-stroke engine
Wrist pin load in a 4 stroke engine
250000
Gas force
200000
Total force
Force (lbs)
150000
Vibration occurs
around TDC
where load reverses
Inertia
100000
50000
-50000
0
45
90
135
180
225
270
315
360
405
450
495
540
585
630
675
720
Degrees

144
72
Piston Rods
Excessive wrist pin clearance (KVS)
K200 - E Cylinder P6 1/16/1996 9:39:11 AM Period 6
137
INTAKE VALVE 300
417 EXHAUST VALVE

565
611
--------------
FUEL VALVE 502
700
600
Pressure (psig)
500
P6 VT4
400
- - Scale 2.0
300
200
100
0
-------------0
45
90
135 180
225
270 315 360 405 450

Angle (deg)
495
540 585
630
675 720

145
Piston Rings
Worn or improperly loaded rings
The presence of gas passing noise when
cylinder pressures are high indicates blowby

Be careful though, it could be leakage around
rings or valves
A damaged liner will prevent rings from
sealing properly
Even moderate blowby may be sufficient to
cause a significant rise in the engine
crankcase pressure
Ring fouling prevents pressure from getting
behind the rings to load them properly

146
73
Liners
Scuffing and scoring
Liner scuffing or scoring is often seen as symmetric
vibration spikes around TDC
For a 2-stroke engine, piston rings pass the same point

twice in one cycle
For a 4-stroke engine, piston rings pass the same point
4 times in one cycle
Ring loading affects the degree that each event is seen
Wear is usually faster in the upper liner due to high
PFP
Crankcase pressure may increase due to blowby
resulting from the liner wear
147
Liners
Liner groove (KVS, P2, 10 rotations)
NO-6 - E 12/21/1995 8:14:16 AM
P2 (MMM)
P2 (1)
P2 (Med 2)
P2 (3)
P2 (4)
P2 (5)
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
P2 (6)
P2 (7)
P2 (8)
P2 (9)
P2 (10)
-2
-2
0
90
180
270
360
450
540
630
720
90
180
270
360
450

540
630
720
148
74
Liners
Liner groove (KVS)
NO-6 - E Cylinder P2 12/21/1995 8:14:16 AM Period 2
151
1000
403 EXHAUST VALVE

560
INTAKE VALVE 345
FUEL VALVE 504

900
Symmetric angle cursors

reveal liner groove
800
Pressure (psig)
-------------610
700
600
500
- - Scale 2.0
400
300
200
100
20
0
340
45
90
135
180
225
270
380
--------------
700
315 360 405

Angle (deg)
450
495
540
585
630
675
720

P2 VT4
149
Liners
Liner groove (KVS)
NO-6 - E 12/21/1995 8:14:16 AM
Crosstalk from P1
exhaust blowdown
Crosstalk from P3 exhaust blowdown
P2 (MMM)
P2 (1)
P2 (Med 2)
P2 (3)
P2 (4)
P2 (5)
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
P2 (6)
P2 (7)
P2 (8)
P2 (9)
P2 (10)
-2
-2
0
90
180
270
360
450
540
630
720
90
180
270
360
450

540
630
720
150
75
Liners
Crosstalk from exhaust event on P3 (KVS)
NO-6 - E 12/21/1995 8:14:16 AM
2
P1 0
0 P7
422
-2
2
17
-2
2
P2 0
0 P8
662
-2
2
257
-2
2
P3 0
0 P9
182
-2
2
497
-2
2
P4 0
0P10
542
-2
2
137
-2
2
P5 0
0P11
Unphased cursor indicates

crosstalk from other cylinders
302
-2
2
617
-2
2
P6 0
0P12
377
62
-2
0
90
180
270
360
450
540
630
720 0
90
180
270
360
450
540

630
-2
720
151
Liners
Liner wear (KVS)
NO-6 - E 3/19/1996 1:28:36 PM
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
NO-6 - E 3/19/1996 1:28:36 PM

-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
Chatter as loaded
rings pass over wear
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
2
-2
-2
90
180
270
360
450
540
630 720 0
90
180
270
360
450

540
630
P7
P8
P9
P10
P11
P12
720
152
76
Liners
Liner wear (KVS)
NO-6 - E Cylinder P7 3/19/1996 1:28:36 PM Period 2
151
Pressure (psig)
1000
INTAKE VALVE 345
403 EXHAUST VALVE

560
FUEL VALVE 504
--------------
610
900
800
700
600
500
- - Scale 2.0
400
300
200
100
P7 VT4
-------------0
45
90
135
180 225
270
315
360
405
450
495
540
585
630
675
720
Angle (deg)

153
Liners
Liner wear confirmed by symmetric cursor (KVS)
NO-3 - E Cylinder P5 5/1/1995 8:06:19 AM Period 2
161
INTAKE VALVE 325
Pressure (psig)
1000
410 EXHAUST VALVE

575
--------------
FUEL VALVE 536
621
900
800
700
- P5 VT4
600
500
- - Scale 2.0
400
300
Symmetric cursor indicates

the liner is worn.
200
100
128
45
232
488
592
--------------
90 135 180 225 270 315 360 405 450 495 540 585 630 675 720
Angle (deg)

154
77
Liners
Liner wear (KVS)
NO-3 - E 5/1/1995 8:06:19 AM
1
P1
-1
-1
P2
-1
-1
P3
-1
-1
P4
-1
-1
P9
0 P11
-1
-1
P6
P8
0 P10
P5
P7
0 P12
-1
-1
90
180
270
360
450
540
630
720 0
90
180
270
360
450
540

630
720
155
Liners
Port bridge wear (HLA)
C2A-E 10/10/2001 6:28:53 AM
Engine Cylinders: Phased Ultrasonic ULT:
10
10
-10
10
-10
10
-10
10
-10
10
-10
10
-10
10
-10
-10
45
90
135
180
225
270
315 360 0
45
90
135
180
225

270
315
360
156
78
Liners
Port bridge (HLA)
130
110
700
Fuel 213
230 Intake
250 Exhaust
283
Excessive
ring noise
600
Pressure (psig)
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
45
90
135
180
225
Angle (deg)
270
315
-------------- 4FV ULT

- - Scale 10.0
--------------- 4 ULT
- - Scale 10.0
--------------- 4 VT4
- - Scale 2.0
--------------
360

157
Ignition Systems
Provide the energy to begin the chain
reaction in the air/fuel mixture and consists

of
Power supply
Timing circuit
Distribution mechanism
Transformer
Spark plug

158
79
Ignition Systems
Ignition Primaries
Zener
Gates
C402 - E Cylinder P1L 07/03/1997 8:07:43 AM
5.5
5.0
P4L
P1R
P5L
P4R
P2L
P5R
P3L
P2R
P6L
P3R
P1L
P6R
4.5
Voltage (V)
4.0
3.5
TDC
3.0
Voltages should
be similar
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0
45
90
135
180
225
270
315
360
Crank Angle (deg)


159
Ignition Systems
Ignition secondaries
Capacitor
Discharges
Secondary Voltage
Coil ring down
Plug Stops Firing
Arc Duration
Indication of
ionization voltage
Time (ms)

160
80
Ignition Systems
Typical ignition secondary patterns
C402 - E 09/09/1998 12:02:53 PM
P5LR
(Med 1)
P4LL
(Med 1)
Ignition timing angle = 5.9
P6LL
(Med 1)
P4LR
(Med 1)
P6LR
(Med 1)
P5LL
(Med 1)

0
5 0

161
Ignition Faults
Timing
Advanced timing can cause

early combustion
early and increased PFP
detonation
lower exhaust temps
Retarded timing can cause
delayed combustion
late and low PFP
misfires/soft fires
higher exhaust temperatures

162
81
Ignition Faults
Typical spark plug problems
Excessive gap ionization voltage increases,
strong spark
Insufficient gap ionization voltage
decreases, weak spark
Fouling build up of contaminants decreases
gap and causes ionization voltage to
decrease
Plug wear or metal flaking increases gap
therefore increases ionization voltage

163
Ignition Faults
Cables
Corrosion build up reduces ionization voltage

Damaged or loose cables can cause ground
faults and arcing to cylinder head

164
82
Ignition Faults
Coils
Check for correct polarity

Look at coil ring down to assess coil winding
condition

165
Ignition Faults
Two bad coils plug did not fire
C402 - E 9/9/1998 12:02:53 PM Secondary Ignition (Y Axis: mV -- X Axis: ms)
0
P1LL
-250
P1RL
P1RR
P2RL
P1LR -250
0
P2LL
P2RR
-250
0
-250
P3RL
P3LR
-250
0
-250
0
P3LL
-250
0
-250
0
P2LR
-250
-250
0
-250
P3RR
-250

166
83
Ignition Faults
Reversed coil
10JVGE-E 4/24/2001 7:34:26 AM
10JVGW-E 4/24/2001 10:55:35 AM
Secondary Ignition (Y Axis: mV -- X Axis: ms)
Secondary Ignition (Y Axis: mV -- X Axis: ms)
200
200
100
P1C 0
P1C -0
-100
-200
200
200
100
P2C 0
P2C -0
-100
-200
200
200
100
P3C 0
P3C -0
-100
-200
200
200
100
P4C 0
P4C -0
-100
-200
0

167
Analyzing Compressor Faults
What faults can we detect?

Characterizing the normal compressor
Identifying faults

168
84
Compressor faults we can detect

Valve condition
Cylinder and rod condition
suction valve leaks
ring leaks
discharge valve leaks
liner or piston wear
slamming
rider band wear
excessive lift
crosshead knocks
valve flutter
cylinder stretch
broken springs
main bearings
Performance
Auxiliary equipment
capacity
piping and vessels
horsepower
foundation and grout
excess rod load and lack of

reversal

169
Characterizing the machine

Analysts use all of these:
Operating data
Pressure and vibration versus time (PT/VT)
Pressure versus volume (PV)
Log P versus Log V
Historical data, maintenance logs
Population comparison
Calculation results
Normalized parameters

170
85
Characterizing the compressor

Normal PT/VT
800
-------------- 4HD1 VT1

- Scale 7.0
- 150 DGF
--------------- 4HD2 VT1
- Scale 8.3
- 152 DGF
--------------- 4HS1 VT1
- Scale 7.9
- 91 DGF
--------------- 4HS2 VT1
- Scale 8.7
- 91 DGF
--------------
750
700
Pressure (psig)
650
600
550
500
450
400
350
0
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270
315

360
171

Leaking HE discharge valve: PT/VT
800
-------------- 4HD1 VT1

- Scale 7.0
- 150 DGF
--------------- 4HD2 VT1
- Scale 8.3
- 152 DGF
--------------- 4HS1 VT1
- Scale 7.9
- 91 DGF
--------------- 4HS2 VT1
- Scale 8.7
- 91 DGF
--------------
750
700
Pressure (psig)
650
600
550
500
450
400
350
0
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270
315

360
172
86

Leaking HE suction valve: PT/VT
800
-------------- 4HD1 VT1

- Scale 7.0
- 150 DGF
--------------- 4HD2 VT1
- Scale 8.3
- 152 DGF
--------------- 4HS1 VT1
- Scale 7.9
- 91 DGF
--------------- 4HS2 VT1
- Scale 8.7
- 91 DGF
--------------
750
700
Pressure (psig)
650
600
550
500
450
400
350
0
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270
315

360
173

Leaking Rings: PT/VT
800
-------------- 4HD1 VT1

- Scale 7.0
- 150 DGF
--------------- 4HD2 VT1
- Scale 8.3
- 152 DGF
--------------- 4HS1 VT1
- Scale 7.9
- 91 DGF
--------------- 4HS2 VT1
- Scale 8.7
- 91 DGF
--------------
750
700
Pressure (psig)
650
600
550
500
450
400
350
0
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270
315

360
174
87

Normal PV
800
Actual
PV
750
700
VEd
Pressure (psig)
650
600
Theoretical
PV
550
500
450
VEs
400
350
0
25
50
75

100
175

Leaking HE suction valve: PV
800
750
700
VEd
Pressure (psig)
650
600
550
500
450
VEs
400
350
0
25
50
75

100
176
88

Leaking HE discharge valve: PV
800
750
700
VEd
Pressure (psig)
650
600
550
500
450
VEs
400
350
0
25
50
75

100
177

Leaking rings
800
750
700
Pressure (psig)
650
600
550
500
450
400
350
0
25
50
75

100
178
89

Normal LogP-LogV
Head End
K200 - C cylinder 4 8/29/1996 10:52:08 AM

HE ratios calculated using geometry. CE ratios calculated using geometry.
ne = 1.26
nc = 1.26
End 4H Step 1 = 28.8%

n ratio = 1.00
n ratio = 1.00
Crank End
End 4C Step 1 = 31.2%

nc = 1.25
ne = 1.24

179

Leaking HE suction valve: LogP-LogV
Head End
K200 - C cylinder 4 8/29/1996 10:52:08 AM

ne = 1.35
nc = 1.10
End 4H Step 1 = 28.8%

n ratio = 1.23
Normal n ratio = 1
n ratio = 1.00
Crank End
End 4C Step 1 = 31.2%

nc = 1.25
ne = 1.24

180
90

Leaking HE discharge valve: LogP-LogV
Head End
K200 - C cylinder 4 8/29/1996 10:52:08 AM

ne = 1.35
nc = 1.23
End 4H Step 1 = 28.8%

n ratio = 0.85
Normal n ratio = 1
n ratio = 1.00
Crank End
End 4C Step 1 = 31.2%

nc = 1.25
ne = 1.24

181

Leaking rings: LogP-LogV
Head End
K200 - C cylinder 4 8/29/1996 10:52:08 AM

ne = 1.26
nc = 1.26
End 4H Step 1 = 28.8%

n ratio = 1.00
n ratio = 1.00
Crank End
End 4C Step 1 = 31.2%

nc = 1.25
ne = 1.24

182
91

Flow balance
Flow balance is the ratio of suction capacity to
discharge capacity.
Flow Balance =
Suction Capacity
Disch arg e Capacity
Suction Capacity VEs

Disch arg e Capacity VEd
Ideally, this ratio should be 1.00.

Valve and ring leaks can change VEs and VEd and
cause flow balance to deviate from 1.00.

Flow balance is a Normalized Parameter because it
is relatively independent of operating conditions.

183

Discharge temperature delta (DTD)
DTD is the difference between the actual and theoretical
discharge temperatures.
The actual discharge temperature is measured in the discharge
nozzle.
The theoretical discharge temperature is calculated from the gas
properties, Ts, Pd and Pd.
A high DTD indicates that the discharge gas is hotter than
expected.
This is often caused by friction as the gas passes through a
restriction such as a leaking valve or ring.
DTD = Td,actual Td,theoretical


184
92

Normal valve cap temperatures
K200 - C Cylinder 4 8/29/1996 10:52:08 AM
Discharge
175
Usually less
than Td
Temperature (F)
150
Usually warmer
than Ts
125
100
Suction
75
50
25
0
S2
S1
D2
D1
Head End (Stage# 1)
S2
S1
D2
Crank End (Stage# 1)

D1
185
Compressor Faults
Pressure Leaks

186
93
Pressure Leaks
Sources of leaks and analysis tools
Analysis tools
PV card
Vibration patterns
Temperatures
Flow Balance
LogP-LogV
Examples
Suction valves
Discharge valves
Packing
Rings

187
Pressure Leaks
CE suction valve leak: PT/VT
1250
-------------- -------------- -------------- ---------------------------
1200
3CD4 ULT
- Scale 30.0
126 DGF
1150
1100
Pressure (psig)
1050
3CD3 ULT
- Scale 30.0
148 DGF
1000
950
900
3CS2 ULT
- Scale 30.0
86 DGF
850
800
750
3CS1 ULT
- Scale 30.0
78 DGF
700
650
600
0
45
90
135
180
225
270
315
360
Crank Angle (deg)


188
94
Pressure Leaks
HE Suction valve leak: PT/VT
Unit1-C cylinder 4 1/22/2002 8:35:12 AM HE Period 4, CE Period 7
-------------- 4HD3 VT1
- Scale 8.0
- 95 DGF
--------------- 4HD4 VT1
- Scale 8.0
- 94 DGF
--------------- 4HS1 VT1
- Scale 8.0
- 61 DGF
--------------- 4HS2 VT1
- Scale 8.0
- 73 DGF
--------------
1000
Pressure (psig)
950
900
850
800
750
700
650
0
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270
315

360
189
Pressure Leaks
HE Suction valve leak: PV
1000
Pressure (psig)
950
900
850
HE PT
HE
theoretical
PT
800
750
700
650
0
25
50
75

100
190
95
Pressure Leaks
HE Suction valve leak: LogP-LogV
Crank End
Head End
Unit1-C cylinder 4 1/22/2002 8:35:12 AM
nc = 0.73
ne = 1.14
End 4H Step 9 = 61.1%
n ratio = 1.55
n ratio = 1.02
End 4C Step 9 = 66.3%
nc = 1.34
ne = 1.36

191
Pressure Leaks
HE Suction valve leak: Valve Cap Temps
High
temperature
Unit1-C Cylinder 4 1/22/2002 8:35:12 AM
100
90
Discharge
80
Temperature (F)
70
60
Suction
50
40
30
20
10
0
S1
S2
D3
D4
Head End (Stage# 1)
S1
S2
D3
Crank End (Stage# 1)

D4
192
96
Pressure Leaks
HE suction valve leak: Health Report
Compressor Health Report
Unit Name:
Location:
Unit1-C
Pipeline 1
Model:
UnitMfr:
Mechanical Efficiency, %
Overall Efficiency, %
95
85
Atmospheric Pressure, psia

Load Step
DTS, Discharge Temperature, F
TORQ, Torque, %
14.0
9
86
89
Clr
Cyl Stg Set
(%)
End
Pressure
Ps
Pd
(psig)
Rod ConRod
Diam Length
(ins)
(ins)
Bore
(ins)
HBA
CLARK
Date:
Serial No.:
Marker Correction Angle, deg 156.0

Stroke, (ins)
17.000
Speed, RPM
SPDW, Suction Pressure, psi
STS, Suction Temperature, F
Temp.
Ts
Td
1/22/2002 8:35:12 AM
302
Periods Collected (PT)

296
722
41
Specific Gravity
DPDW, Discharge Pressure, psi
TAMB, Ambient Temperature, F
Calc. Indicated Suction Disch.

Dis T
Comp. Capacity Power Loss Loss Flow Delta
Ratio (mmscfd) (ihp)
(ihp) Balance (F)
(ihp)
11
0.554
946
46
Rod
Load
(%)
SVE DVE
(%) (%)
1H
61 10.500
N/A 45.000
710
939
54F
81F
1.32
14.79
181.9
-0.4
12.6
0.96
-10
41C
74
61
1C
67 10.500 3.000 45.000
712
953
54F
81F
1.33
15.56
185.9
-1.7
2.5
0.99
-12
33T
84
67
2H
61 10.500
N/A 45.000
719
941
53F
81F
1.30
15.18
182.7
5.3
11.8
0.98
-7
40C
75
62
2C
67 10.500 3.000 45.000
715
957
53F
81F
1.33
15.62
187.3
2.5
-1.7
0.97
-11
33T
84
69
3H
61 10.500
N/A 45.000
723
940
53F
81F
1.29
15.57
193.6
11.6
15.7
0.97
-6
40C
76
64
3C
67 10.500 3.000 45.000
726
948
53F
81F
1.30
15.16
182.2
13.5
6.5
0.99
-6
32T
80
65
4H
61 10.500
N/A 45.000
724
929
52F
88F
1.28
13.16
185.6
13.4
15.6
1.34
39C
85
54
4C
67 10.500 3.000 45.000
727
952
@ 296
@ 296
@ 300
@ 296
52F
88F
1.30
16.13
194.6
12.6
6.3
1.01
33T
86
70
Rated Power, (bhp)

Derated Power, (bhp)
Percent Torque Load, %
Compressor Efficiency, %
1760
1739
90
92
@ 300
@ 296
%
%
Total Indicated Power, (ihp)

Gas Power, (ghp)
Auxiliary Power, (bhp)
Compressor Total Power, (bhp)
1494
1573
0
1573
RPM
RPM
RPM
RPM
RPM
RPM

193
Pressure Leaks
Leaking rings
C-140 cylinder 4 07/26/2002 11:55:03 AM
C-140 cylinder 4 07/26/2002 11:55:03 AM
End 4H Step 4 = 27.5%
Head End
1800
1600
1500
1400
1200
1100
1000
0
nc = 1.45
ne = 1.48
n ratio = 1.02
End 4C Step 4 = 30.0%
1300
Crank End
Pressure (psig)
1700
25
50
75

Minor ring leak in a hydrogen
compressor.
Iron oxide was coming through the
pipeline wearing the rings down.
Filters were installed in the suction inlet
to solve the problem.
nc = 1.51
n ratio = 0.86
ne = 1.30
100
The bulging beyond the expansion
and compression lines indicates a

minor ring leak.

194
97
Pressure Leaks
Severely leaking rings
PV curve for a severe ring leak
Log P - Log V plot for a severe ring leak
1000
Head End
End 2H Step 1 = 115.9%

n ratio = 2.57
ne = 4.17
nc = 1.62
900
850
End 2C Step 1 = 116.5%

n ratio = 1.95
Crank End
Pressure (psig)
950
800
nc = 1.73
ne = 3.37
750
25
50
75
100

195
Pressure Leaks
Analysis summary
Observation
Typical characteristics
Suction valve leak
Gas passing vibration pattern when the differential pressure across the valve
is high. Vibration leak pattern is highest in the leaking valve.

Flow balance > 1.05
n ratio for LogP-LogV > 1.03
Elevated discharge temperature delta. Elevated valve cap temperature.
Rounded discharge toe on the PV. Discharge toe pressure drops.
Cylinder end capacity drops
Expansion and compression lines on PT and PV below theoretical
Discharge valve
leak
Gas passing vibration pattern when the differential pressure across the valve
is high. Vibration leak pattern is highest in the leaking valve.

Flow balance < 0.97
n ratio for LogP-LogV < 0.98
Rounded suction toe on the PV
Suction toe pressure rises
Abnormal discharge temperature delta and valve cap temperature.
Expansion through the discharge valve may actually lower the valve cap and
discharge temperature.
Cylinder end capacity drops
Expansion and compression lines on PT and PV above theoretical

196
98
Pressure Leaks
Observation
Packing leak
All packing leaks a small amount. Excessive leakage looks similar to a
leaking suction valve.

Leakage pattern in crank end valves. Move the vibration sensor closer to the
packing to confirm.
Packing temperature increases. Check packing vent flow rate if so equipped.
Expansion and compression lines on PT and PV below theoretical
Gas passing vibration pattern near crank end when the pressure in the crank
end is higher than atmospheric.

Flow balance > 1.05
n ratio for LogP-LogV > 1.03
Gas passing vibration pattern in all valves when the differential pressure
Ring leak
across the rings is high.

Flow balance generally increases.
Rounded suction and discharge toes on the PV
Suction toe pressure rises and discharge toe pressure falls.
Increase in discharge temperature delta.
Expansion and compression lines on PT and PV do not follow the ideal gas
law: PVn=constant.

197
Compressor Faults
Valve Dynamics

198
99
Valve Dynamics
Some causes of valve failures
Mechanical wear and fatigue

Foreign material in the gas stream
Abnormal action of the valve elements
Excessive valve lift for the application
Multiple opening and closing, valve flutter
Slamming
Resonance and pressure pulsations
Corrosive gases
Liquids in the gas
Deposits on the sealing elements and springs

199
Valve Dynamics
Approach to analysis
Compare vibration patterns and look for differences
check history
check similar valves
Valve opening event is usually larger than closing
event
Valve closure is usually quiet. The sealing element is
lowered onto seat by the springs as the gas velocity
drops near TDC and BDC
Monitor valve loss since it represents wasted energy

200
100
Compressor Analysis: valve slamming (poppet)

Channel Resonance is corrected
-------------1CD3 VT1
- Scale 5.0
106 DGF
950
900
--------------
Pressure (psig)

850Channel Resonance is corrected
--------------
800
950
--------------
1CD3 VT1
- Scale 5.0
84 DGF
750
900
1CD4 VT1
- Scale 5.0
105 DGF
1CS1 VT1
- Scale 5.0
73 DGF
--------------
Pressure (psig)
650
800
750
--------------
1CD4 VT1
- Scale 5.0
86 DGF
700
850
1CS2 VT1
- Scale 5.0
73 DGF
--------------
45
90
135
--------------
1CS1 VT1
- Scale 5.0
180
225
52 DGF270
Crank Angle (deg)
315
360
--------------
700
1CS2 VT1
- Scale 5.0
52 DGF
650
0 DYNALCO
45 CONTROLS
90
2003
-------------GMRC 2003 GAS MACHINERY CONFERENCE

135
180
225 ENGINE
270
315
360
SHORT COURSE:
BASIC
& COMPRESSOR
ANALYSIS
TECHNIQUES
Crank Angle (deg)
201
Valve Dynamics
Multiple opening events
RTC10002 - C cylinder 2 8/6/1992 11:27:32 AM HE Period 1, CE Period 1
200
-------------- 2HD3 VT1

- Scale 2.0
- 172 DGF
--------------- 2HD4 VT1
- Scale 2.0
- 177 DGF
--------------- 2HS1 VT1
- Scale 2.0
- 86 DGF
--------------- 2HS2 VT1
- Scale 2.0
- 85 DGF
--------------
175
Pressure (psig)
150
125
100
75
50
45
90
135
180
225
270
315
360
Crank Angle (deg)


202
101
Valve Dynamics
Flutter
JC1A cylinder 5 1/29/2001 10:18:56 AM HE Period 9, CE Period 6
2250
-------------- 5CD2 ULT
- Scale 10.0
- 183 DGF
2000
Pressure (psig)
1750
--------------- 5CS1 ULT

- Scale 10.0
- 85 DGF
--------------
1500
1250
1000
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270
315

360
203
Valve Dynamics
Analysis summary
Observation
Hard opening
Hard closure
Late closure
Broken springs
May be caused by stiction on the seal or backguard. Stiction occurs when
Early closure
Excessive spring tension.
the force required to start motion is greater than the force required to
sustain it.
If slamming occurs at both opening and closing, it is likely that the springs
are too light or that they have been weakened or broken due to excessive
cycling.
High lift valves such as poppet valves may take some time to close. If
closure is too late the drag of the gas in the wrong direction may slam the
valve closed.
Pulsation may cause the pressure differential to increase suddenly
causing hard closure.
Pulsation may cause the pressure differential to decrease suddenly
causing early closure.

204
102
Valve Dynamics
Observation
Flutter
Occurs when the valve plate oscillates between the seat and the guard. It
occurs because the flow of gas through the valve is insufficient to lift the
plate fully off the guard. On the vibration pattern, you will see multiple
opening and closing impacts.
Very heavy oscillation usually indicates that the springs are too stiff. Light
oscillation usually indicates that the lift is too high. Valve flutter may also
be present if there is excessive pulsation in the suction or discharge lines.
To correct the problem, reduce the valve lift and/or spring tension;
minimize pressure pulsation.
Multiple opening
If valve lift is too great, the gas velocity will not be sufficient to keep the
valve open. The valve will then open and close multiple times. To correct
the problem, reduce valve lift to increase the pressure drop across the
valve.
Pulsations may cause the pressure differential across the ring to decrease
and increase to the point that the valves close and reopen.
Heavy springs may cause the valve to close early. The cylinder pressure
may cause the valve to reopen late in the stroke.

205
Valve Dynamics
Observation
Excessive loss
Valve and passage loss calculated from the PV > 10% (rule of thumb)
Gas passing vibration patterns when the valve is open caused by high
velocity.
Valve lift or flow area insufficient.
Some of the sealing elements in the valve may be stuck reducing the
effective flow area.

PT and PV curve appears rounded during the suction or discharge phase.
Mechanical vibration
Mechanical vibration during the suction or discharge phase can be caused
when plates or poppets hang up due to stiction or worn guides.

206
103
Compressor Faults
Losses

207
Compressor Losses
Calculating HP
It takes work to transport gas through a pipe

That work is the area inside the PV curve
The rate of doing work is horsepower
If we plot the PV card as pressure (psi) versus
volume (% stroke), we can use:
PLAN
IHP =
33,000
where:
P : Area inside the PV card
L : Stroke length
A : Area of the piston
N : cycles per minute (RPM)

208
104
Compressor Losses
Pressure drop
The actual indicated power consumed compressing
gas is always somewhat larger than the theoretical

IHP
The main power difference is due to pressure drops
as the gas flows through the suction piping, suction
valves, discharge valves, and discharge piping.
To overcome these losses, the cylinder pressure
must drop below the suction pressure pressure
during the effective suction stroke and rise above the
discharge pressure during the effective discharge
stroke.

209
Compressor Losses
No-loss IHP
800
Actual
PV
750
700
Theoretical
PV
Pressure (psig)
650
600
No-loss indicated
power (IHP).
550
Minimum IHP
required to move
the gas
500
450
400
350
0
25
50
75

100
210
105
Compressor Losses
Total IHP
800
Total discharge
loss, IHP
750
700
Pressure (psig)
650
Total indicated
power (IHP),
including losses.
600
550
Total suction
loss, IHP
Actually required
to move the gas.
500
450
400
350
0
25
50
75

100
211
Compressor Losses
Magnitude of losses
Factors affecting the magnitude of losses are:
valve design
suction and discharge pressure
suction and discharge temperature
compressor speed
gas composition
suction and discharge piping design
compressor passage design

212
106
Pulsation
Pressure waves caused by the suction and discharge
events in the compressor ends

Can cause vibration in piping
Vibration may be extreme if the pulsation coincides
with:
the acoustic resonance frequency of the piping

the mechanical natural frequency of the piping
Affects compressor performance

when valves open and close
volumetric efficiency (capacity)
HP consumed moving gas

213
Pulsation
Nozzle Pressure Trace
RTC21000 - C cylinder 1 4/28/1994 8:18:32 AM
Pressure in
discharge
nozzle
850
Pressure (psig)
800
750
700
Pressure in
suction
nozzle
650
600
550
500
0
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270
315

---------------- 1HD1 VT1

-- Scale 2.0
-- 91 DGF
------------------ 1HD2 VT1
-- Scale 2.0
--- 92 DGF
------------------ 1HD3 VT1
-- Scale 2.0
--- 91 DGF
------------------ 1HS1 VT1
-- Scale 2.0
-- 76 DGF
------------------ 1HS2 VT1
-- Scale 2.0
-- 50 DGF
------------------ 1HS3 VT1
-- Scale 2.0
74 DGF
----------------
360
214
107
Pulsation
Total HE Power
RTC21000 - C cylinder 1 4/28/1994 8:18:32 AM HE Period 1
850
800
Pressure (psig)
750
700
Total HE Indicated Power = 514 IHP

650
600
550
25
50
75

100
215
Pulsation
No-loss HE Power
850
800
Pressure (psig)
750
700
No-loss IHP
650
600
550
25
50
75

100
216
108
Pulsation
Total losses
850
800
Pressure (psig)
750
Total Discharge loss = 104 IHP, or 20%

700
650
Total Suction loss = -11 IHP, or -3%
600
550
25
50
75

100
217
Pulsation
Valve and Passage loss
850
800
Pressure (psig)
750
Discharge valve and passage loss = 24 IHP

700
650
Suction valve and passage loss = 31 IHP
600
550
25
50
75

100
218
109
Pulsation
Effect on HP
Compressor Horsepower And Capacity Report
Unit Name:
Location:
RTC21000 - C
FLL
Load Step:
Cyl
End
Model:
Unit Mfr:
TCV10
DRESSER RAND
Date:
Serial No.:
Valve & Pass; Loss Total Loss

Calculated Capacity
Clearance Indicated Brake Total; Loss
(ihp)
(mmscfd)
Flow
(%)
(ihp)
% of Swept Power Power
(ihp) (bhp)
SVE*
DVE** Balance
Suction Disch. Suction Disch. Suction Disch.
Volume
Stage:
4/28/1994 8:18:32 AM
bhp/mmscfd
Calc.
Theor.
New Stage
1H
158
514
541
-10.67 103.52
30.56
23.79
-2.08
20.13
32.00
35.05
0.913
16.9
14.0
1C
92
565
595
14.04
58.39
42.59
30.47
2.48
10.33
39.82
38.49
1.035
15.5
14.6
3H
132
546
575
29.33
28.31
36.02
32.57
5.37
5.18
37.00
35.27
1.049
16.3
15.5
3C
87
587
618
28.89
58.15
31.82
17.08
4.92
9.91
40.93
38.80
1.055
15.9
14.1
5H
127
609
641
27.22
101.62
32.76
38.29
4.47
16.70
36.86
38.90
0.948
17.4
14.1
5C
94
592
623
33.22
51.00
33.20
28.36
5.61
8.61
40.72
38.98
1.044
16.0
14.6
3413
3593
206.95 170.57
3.58
11.75
227.34
225.49
16.3
14.5
Stage Totals:
122.04 400.99
Auxiliary Power
Compressor Total Power
This is equivalent to
Rated driver load to
Current torque level is
61
3654
3632
4200
86.4
bhp at
330 RPM
bhp and 225.49 mmscfd at 332
bhp and 224.14 mmscfd at 330
bhp at
330 RPM
% of rated load at rated speed.
RPM
RPM

219
Horsepower
Cost of horsepower loss
Engine And Compressor Economic Condition Report
Unit Name:
Location:
RTC21000 - C
FLL
Load Step:
Percent Load:
Model:
Unit Mfr:
TCV10
DRESSER RAND
Date:
Serial No.:
4/28/1994 8:18:32 AM
3
86.4 %
UNIT COSTS
Fuel Cost:
Brake Power from the load:
Cost of Each BHP:
1673.37
3654.50
0.46
$/day
bhp
$/bhp-day
8675.17
7434.80
BTU/BHP - hr
BTU/BHP - hr
1240.36
239.26
7282.35
87388.25
BTU/BHP - hr
$/day
$/month
$/year
ENGINE COSTS
Percent of Fuel Cost
Actual Fuel Consumption:
Predicted Fuel Consumption:
Deviation From Predicted:
Cost of Deviation:
14.3
COMPRESSOR COST OF LOSSES

Total Losses
Valve and Passage Losses:
Pulsation Losses:
Gas Recirculation Losses:
397.38
153.18
0.78
Total Compressor Cost:
bhp
bhp
mmscfd
Adjusted Losses (Note 7) Estimated Cost of Losses

377.51
145.52
bhp
bhp
$/day
$/day
$/day
10.3
4.0
0.4
%
%
%
245.46
7471.32
89655.86
$/day
$/month
$/year
14.7
484.72
14753.67
177044.11
$/day
$/month
$/year
172.86
66.63
5.97
TOTAL DEVIATION FROM PREDICTED

29.0
%
Unit running 365.25 days per year

220
110
Compressor Rod Load
Why do we care about rod load?

What are the forces acting on the rod?

221
Compressor Rods
Compressor piston rods bear all the force that is
applied to the gas

The manufacturer of the rods will specify the
maximum allowable rod load
Depending on the rod material and design, the rod
can bear in excess of 200,000 lbf
The crosshead pin must also bear these forces
Improper rod load can cause:
excessive wear in the crosshead bushing and pin

failure of the crosshead bushing
stress on the piston, piston nut, and other load bearing
components

222
111
Compressor Rods
Forces
Gas force - exerted by pressure on both sides of the
piston
Inertial force - exerted by the mass and acceleration
of the reciprocating components

Total force = Gas force + Inertial force
Compressor rods should alternate from tension to
compression in each cycle. This is important for
lubrication of the crosshead pin and bushing
API 618 (June 1995) says:
the duration of this reversal shall not be less than 15 degrees of

crank angle, and the magnitude of the peak combined reversed
load shall be at least 3 percent of the actual combined load in
the opposite direction.

223
Compressor Rods
Gas force
Gas ForceCE = PCE AreaCE
PCE = CE cylinder pressure
2
2
AreaCE =
piston diameter (piston rod diameter )
4
[(
Gas ForceHE = PHE AreaHE
PHE = HE cylinder pressure
2
2
AreaHE =
piston diameter ( tailrod diameter )
4
[(
Compression
(PHE AreaHE ) > (PCE AreaCE )
]
Tension
(PHE AreaHE ) < (PCE AreaCE )

224
112
Compressor Rods
Gas force
60000
Maximum Rodload Tension: 60000
600
50000
40000
550
30000
10000
0
-10000
500
Pressure (psig)
Rod Load (lbs)
20000
450
Zero Rodload
400
-20000
-30000
350
-40000
Gas force
300
-50000
-60000
Maximum Rodload Compression: 60000

250
0
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270
315
360

225
high mass piston and rod

assemblies
high speed compressors
low compression
ratio services
90
180
270
360
90
180
270
360
90
180
270
360
Velocity
x (instantaneous acceleration)
Differentiate piston displacement (top
graph) with respect to time to derive the
velocity (middle), then the differential of
velocity with respect to time gives
acceleration (bottom)
Rod load due to inertia takes the form of the
acceleration curve
Inertial forces are more significant in:
Acceleration
Inertial Force = (mass of recip components)
Displacement
Compressor Rods
Inertial force
Crankshaft Angle (degrees)
226
113
Compressor Rods
Inertial force
60000
600
50000
40000
550
30000
10000
0
-10000
500
Pressure (psig)
Rod Load (lbs)
20000
450
Zero Rodload
400
-20000
350
-30000
Inertia
-40000
300
-50000
-60000
250
0
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270
315

360
227
Compressor Rods
Total rod load force
60000
600
50000
40000
550
30000
10000
0
-10000
500
Pressure (psig)
Rod Load (lbs)
20000
450
Zero Rodload
400
-20000
-30000
350
Inertia
-40000
Gas force
300
-50000
-60000
Total
250
0
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270
315

360
228
114
Compressor Rods
Tension only
301C - C cylinder 4 7/17/1997 8:23:05 AM HE Period 5, CE Period 6
75000
1000
Rod is in
tension
throughout the
cycle
900
50000
25000
700
Pressure (psig)
Rod Load (lbs)
800
600
Zero Rodload
500
400
-25000
300
Inertia
-50000
Gas force
Total
200
100
-75000

0
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270
315

360
229
Compressor Rods
Compression only
50000

1100
40000
Rod Load (lbs)
20000
10000
0
-10000
Rod is in
compression
throughout
the cycle
1050
1000
Pressure (psig)
30000
950
900
Zero Rodload
850
Unloaded CE
-20000
800
-30000
750
-40000
700
Inertia
Gas force
-50000
Total
650
0
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270

315
360
230
115
Compressor Rods
Crosshead pin knock
60000
1100
-------------Knocks near rod

reversal points
50000
1050
30000
1000
20000
950
Pressure (psig)
Rod Load (lbs)
40000
10000
0
-10000
- 3T VT1
-
900
Zero Rodload
- Scale 0.5
850
800
-20000
-30000
750
-40000
700
Inertia
-50000
Gas force
650
Total
--------------
-60000
0
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270
315
360

231
Compressor Rods
Excess load
C-47 cylinder 1 07/26/2001 7:24:05 AM HE Period 9, CE Period 1
Maximum Rodload Tension: 11000 -------------1XH
VTL
- Scale
5.0
Zero Rodload -------------1XA
VT1
- Scale
1.0
Inertia
Gas force
Total
Maximum Rodload Compression: 11000 --------------
350
10000
300
Pressure (psig)
Rod Load (lbs)
5000
250
200
-5000
150
-10000
100
0
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270
315

360
232
116
Compressor Rods
Crosshead knock
C-47 cylinder 1 07/26/2001 7:24:05 AM HE Period 9, CE Period 1
350
10000
300
Pressure (psig)
Rod Load (lbs)
5000
250
200
-5000
Crosshead
Knock
150
-10000
Maximum Rodload Tension: 11000 -------------1XH

VTL
- Scale
5.0
Zero Rodload -------------1XA
VT1
- Scale
1.0
Inertia
Gas force
Total
Maximum Rodload Compression: 11000 --------------
100
0
45
90
135
180
225
Crank Angle (deg)
270
315
360

233
Compressor Rods
Analysis summary
Observation
Rod load is above

limit
The crosshead pin, crosshead, piston, linkages and rod are stressed above
the manufacturers specified limit.

Adjust the loading on the compressor.
Change the line pressures.
Insufficient rod
load reversal
API 618 (June 1995) says:
Knock at reversal
Check the low frequency vibration reading types. Look for knocks when the
the duration of this reversal shall not be less than 15 degrees of crank
angle, and the magnitude of the peak combined reversed load shall be at
least 3 percent of the actual combined load in the opposite direction.
Unloading crank end suction valves can lead to insufficient reversal.
Adjust the loading on the compressor.
rod load changes from tension to compression and vice versa.

234
117
Compressor Rod Motion
What is rod motion?

How is rod motion measured?
Analysis tools

235
Rod Motion
Why is it important?
Ideally, rods should have translational recip motion
only
Motion is more complex due to:
imperfect alignment
flexibility of the rod
Analysis of rod motion is often used to identify:

cylinder alignment problems
rider band wear
cylinder liner wear
wear in the crosshead shoes

236
118
Rod Motion
Cylinder rod runout and history (at 240 degrees)
2 ROD RODOUT cylinder 2-RR Top Probe Rod Motion 6/4/2002 9:48:02 AM
3.5
Current
3.0
Rod Motion (mil)
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
-0.0
-0.5
Previous
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
0
45
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
90
6/26/2001
135
180
225
270
315
Rod Motion History at 240 degrees for the Top Probe.
9/18/2001
11/27/2001
2/21/2002
6/4/2002

360
237
Rod Motion
Rod runout
Probe Overlay Runout (mil) Top Probe and Bottom
2 ROD RODOUT cylinder 2-RR 6/4/2002 9:48:02 AM

5
4
Bottom probe
sees rod
rising
Top and bottom

probes see
similar motion
(rod movement)
3
2
Top and bottom

probes indicate
opposite motion
(rod wear)
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
Top probe
sees rod
dropping
-5
-6
0
45
90
135
180
225
270
315
360
Crank Angle (deg)

238
119
Rod Motion
Analysis summary
Observation
Trend of rod motion over

time drops
Check for signs of rider band and liner wear.

Examine the PV and LogP-LogV for signs of ring leakage.
It is possible that the crosshead shoes are wearing out. Check
shoes and crosshead lubrication.

The top and bottom probes
follow a W path from 0 to
360 degrees.
The probes see the rod dropping most at 90 and 270 degrees

form a V shape from 0 to
360 degrees
The liner is tapered, with most wear occurring in the crank end.

form an inverted V shape
from 0 to 360 degrees
The liner is tapered, with most wear occurring in the head end.
Patterns for top and bottom

probes separate on the rod
runout plot. Top drops and
bottom rises.
The rod is worn where the separation occurs. If this is around BDC,
appearing to rise at TDC and BDC. The most common type of liner
wear has a barrel shape, more in the center than at the ends.
Check for excessive packing wear.
Check cylinder alignment.
Check for excessive packing wear.
Check cylinder alignment.
check the rod for wear near the packing.

239
Frame Faults
Main bearings and crank pins

240
120
Main and crank bearings

Behavior
Journals should ride on an oil film in the
bearing
There should be no metal-to-metal contact
We can often hear impact-type vibration if
the journal hits the bearing
the bearing shell is loose
Sometimes you can even feel it on the frame

This vibration can be detected with an
analyzer

241

Some causes of abnormal bearing wear
Poor alignment
Insufficient oil
on startup
while running
Fatigue
detonation
overload
non-uniform dynamic loading
Contaminated oil
particles
water
main bearings
bent conrod
Improper installation
excessive or insufficient
clearance
damaged bearing or journal
Cavitation in the oil
Improper oil viscosity
Fretting while stationary

242
121

Measurements
It is difficult to get good data from main and crank
bearings:
The transmission path is long

There is a great deal of noise from other sources
Difficult to distinguish main and crank bearing vibration
Measurement location
Shortest transmission path is near frame cross
members
Measurement types
Low frequency phased acceleration
Unphased (free running) velocity

243

Phased, low frequency vibration
UNIT #4-E 7/17/2002 10:51:55 AM
Engine Vibration: Phased Vibration VT4:
0.5
0.0
0.0
-0.5
-0.5
-1.0
1.0
-1.0
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.0
0.0
-0.5
-0.5
Look for vibration like these that

are not caused by crosstalk
UNIT #4-EBRG5 (Med 7)
1.0
0.5
-1.0
1.0
-1.0
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.0
0.0
-0.5
-0.5
-1.0
UNIT #4-E 7/17/2002 10:51:55 AM

Engine Vibration: Phased Vibration VT4:
1.0
-1.0
90
180
270
360
450
540
630
720
90
180
270
360
450

540
630
720
244
122

Analysis summary
Observation
Low frequency vibration

shows mechanical knocktype vibration
Vibration is strongest near the source move the transducer around
to find it. This will also help eliminate crosstalk from some other
component.
Always check oil analysis data. Look for babbitt material and dirt
that might contribute to wear.

245
Conventional vibration
Some concepts
Applications

246
123
Conventional Vibration
Some concepts
Vibration is the response of a machine, structure,
piping, fluid or gas to an excitation

Excitation is the disturbance (dynamic force) that
causes motion in the machine
Imbalance of a rotor
Response is the motion of the system caused by the
application of all combined excitations
Vibration that you feel
To really understand vibration, you must understand:

What the dynamic forcing functions are
What is responding to the force
How to measure the response

247
Free-running, non-phased data
Vibration is recorded independent of crankshaft
position
Returns
Overall vibration level

Spectrum showing frequency components
Common applications:
Structural vibration
Supports, foundations
Turbochargers
Oil and water pumps
Pressure pulsation

248
124
Overall level
We can use a single number to indicate how
much vibration is present

We call this the overall vibration level
Our industry typically uses the following units:
Displacement: mil (peak-peak)

Velocity: ips (peak)
Acceleration: g (peak)
SINUSOIDAL MOTION
UPPER
We use guidelines to
evaluate overall
vibration severity
RMS
NEUTRAL
PEAK PEAK
TO
PEAK
LOWER

249
Spectrum
We can get a sense of the level of vibration
by looking at the overall level

But - to understand vibration, we need to
know what frequencies are in it
All periodic time domain signals can be
represented as the sum of a set of sine
waves
The frequency domain plot, or spectrum, tells
us about these components

250
125
Acceleration, velocity and displacement
Type
Useful frequency
range
Applications
Displacement
up to 30Hz
(1800 CPM)
Mechanical looseness
Imbalance
Misalignment
Oil film bearing faults
30Hz (1800 CPM)

to 2 kHz (120 kCPM)
Velocity
Imbalance
Misalignment
Vane/blade passing
Oil film bearing faults
Rolling element bearing faults
Pulsation, acoustics
Acceleration
1 kHz (60 kCPM)

and higher
Vane/blade passing
Early rolling element bearing wear detection
Gear faults

251
Frame Faults
Frame vibration

252
126
Frame vibration
Behavior
In relative terms, reciprocating machinery has high
mass and runs at slow speed

Forcing functions:
Mass imbalance
Misaligned bearings
Dynamic loading from the engine and compressor
Mechanical looseness (bolts, clearance)
Response is increased when stiffness is low

Foundation or supports are weak
These responses occur at low frequencies therefore
we are normally interested in displacement


253
Frame and piping vibration

Trend of frame vibration: broken anchor bolts
9
8
Horizontal displacement,
oil pump end, mil-p-p
High
7
6
Broken anchor
bolts discovered
5
4
Vertical displacement,
oil pump end, mil-p-p
High
3
2
High
1
0
After repair
Axial displacement, oil

pump end, mil-p-p
Low
Low
-1
1994
1995
1996
1997

1998
254
127
Frame vibration
Overall levels
100,000
Shaft Speed (RPM)
10,000
100
1,000
Low Speed Nomograph
100
The overall level
10
VE
RY
RO
UG
RO
H
UG
HT
H
LY
RO
FA
UG
I
H
GO R
OD
VE
RY
GO
SM
OD
OO
VE
TH
RY
EX
SM
TR
O
EM
OT
EL
YS H
MO
OT
H
SL
IG
0.1
.62
8I
N/
SE
.31
C
4I
N/
SE
.15
C
7I
N/
SE
.07
C
85
IN
/S
.03
EC
92
IN
/S
.01
EC
96
IN
/
SE
.00
C
98
IN
/S
.00
EC
49
IN
/S
EC
0.01
0.001

Vibration Velocity (inches/sec - peak)
Displacement (mils pk-pk)
can be easily
compared with
norms to determine
vibration severity
For frame vibration
this is usually
enough
255
Frame and piping vibration

Spectrum: Typical frame vibration (IR 412 KVGB)
K102P-V Testpoint OPEV 7/27/2001 6:54:52 AM
2.00
1C
1.75
2C
mil (pseudo-pk-pk)
1.50
3C
4C
5C
6C
Peak At Frequency
2.185 at 322.5
0.293 at 645.0
0.119 at 487.5
0.081 at 2595.2
0.044 at 975.1
0.044 at 2272.6
0.044 at 1297.6
0.032 at 1132.6
0.032 at 1942.6
0.032 at 810.1
Watch for
increases in the
overall level and in
low orders of run
speed
1.25
1.00
0.75
0.50
324.091
Testpoint
: OPEV VIB
No. Of Lines
: 400
No. Of Averages : 4
Calc
Overall
:
2.200
7C
8C
Trap Overall
: 2.200 9C
Engine speed is
324 RPM. This is
the first order of
run speed.
0.25
0.00
0
500
1000
1500
cpm
2000
2500

256
128
Frame Vibration
Analysis summary
Observation
Troubleshooting
Vibration (displacement) readings

indicate vertical motion on the outer
end of the cylinder
Check the cylinder supports for loose bolts or cracked base. Depending
Vibration (displacement) indicate axial

motion on the outer end of the
cylinder
Some cylinder motion is normal (< 5mils).
Excessive vibration (displacement) on

the base of the frame
Check anchor bolt torque. Look for cracks in the concrete base.
on the mass of the cylinder and speed of crankshaft, the displacement

should be below 5 mils.
If axial cylinder motion is excessive or increases, check that distance piece
and cylinder bolts are tight.

Check condition of grout that supports the frame.
Eliminate standing oil since it acts as a hydraulic wedge in cracks and
reduces friction on the chocks

Check cylinder alignment and piston runout to ensure that components are
all running true.

Fundamental spectrum component is at one-times run speed.
Excessive piping vibration detected

visually or using displacement
readings
Check piping supports.

Review vibration spectra to identify frequency components. Perform a
bump test to measure the mechanical natural frequency of the piping.

Determine if the vibration is a result of exciting the MNF.
Measure pressure spectra in the piping to determine if the forcing function
is pulsation or mechanical imbalance.

257
Auxiliary Equipment
Turbocharger/Blower

258
129
Turbocharger/blower vibration
Behavior
There may be many forcing functions present
Structural faults
Shaft faults
Oil film bearing (1x-5x RPM)

Rolling element bearing (10x RPM)
Gear faults
Mass imbalance (1x-5x RPM)

Misaligned rotor (1x-5x RPM)
Bearing faults
Mechanical looseness (1x-5x engine speed)
Gear mesh frequency (1x-3x GMF)

GMF = #teeth x RPM
We are likely to use a

combination of displacement,
velocity and acceleration
readings to measure the
response to each of these
forcing functions
Vane faults
Vane passing frequency (1x-3x VP)

VP = # vanes x RPM

259
Turbocharger
Normal velocity spectrum (Elliot on KVR 512)
206-T Testpoint PWRH 3/10/2003 11:10:17 AM
1X
0.30
ips (pseudo-pk)
Turbo speed
15277.696
0.35
2X
Peak At Frequency
0.050 at 1050.0
0.040 at 900.0
0.033 at 2475.0
0.029 at 1950.0
0.026 at 3525.0
0.025 at 1425.0
0.020 at 375.0
0.015 at 1575.0
0.013 at 2100.0
0.012 at 3150.0
0.25
Small
component at
1X. Slight at
2X and 3X run
speed
0.20
0.15
Testpoint
: PWRH IPP
No. Of Lines
: 800
No. Of Averages : 4
Calc3X
Overall
: N/A
Trap Overall
: 0.140
0.10
0.05
0.00
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
cpm
35000
40000
45000
50000

55000
260
130
Turbocharger
Normal acceleration spectrum (Elliot on KVR 512)
206-T Testpoint PWRH 3/10/2003 11:10:17 AM
2.5
15.278
1X
g (pseudo-pk)
2.0
2X
Turbo speed
3X
4X
5X
6X
7X
8X 9X
Testpoint
: PWRH GP
No. Of Lines
: 800
No. Of Averages : 4
Calc Overall
: N/A
Trap Overall
: 1.500
10X
Peak At Frequency
0.566 at 109875.0
0.306 at 94875.0
0.260 at 102750.0
0.250 at 97875.0
0.247 at 96750.0
0.208 at 108000.0
0.208 at 118500.0
0.191 at 105750.0
0.188 at 106500.0
0.146 at 85500.0
1.5
1.0
Components at
1X, 2X and 3X
are very small
0.5
This is probably exhaust

turbulence exciting resonance
frequencies in the structure and
transducer
0.0
0
50
100
150
kcpm
200
250

261
Turbocharger
Rotor Rub (Elliot turbo on KVR 512)
206-T Testpoint PWRH 7/2/2003 3:09:23 PM
6.0
Turbo speed
16.083
5.5
1X
5.0
2X
3X
4X
5X
6X
7X
8X
9X
10X
Peak At Frequency
4.612 at 31875.0
4.418 at 8250.0
4.362 at 40125.0
1.917 at 56250.0
1.806 at 16125.0
1.167 at 49125.0
0.889 at 24000.0
0.861 at 38625.0
0.834 at 48000.0
0.667 at 30750.0
4.5
4.0
g (pseudo-pk)
Testpoint
: PWRH GP
No. Of Lines
: 800
No. Of Averages : 4
Calc Overall
: N/A
Trap Overall
: 11.900
3.5
3.0
2.5
Increased audible noise,

high overall vibration level
2.0
1.5
Harmonic and subharmonic

components appear with
elevated spectrum floor
1.0
0.5
0.0
0
50
100
150
kcpm
200
250

262
131
Turbocharger
Rotor Rub (Elliot turbo on KVR 512)

263
Turbochargers and blowers

Analysis summary
Observation
Troubleshooting
Displacement readings from the

turbocharger frame increase
Check the turbocharger supports for weakness or loose bolts. If
Velocity or acceleration spectra

show increased components at
around shaft speed
Oil whirl can occur in oil film (hydrodynamic) bearings. This

show increased components at
low orders of run speed
Increases vibration at several low orders of shaft speed often

show elevated vibration at gear
mesh frequencies
On blowers, vibration data is recorded near bearings where the
Vibration from rolling element

bearings follows the
characteristic wear phases
Rolling element bearings usually pass through a sequence of
the unit is mounted high off the floor, lower stiffness may
worsen the response.
phenomenon appears near order of shaft speed.
indicates rotor instability, looseness or rub.
vibration energy from gears is transmitted. When gear teeth nolonger mesh properly, they generate vibration at gear mesh
frequency.
phases before failure. These can be described as:
Early
high frequency vibration

of bearing natural frequencies
Excitation of rolling element faults
Elevated vibration at shaft orders
Excitation

264
132
Engine/Compressor Analysis
Some final thoughts
In this whirlwind tour of analysis weve:
characterized the normal behavior of engines and
compressors
listed common failure modes
provided examples of many of them
discussed the physical behavior behind them
This is a well developed subject:
many analysis techniques
various ways of getting the data
community of analysts that can provide support

265
133

Basic Engine and Compressor Analysis

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Basic Engine and Compressor Analysis

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Basic Reciprocating Engine &

2003 DYNALCO CONTROLS

GMRC 2003 GAS MACHINERY CONFERENCE

Focus of this course

compressor behavior using data taken from

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Short Course Outline

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You cant improve what you dont measure

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Gather data from the machine

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Characterizing Engines and

2003 DYNALCO CONTROLS

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Characterizing Engines and Compressors

GMRC 2003 GAS MACHINERY CONFERENCE

Characterizing Engines and Compressors

GMRC 2003 GAS MACHINERY CONFERENCE

Characterizing Engines and Compressors

2003 DYNALCO CONTROLS

GMRC 2003 GAS MACHINERY CONFERENCE

Characterizing Engines and Compressors

2003 DYNALCO CONTROLS

GMRC 2003 GAS MACHINERY CONFERENCE

Characterizing Engines and Compressors

2003 DYNALCO CONTROLS

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Cylinder, valve, wrist pin

Ignition primary (not shown)

Frame vibration (displacement)

2003 DYNALCO CONTROLS

Characterizing Engines and Compressors

2003 DYNALCO CONTROLS

GMRC 2003 GAS MACHINERY CONFERENCE

Characterizing Engines and Compressors

2003 DYNALCO CONTROLS

315 360 405

GMRC 2003 GAS MACHINERY CONFERENCE

Valve cap temperatures

Suction/discharge nozzle pressure

Frame vibration (displacement)

2003 DYNALCO CONTROLS

Characterizing Engines and Compressors

Crank Angle (deg)

GMRC 2003 GAS MACHINERY CONFERENCE

2-stroke, spark-ignited engine

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Understanding Machine Faults

engines, we must understand how they

when do they occur?

What is the performance of the machine?

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Pressure versus crank angle (PT)

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