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fractions, decimals, algebra, square root, relationships, subscript, superscript, calculus, differential equations,
conventions, School for Champions. Copyright Restrictions
This lesson will answer those questions. Useful tool: Units Conversion
Arithmetic conventions
In using Arithmetic, we can add, subtract, multiply and divide numbers. We also use
fractions and decimals.
Algebra
Algebra uses letters to denote a relationship between characteristics. Usually, they are
just abbreviations for the characteristic. For example, energy is denoted by E and
velocity by v.
Note that we typically will make the variable in boldface, so that it is easier to
distinguish from other items, especially in web pages. Many physics textbooks reserve
boldface for vectors.
Multiplication
Although you can multiply numbers using either x or *, such as 2 x 3 or 5*7, letters are
often used to designate something that does not yet have a value assigned. A big
problem is in algebra, the letter x is often assign to a variable or unknown value. But
also using x for multiplication, you might get 2 x x, which is confusing. Even using 2*x,
is cumbersome. So, the algebraic standard is just putting the letters together.2x is 2
times x. xyz is x times y times z. But this way of writing does not follow with
numbers. 23x is not 2 times 3 times x. It is 23 times x.
Relationships
Newton came up with the relationship between force, mass and acceleration. His
equation says that force equals the mass of an object times its acceleration. To avoid
writing out this sentence, we use the symbolsF for force, m for mass and a for
acceleration. Thus, the equation can be written: F = ma.
This allows us to substitute values for two items and get a value for the third. If m = 3
kilograms and a = 2 meters per second per second, F = 3 * 2 = 6 newtons.
Note that you will often see the equation written as F = ma in textbooks. They try to
abbreviate using a multiplication symbol by just putting the variables next to each other,
assuming you know they are multiplied. In some books, they use a "." between the
symbols. To avoid confusion, we will continue to use "*" as multiplication.
Subscripts
Sometimes you are comparing two or more items with the same characteristic. In such
cases, a subscript number or letter can be added to keep things separate. A subscript is
a small number or letter after and below the variable.
If you are comparing several forces, you can name one F1, another F2 and so on. Also,
we call the force of friction Fr to separate it from another force.
Squares
A square of a number or variable is it multiplied by itself. For example, 3 squared is 3
times 3 and x squared isx times x.
x^2
One way of designating a squared variable is by using ^2. Thus, 3^2 =
9 and x^2 is x squared.
x
A more common way of writing the square of a number is with the superscript 2: 3 = 3
* 3 = 9 and x = x*x.
Raised to a power
You can raise a number to a higher power, but not many common physics equations use
that: x4 = x*x*x*x. The number 10 raised to a higher power is a handy way to denote
large numbers: 106 is 1 followed by 6 zeros = 1,000,000.
Square roots
A square root is just the inverse of squaring a number. If 3 = 9, then the square root of
9 is the number that when multiplied by itself equals 9. In other words, 3 is the square
root of 9.
Most numbers do not have a simple square root, so most must be determined with a
calculator. For example, the square root of 25 is 5 but the square root of 24 is
4.898979...
The symbol for square root used in textbooks does not work well in web pages, so
instead we use SQRT to indicate the operation. Thus SQRT(25) is the square root of 25
and SQRT(v/g) is the square root of the result of v divided by g.
Advanced mathematics
Calculus, differential equations and other advanced mathematics are used in advanced
Physical Science calculations and equations. They are beyond the scope of our lessons.
One example of where and why advanced mathematics must be used can be seen in the
simple gravity equations. F = m*g is the equation for the force of gravity. But that
equation is only an approximation for items falling close to Earth. The actual equation
varies inversely as the square of the distance apart and is related to the masses of the
bodies.
Summary
Mathematics is used in Physical Science for measurements and to show relationships.
Arithmetic consists of simple operations with numbers, and algebra shows relationships-often without numbers. Higher math is used for complex relationships between
properties.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1949-8594.1966.tb13617.x/abstract
Science
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Physical
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Physical science is the study of physics and chemistry of nature.[citation needed] From the materialist
and functionalist viewpoints it overlaps the life sciences where ecology studies the evidences of
historical facts or evolution. Natural sciences bridge thephenomena in the physical sciences to
the noumenon in the life sciences. The following is presented as an overview and topical guide of
these physical sciences.
Contents
[hide]
3 External links
Describing the nature, measuring and quantifying of bodies and their motion, dynamics
etc.
Different forms of Energy, their interconversion and the inevitable loss of energy
in the form of heat (Thermodynamics)
Energy source the transfer of energy from one source to work in another.
Origins of the universe. Physical science uses the Big Bang theory as the commonly
accepted scientific theory of the origin of the universe.
A heliocentric Solar System. Ancient cultures saw the Earth as the centre of the Solar
System or universe (geocentrism). In the 16th century, Nicolaus Copernicus advanced the
ideas of heliocentrism, recognizing the Sun as the centre of the Solar System.
The shape and structure of Earth (roughly spherical, see also Spherical Earth)
Time measurement
(Note: Astronomy should not be confused with astrology, which assumes[citation needed] that people's
destiny and human affairs in general correlate to the apparent positions of astronomical objects
in the sky - although the two fields share a common origin, they are quite different; astronomers
embrace the scientific method, while astrologers do not.)
Chemistry, the central science, partial ordering of the sciences proposed by Balaban and Klein.
Physical chemistry
Chemical thermodynamics
Reaction kinetics
Molecular structure
Quantum chemistry
Spectroscopy
Theoretical chemistry
Electron configuration
Molecular modelling
Molecular dynamics
Statistical mechanics
Computational chemistry
Mathematical chemistry
Cheminformatics
Nuclear chemistry
Nuclear reactions
Organic chemistry
Organic compounds
Organic reaction
Functional groups
Organic synthesis
Inorganic chemistry
Inorganic compounds
Crystal structure
Coordination chemistry
Solid-state chemistry
Biochemistry
Analytical chemistry
Instrumental analysis
Electroanalytical method
Wet chemistry
Electrochemistry
Redox reaction
Materials chemistry
Freshwater
Oceanography
Rocks
Agrophysics
Soil science
Pedogenesis
Soil fertility
Physical geography
Atmosphere of Earth
Speleology
Cave
List of physicists
List of chemists
External links[edit]
Ecology and Wildlife Management, e.g., plant and animal conservation; native
ecosystems ecology; tree rings and climate change; biology and ecology of rare and
endangered species; off-shore island ecology; species endemism and
biodiversity. Contact Department(s): Ecology.
Entomology, e.g., taxonomy and systematics; insect pest
management; biological control; invasive species; insect diversity
and conservation; ecotoxicology. Contact
Department(s): Ecology.
Evolution, e.g., co-evolution of hosts and parasites; speciation
rates of mainland and off-shore island flora and fauna;
phylogenetic relationships in various taxa. Contact
Department(s):Ecology.
Summary
The question of the relationship of the physical and
biological sciences, included in the programme of the
present Congress, is part of the general problem of the
relationship of different systems of world outlook in the
solution of the present tasks of natural science. The
solution of this problem has repeatedly changed its
forms, according to the particular conditions of the
working experience of mankind, the condition of its
material forces of production, and its socioeconomic
productive relations, which have been constantly
changing In the course of human history. For this
reason the extent of my subject does not permit me to
reply to the question propounded in all its quantitative
volume, and suggests the decision to deal with a few
points of principle which' lead to the solution of the
problem as a whole, examining the question of the
relationship of the physical and biological sciences in
Outline of science
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Science
Formal
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Physical
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1 Essence of science
2 Scientific method
3 Branches of science
o
5 Politics of science
6 History of science
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6.1 By period
6.2 By field
6.3 By region
7 Philosophy of science
8 Scientific community
o
8.2 Scientists
9 Science education
10 See also
11 References
Essence of science[edit]
Main article: Science
Scientific discovery observation of new phenomena, new actions, or new events and
providing new reasoning to explain the knowledge gathered through such observations
with previously acquired knowledge from abstract thought and everyday experiences.
Objectivity the idea that scientists, in attempting to uncover truths about the natural
world, must aspire to eliminate personal or cognitive biases, a priori commitments,
emotional involvement, etc.
Inquiry any process that has the aim of augmenting knowledge, resolving doubt, or
solving a problem.
Scientific method[edit]
Scientific method body of techniques for investigating phenomena and acquiring new
knowledge, as well as for correcting and integrating previous knowledge. It is based on
observable, empirical, measurable evidence, and subject to laws of reasoning, both
deductive and inductive.
Empirical method
Experimental method The steps involved in order to produce a reliable and logical
conclusion include:
1. Asking a question about a natural phenomenon
2. Making observations of the phenomenon
3. Forming a hypothesis proposed explanation for a phenomenon. For a
hypothesis to be a scientific hypothesis, the scientific method requires that one
can test it. Scientists generally base scientific hypotheses on previous
observations that cannot satisfactorily be explained with the available scientific
theories.
4. Predicting a logical consequence of the hypothesis
5. Testing the hypothesis through an experiment methodical procedure carried out
with the goal of verifying, falsifying, or establishing the validity of a hypothesis.
The 3 types of scientific experiments are:
Conclusive:
Inconclusive:
Deductive-nomological model
Scientific modelling
Branches of science[edit]
Branches of science divisions within science with respect to the entity or system
concerned, which typically embodies its own terminology and nomenclature.
Natural sciences[edit]
See also: Outline of science Social sciences
Natural science
Physical sciences[edit]
Physical science
Physics[edit]
Physics study of matter and its motion through space-time, along with related concepts
such as energy and force
Acoustics study of mechanical waves in solids, liquids, and gases (such as vibration
and sound)
Astronomy studies the universe beyond Earth, including its formation and development,
and the evolution, physics, chemistry, meteorology, and motion of celestial objects (such
as galaxies, planets, etc.) and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of
Earth (such as the cosmic background radiation).
Cosmology discipline that deals with the nature of the Universe as a whole.
Galactic astronomy study of our own Milky Way galaxy and all its contents.
Stellar astronomy natural science that deals with the study of celestial objects
(such as stars, planets, comets, nebulae, star clusters and galaxies) and
phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth (such as cosmic
background radiation)
Atomic, molecular, and optical physics study of how matter and light interact
Chemical physics branch of physics that studies chemical processes from the point of
view of physics.
Cryogenics cryogenics is the study of the production of very low temperature (below
150 C, 238 F or 123K) and the behavior of materials at those temperatures.
Electromagnetism branch of science concerned with the forces that occur between
electrically charged particles.
Geophysics the physics of the Earth and its environment in space; also the study of the
Earth using quantitative physical methods
Materials physics use of physics to describe materials in many different ways such as
force, heat, light and mechanics.
Mechanics branch of physics concerned with the behavior of physical bodies when
subjected to forces or displacements, and the subsequent effects of the bodies on their
environment.
Continuum mechanics branch of mechanics that deals with the analysis of the
kinematics and the mechanical behavior of materials modeled as a continuous mass
rather than as discrete particles.
Nuclear physics field of physics that studies the building blocks and interactions of
atomic nuclei.
Optics branch of physics which involves the behavior and properties of light, including
its interactions with matter and the construction of instruments that use or detect it.
Particle physics branch of physics that studies the existence and interactions of
particles that are the constituents of what is usually referred to as matter or radiation.
Plasma physics state of matter similar to gas in which a certain portion of the particles
are ionized.
Polymer physics field of physics that studies polymers, their fluctuations, mechanical
properties, as well as the kinetics of reactions involving degradation and polymerisation
of polymers and monomers respectively.
Quantum physics branch of physics dealing with physical phenomena where the action
is on the order of the Planck constant.
Relativity
Solid state physics study of rigid matter, or solids, through methods such as quantum
mechanics, crystallography, electromagnetism, and metallurgy.
Chemistry[edit]
Chemistry science of atomic matter (matter that is composed of chemical elements),
especially its chemical reactions, but also including its properties, structure, composition,
behavior, and changes as they relate the chemical reactions
Biochemistry study of chemical processes in living organisms, including, but not limited
to, living matter. Biochemistry governs all living organisms and living processes.
Pharmacology branch of medicine and biology concerned with the study of drug
action.
Flavor chemistry someone who uses chemistry to engineer artificial and natural flavors.
Flow chemistry chemical reaction is run in a continuously flowing stream rather than in
batch production.
Organic geochemistry study of the impacts and processes that organisms have
had on Earth
Inorganic chemistry branch of chemistry concerned with the properties and behavior of
inorganic compounds.
Photochemistry study of chemical reactions that proceed with the absorption of light by
atoms or molecules..
Polymer chemistry multidisciplinary science that deals with the chemical synthesis and
chemical properties of polymers or macromolecules.
Solid-state chemistry study of the synthesis, structure, and properties of solid phase
materials, particularly, but not necessarily exclusively of, non-molecular solids
Chemical physics branch of physics that studies chemical processes from the
point of view of physics.
Oenology science and study of all aspects of wine and winemaking except
vine-growing and grape-harvesting, which is a subfield called viticulture.
Earth sciences[edit]
Earth science all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth
Atmospheric sciences umbrella term for the study of the atmosphere, its processes, the
effects other systems have on the atmosphere, and the effects of the atmosphere on
these other systems.
Coastal geography study of the dynamic interface between the ocean and the land,
incorporating both the physical geography (i.e. coastal geomorphology, geology and
oceanography) and the human geography (sociology and history) of the coast.
Geodesy scientific discipline that deals with the measurement and representation of the
Earth, including its gravitational field, in a three-dimensional time-varying space
Geography science that studies the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of
Earth
Geoinformatics science and the technology which develops and uses information
science infrastructure to address the problems of geography, geosciences and related
branches of engineering.
Geology study of the Earth, with the general exclusion of present-day life, flow within
the ocean, and the atmosphere.
Geomorphology scientific study of landforms and the processes that shape them
Geophysics physics of the Earth and its environment in space; also the study of the
Earth using quantitative physical methods.
Glaciology study of glaciers, or more generally ice and natural phenomena that involve
ice.
Hydrology study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on Earth and other
planets, including the hydrologic cycle, water resources and environmental watershed
sustainability.
Hydrogeology area of geology that deals with the distribution and movement of
groundwater in the soil and rocks of the Earth's crust (commonly in aquifers).
Paleoclimatology study of changes in climate taken on the scale of the entire history of
Earth
Petrology branch of geology that studies the origin, composition, distribution and
structure of rocks.
Soil science study of soil as a natural resource on the surface of the earth including soil
formation, classification and mapping; physical, chemical, biological, and fertility
properties of soils; and these properties in relation to the use and management of soils.
Topography study of surface shape and features of the Earth and other observable
astronomical objects including planets, moons, and asteroids.
Volcanology study of volcanoes, lava, magma, and related geological, geophysical and
geochemical phenomena.
Environmental sciences[edit]
Main article: Environmental sciences
Ecology scientific study of the distribution and abundance of living organisms and how
the distribution and abundance are affected by interactions between the organisms and
their environment.
Environmental soil science Environmental soil science is the study of the interaction of
humans with the pedosphere as well as critical aspects of the biosphere, the lithosphere,
the hydrosphere, and the atmosphere.
Toxicology branch of biology, chemistry, and medicine concerned with the study of the
adverse effects of chemicals on living organisms.
Life sciences[edit]
Biology study of living organisms.
Agriculture study of producing crops from the land, with an emphasis on practical
applications
Anatomy study of form and function, in plants, animals, and other organisms, or
specifically in humans
Biochemistry study of the chemical reactions required for life to exist and function,
usually a focus on the cellular level
Bioinformatics use of information technology for the study, collection, and storage of
genomic and other biological data
Biophysics study of biological processes through physics, by applying the theories and
methods traditionally used in the physical sciences
Biotechnology new and sometimes controversial branch of biology that studies the
manipulation of living matter, including genetic modification and synthetic biology
Cell biology study of the cell as a complete unit, and the molecular and chemical
interactions that occur within a living cell
Cryobiology study of the effects of lower than normally preferred temperatures on living
beings.
Developmental biology study of the processes through which an organism forms, from
zygote to full structure
Ecology study of the interactions of living organisms with one another and with the nonliving elements of their environment
Epidemiology major component of public health research, studying factors affecting the
health of populations
Evolutionary Biology study of the origin and descent of species over time
Paleobiology discipline which combines the methods and findings of the natural
science biology with the methods and findings of the earth science paleontology.
Marine Biology study of ocean ecosystems, plants, animals, and other living beings
Molecular Biology study of biology and biological functions at the molecular level, some
cross over with biochemistry
Pathobiology or pathology study of diseases, and the causes, processes, nature, and
development of disease
Pharmacology study and practical application of preparation, use, and effects of drugs
and synthetic medicines
Physiology study of the functioning of living organisms and the organs and parts of
living organisms
Systematics study of the diversification of living forms, both past and present, and the
relationships among living things through time
Taxonomy science of identifying and naming species, and arranging them into a
classification.
Acarology study of the taxon of arachnids that contains mites and ticks
Entomology study of insects
Malacology branch of invertebrate zoology which deals with the study of the
Mollusca (mollusks or molluscs), the second-largest phylum of animals in terms of
described species after the arthropods.
Formal sciences[edit]
Formal science branches of knowledge that are concerned with formal systems, such as:
logic, mathematics, theoretical computer science, information theory, Game theory, systems
theory, decision theory, statistics, and some aspects of linguistics. Unlike other sciences, the
formal sciences are not concerned with the validity of theories based on observations in the
real world, but instead with the properties of formal systems based on definitions and rules.
Computer sciences[edit]
Computer science study of the theoretical foundations of information and computation and
their implementation and application in computer systems.
Theory of computation branch that deals with whether and how efficiently problems can
be solved on a model of computation, using an algorithm
Data structures particular way of storing and organizing data in a computer so that it
can be used efficiently.
Operating systems set of software that manages computer hardware resources and
provides common services for computer programs
Parallel computing form of computation in which many calculations are carried out
simultaneously, operating on the principle that large problems can often be divided into
smaller ones, which are then solved concurrently ("in parallel").
Quantum computing device for computation that makes direct use of quantum
mechanical phenomena, such as superposition and entanglement, to perform operations
on data
Computer graphics graphics created using computers and, more generally, the
representation and manipulation of image data by a computer with help from specialized
software and hardware.
Image processing any form of signal processing for which the input is an image,
such as a photograph or video frame; the output of image processing may be either
an image or a set of characteristics or parameters related to the image
Program semantics field concerned with the rigorous mathematical study of the
meaning of programming languages
Type theory any of several formal systems that can serve as alternatives to
naive set theory, or the study of such formalisms in general
Compilers computer program (or set of programs) that transforms source code
written in a programming language (the source language) into another computer
language (the target language, often having a binary form known as object code)
Data mining process that results in the discovery of new patterns in large data
sets
Information retrieval area of study concerned with searching for documents, for
information within documents, and for metadata about documents, as well as that of
searching structured storage, relational databases, and the World Wide Web.
Artificial intelligence branch of computer science that deals with intelligent behavior,
learning, and adaptation in machines.
Information technology
See also Branches of Computer Science and ACM Computing Classification System
Mathematics[edit]
Mathematics search for fundamental truths in pattern, quantity, and change.
Algebra one of the main branches of mathematics, it concerns the study of structure,
relation and quantity.
Lie algebra algebraic structure whose main use is in studying geometric objects
such as Lie groups and differentiable manifolds
Lattice theory partially ordered set in which any two elements have a unique
supremum (also called a least upper bound or join) and a unique infimum (also
called a greatest lower bound or meet).
Real analysis branch of mathematical analysis dealing with the set of real
numbers and functions of a real variable.
p-adic analysis branch of number theory that deals with the mathematical
analysis of functions of p-adic numbers.
Trigonometry
Number theory branch of pure mathematics devoted primarily to the study of the
integers
Analytic number theory branch of number theory that uses methods from
mathematical analysis to solve problems about the integers
Geometric number theory studies convex bodies and integer vectors in ndimensional space
Set theory branch of mathematics that studies sets, which are collections of
objects
Model theory study of (classes of) mathematical structures (e.g. groups, fields,
graphs, universes of set theory) using tools from mathematical logic
Modal logic type of formal logic primarily developed in the 1960s that extends
classical propositional and predicate logic to include operators expressing modality
Intuitionistic logic symbolic logic system differing from classical logic in its
definition of the meaning of a statement being true
Coding theory study of the properties of codes and their fitness for a
specific application
Game theory study of strategic decision making. More formally, it is "the study
of mathematical models of conflict and cooperation between intelligent rational
decision-makers."
Data mining process that results in the discovery of new patterns in large data
sets
Block design set together with a family of subsets (repeated subsets are
allowed at times) whose members are chosen to satisfy some set of properties that
are deemed useful for a particular application.
Spatial statistics any of the formal techniques which study entities using their
topological, geometric, or geographic properties.
Quality control process by which entities review the quality of all factors
involved in production.
Statistical theory provides a basis for the whole range of techniques, in both study
design and data analysis, that are used within applications of statistics.
Decision theory identifies the values, uncertainties and other issues relevant in
a given decision, its rationality, and the resulting optimal decision.
Systems science[edit]
Systems science interdisciplinary field of science that studies the nature of complex
systems in nature, society, and science.
Complex systems and Complexity Theory studies how relationships between parts give
rise to the collective behaviors of a system and how the system interacts and forms
relationships with its environment.
New Cybernetics study of self-organizing systems according to Peter HarriesJones (1988), "looking beyond the issues of the "first", "old" or "original" cybernetics
and their politics and sciences of control, to the autonomy and self-organization
capabilities of complex systems".
Operations research study of the use of advanced analytical methods to help make
better decisions.
Linear time-invariant systems investigates the response of a linear and timeinvariant system to an arbitrary input signal.
Social sciences[edit]
See also: Outline of science Natural sciences
Social sciences is the study of the social world constructed between humans. The Social
sciences usually limits itself to an anthropomorphic centric view of these interactions with
minimal emphasis on the inadvertent impact of social human behavior on the external
environment (physical, biological, ecological, etc.). 'Social' is the concept of
exchange/influence of ideas, thoughts, and relationship interactions (resulting in harmony,
peace, self enrichment, favoritism, maliciousness, justice seeking, etc.) between humans.
The scientific method is utilized in many social sciences, albeit adapted to the needs of the
social construct being studied.
Civics study of the theoretical and practical aspects of citizenship, its rights and duties;
the duties of citizens to each other as members of a political body and to the
government.
Criminology study of the nature, extent, causes, and control of criminal behavior in both
the individual and in society.
Cultural studies academic field grounded in critical theory and literary criticism.
Education in the general sense is any act or experience that has a formative effect on
the mind, character, or physical ability of an individual. In its technical sense, education
is the process by which society deliberately transmits its accumulated knowledge, skills,
and values from one generation to another.
Gender and sexuality studies field of interdisciplinary study and academic field devoted
to gender identity and gendered representation as central categories of analysis.
Geography science that studies the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of
Earth.
Human geography branch of the social sciences that studies the world, its
people, communities, and cultures with an emphasis on relations of and across
space and place.
International studies study of the major political, economic, social, cultural and sacral
issues that dominate the international agenda
Law set of rules and principles (laws) by which a society is governed, through
enforcement by governmental authorities.
Legal management social sciences discipline that is designed for students interested in
the study of State and its elements, Law, Law Practice, Legal Research and
Jurisprudence, legal Philosophy, Criminal Justice, Governance, Government structure,
Political history and theories, Business Organization and Management,
Entrepreneurship, Public Administration and Human Resource Development.
Library science study of issues related to libraries and the information fields.
Management act of getting people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives
using available resources efficiently and effectively.
Media studies academic discipline and field of study that deals with the content, history
and effects of various media; in particular, the 'mass media'.
Social work professional and academic discipline that seeks to improve the quality of
life and wellbeing of an individual, group, or community by intervening through research,
policy, community organizing, direct practice, and teaching on behalf of those afflicted
with poverty or any real or perceived social injustices and violations of their human
rights.
Cognitive science[edit]
Cognitive Science interdisciplinary scientific study of the mind and its processes. It
examines what cognition is, what it does and how it works.
Anthropology[edit]
Main articles: Anthropology and Outline of anthropology
Ethnology branch of anthropology that compares and analyzes the origins, distribution,
technology, religion, language, and social structure of the ethnic, racial, and/or national
divisions of humanity.
Historical archaeology form of archaeology dealing with topics that are already attested
in written records.
Linguistic anthropology
Medical anthropology interdisciplinary field which studies "human health and disease,
health care systems, and biocultural adaptation".
Economics[edit]
Not considered a science by some thinkers [1]
Behavioural economics Behavioral economics and the related field, behavioral finance,
study the effects of social, cognitive and emotional factors on the economic decisions of
individuals and institutions and the consequences for market prices, returns and the
resource allocation.
Economic sociology studies both the social effects and the social causes of various
economic phenomena.
Energy economics broad scientific subject area which includes topics related to supply
and use of energy in societies
Green economics one that results in improved human well-being and social
equity, while significantly reducing environmental risks
Industrial organization field of economics that builds on the theory of the firm in
examining the structure of, and boundaries between, firms and markets.
Institutional economics study of the role of the evolutionary process and the role of
institutions in shaping economic behaviour.
Labor economics seeks to understand the functioning and dynamics of the markets for
labour.
Public economics study of government policy through the lens of economic efficiency
and equity.
Resource economics study of supply, demand, and allocation of the Earth's natural
resources.
Political economy study of the production, buying, and selling, and their relations with
law, custom, and government, as well as with the distribution of national income and
wealth, including through the budget process.
Transport economics branch of economics that deals with the allocation of resources
within the transport sector and has strong linkages with civil engineering.
Linguistics[edit]
Anthropological linguistics study of the relations between language and culture and the
relations between human biology, cognition and language.
Applied linguistics interdisciplinary field of study that identifies, investigates, and offers
solutions to language-related real-life problems.
Etymology study of the history of words, their origins, and how their form and meaning
have changed over time.
Evolutionary linguistics the scientific study of both the origins and development of
language as well as the cultural evolution of languages.
Lexis total vocabulary or lexicon having items of lexical, rather than grammatical,
meaning.
Neurolinguistics study of the neural mechanisms in the human brain that control the
comprehension, production, and acquisition of language.
Phonetics branch of linguistics that comprises the study of the sounds of human
speech, orthe equivalent aspects of sign.
Phraseology study of set or fixed expressions, such as idioms, phrasal verbs, and other
types of multi-word lexical units (often collectively referred to as phrasemes), in which
the component parts of the expression take on a meaning more specific than or
otherwise not predictable from the sum of their meanings when used independently.
Pragmatics subfield of linguistics which studies the ways in which context contributes to
meaning.
Sociolinguistics descriptive study of the effect of any and all aspects of society,
including cultural norms, expectations, and context, on the way language is used, and
the effects of language use on society.
Speech science Speech science refers to the study of production, transmission and
perception of speech. Speech science involves anatomy, in particular the anatomy of the
oro-facial region and neuroanatomy, physiology, and acoustics.
Syntax "the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are constructed
in particular languages."
Psychology[edit]
See also: Subfields of psychology
Psychology science of behavior and mental processes
Behavior analysis philosophy of psychology based on the proposition that all things that
organisms do can and should be regarded as behaviors, and that psychological
disorders are best treated by altering behavior patterns or modifying the environment.
Clinical psychology integration of science, theory and clinical knowledge for the
purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically based distress or
dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and personal development.
Cultural psychology field of psychology which assumes the idea that culture and mind
are inseparable, and that psychological theories grounded in one culture are likely to be
limited in applicability when applied to a different culture.
Evolutionary psychology approach in the social and natural sciences that examines
psychological traits such as memory, perception, and language from a modern
evolutionary perspective.
Humanistic psychology psychological perspective which rose to prominence in the mid20th century in the context of the tertiary sector beginning to produce in the most
developed countries in the world more than the secondary sector was producing, for the
first time in human history demanding creativity and new understanding of human
capital.
Music therapy allied health profession and one of the expressive therapies, consisting
of an interpersonal process in which a trained music therapist uses music to help clients
to improve or maintain their health.
Neuropsychology studies the structure and function of the brain as they relate to
specific psychological processes and behaviors.
Psychometrics field of study concerned with the theory and technique of psychological
measurement, which includes the measurement of knowledge, abilities, attitudes,
personality traits, and educational measurement.
Applied psychology[edit]
Applied psychology use of psychological principles and theories to overcome problems in
other areas, such as mental health, business management, education, health, product
design, ergonomics, and law.
Clinical psychology integration of science, theory and clinical knowledge for the
purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically based distress or
dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and personal development.
Consumer behaviour study of when, why, how, and where people do or do not buy a
product.
Media psychology seeks an understanding of how people perceive, interpret, use, and
respond to a media-rich world.
Psychometrics field of study concerned with the theory and technique of psychological
measurement, which includes the measurement of knowledge, abilities, attitudes,
personality traits, and educational measurement.
School psychology field that applies principles of clinical psychology and educational
psychology to the diagnosis and treatment of children's and adolescents' behavioral and
learning problems.
Sport psychology interdisciplinary science that draws on knowledge from the fields of
Kinesiology and Psychology.
Systems psychology branch of applied psychology that studies human behaviour and
experience in complex systems.
Traffic psychology study of the behavior of road users and the psychological processes
underlying that behavior (Rothengatter, 1997, 223) as well as to the relationship between
behavior and accidents
Geography[edit]
Geography study of the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of Earth.
Human geography branch of the social sciences that studies the world, its people,
communities, and cultures with an emphasis on relations of and across space and place.
Cultural geography study of cultural products and norms and their variations
across and relations to spaces and places.
Time geography
Marxist geography strand of critical geography that uses the theories and
philosophy of Marxism to examine the spatial relations of human geography.
Military geography sub-field of geography that is used by, not only the military,
but also academics and politicians to understand the geopolitical sphere through the
militaristic lens.
Strategic geography concerned with the control of, or access to, spatial areas
that have an impact on the security and prosperity of nations.
Physical geography branch of natural science which deals with the study of processes
and patterns in the natural environment like the atmosphere, biosphere and geosphere,
as opposed to the cultural or built environment, the domain of human geography.
Coastal geography study of the dynamic interface between the ocean and the
land, incorporating both the physical geography (i.e. coastal geomorphology,
geology and oceanography) and the human geography (sociology and history) of the
coast.
Glaciology study of glaciers, or more generally ice and natural phenomena that
involve ice.
Philosophy[edit]
See also: Outline of philosophy
Philosophy study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as
existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language.
Academic philosophy is considered a science by some.[2] Others say that philosophy is not a
science but it is instead a precursor of it. [3]
Philosophy of language is concerned with four central problems: the nature of meaning,
language use, language cognition, and the relationship between language and reality.
Philosophy of information (PI) is the area of research that studies conceptual issues
arising at the intersection of computer science, information science, information
technology, and philosophy.
Political philosophy is the study of topics such as politics, liberty, justice, property,
rights, law, and the enforcement of a legal code by authority.
Epistemology study of how we know what we know; study of the nature and scope of
knowledge.
Ethics major branch of philosophy, encompassing right conduct and good life. It is
significantly broader than the common conception of analyzing right and wrong.
Philosophy of mind branch of philosophy that studies the nature of the mind, mental
events, mental functions, mental properties, consciousness and their relationship to the
physical body, particularly the brain.
Social philosophy is the study of questions about social behavior and interpretations of
society and social institutions in terms of ethical values rather than empirical relations.
Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty, and taste,
with the creation and appreciation of beauty.
Philosophy of education Philosophy of education can refer to either the academic field
of applied philosophy or to one of any educational philosophies that promote a specific
type or vision of education, and/or which examine the definition, goals and meaning of
education.
Several fields of philosophy are more directly relevant to the natural and social sciences than
others.
Political science[edit]
See also: Outline of politics
Political science social science discipline concerned with the study of the state,
government, and politics.
Geopolitics theory that describes the relation between politics and territory whether on
local or international scale.
political geography field of human geography that is concerned with the study
of both the spatially uneven outcomes of political processes and the ways in which
political processes are themselves affected by spatial structures.
Ideology set of ideas that constitute one's goals, expectations, and actions.
Political economy Political economy originally was the term for studying production,
buying, and selling, and their relations with law, custom, and government, as well as with
the distribution of national income and wealth, including through the budget process.
Political economy originated in moral philosophy. It developed in the 18th century as the
study of the economies of states, polities, hence political economy.
Psephology branch of political science which deals with the study and scientific
analysis of elections.
Voting systems methods by which voters make a choice between options, often in an
election or on a policy referendum.
Public policy generally the principled guide to action taken by the administrative
or executive branches of the state with regard to a class of issues in a manner
consistent with law and institutional customs.
Sociology[edit]
See also: Subfields of sociology
Sociology studies society using various methods of empirical investigation and critical
analysis to understand human social activity, from the micro level of individual agency and
interaction to the macro level of systems and social structure.
Criminology study of the nature, extent, causes, and control of criminal behavior in both
the individual and in society.
Applied sciences[edit]
Applied sciences application of scientific knowledge transferred into a physical
environment.
Agronomy[edit]
Agronomy science and technology of producing and using plants for food, fuel, feed, fiber,
and reclamation.
Cuniculture also known as rabbit farming, is the breeding and raising domestic
rabbits, usually for their meat or fur.
Heliciculture also called snail farming, is the process of farming or raising land
snails specifically for human consumption, and more recently, to obtain snail slime
for cosmetics use.
Olericulture science of vegetable growing, dealing with the culture of nonwoody (herbaceous) plants for food.
Sericulture also called silk farming, is the rearing of silkworms for the
production of silk. Although there are several commercial species of silkworms,
Bombyx mori is the most widely used and intensively studied.
Food science study concerned with all technical aspects of foods, beginning with
harvesting or slaughtering, and ending with its cooking and consumption, an ideology
commonly referred to as "from field to fork".
Forestry art and science of managing forests, tree plantations, and related natural
resources.
Horticulture art, science, technology and business of intensive plant cultivation for
human use
Architecture[edit]
Architecture process and product of planning, designing and construction. Architectural
works, in the material form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols and as works
of art.
Building science collection of scientific knowledge that focuses on the analysis and
control of the physical phenomena affecting buildings.
Education[edit]
Education any act or experience that has a formative effect on the mind, character, or
physical ability of an individual. In its technical sense, education is the process by which
society deliberately transmits its accumulated knowledge, skills, and values from one
generation to another.
Engineering[edit]
Engineering discipline, art, skill and profession of acquiring and applying scientific,
mathematical, economic, social, and practical knowledge, in order to design and build
structures, machines, devices, systems, materials and processes that safely realize
improvements to the lives of people.
Agricultural science broad multidisciplinary field that encompasses the parts of exact,
natural, economic and social sciences that are used in the practice and understanding of
agriculture.
Chemical engineering application of physical science (e.g., chemistry and physics), and
life sciences (e.g., biology, microbiology and biochemistry) with mathematics and
economics, to the process of converting raw materials or chemicals into more useful or
valuable forms.
Civil engineering professional engineering discipline that deals with the design,
construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including
works like roads, bridges, canals, dams, and buildings.
Control engineering engineering discipline that applies control theory to design systems
with desired behaviors.
Electrical engineering field of engineering that generally deals with the study and
application of electricity, electronics and electromagnetism.
Marine engineering engineering of boats, ships, oil rigs and any other marine vessel
Mining engineering engineering discipline that involves the practice, the theory, the
science, the technology, and application of extracting and processing minerals from a
naturally occurring environment.
Health sciences[edit]
Health science application of science, technology, engineering or mathematics to the
delivery of healthcare
Dentistry branch of medicine that is involved in the study, diagnosis, prevention, and
treatment of diseases, disorders and conditions of the oral cavity, maxillofacial area and
the adjacent and associated structures and their impact on the human body.
Optometry health care profession concerned with the health of the eyes and related
structures, as well as vision, visual systems, and vision information processing in
humans.
Dermatology branch of medicine dealing with the skin and its diseases, a
unique specialty with both medical and surgical aspects.
Cardiology medical specialty dealing with disorders of the heart (specifically the
human heart).
Gynecology medical practice dealing with the health of the female reproductive
system (uterus, vagina, and ovaries).
Internal medicine medical specialty dealing with the prevention, diagnosis, and
treatment of adult diseases.
Ophthalmology branch of medicine that deals with the anatomy, physiology and
diseases of the eye.
Pathology precise study and diagnosis of disease.
Pediatrics branch of medicine that deals with the medical care of infants,
children, and adolescents.
Pharmacy health profession that links the health sciences with the chemical
sciences and it is charged with ensuring the safe and effective use of
pharmaceutical drugs.
Radiology medical specialty that employs the use of imaging to both diagnose
and treat disease visualised within the human body.
Toxicology branch of biology, chemistry, and medicine concerned with the study
of the adverse effects of chemicals on living organisms.
Urology medical and surgical specialty that focuses on the urinary tracts of
males and females, and on the reproductive system of males.
Nutrition studies the relationship between diet and states of health and disease.
Pharmacology branch of medicine and biology concerned with the study of drug action
Veterinary medicine branch of science that deals with the prevention, diagnosis and
treatment of disease, disorder and injury in non-human animals.
Management[edit]
Management getting people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives using
available resources efficiently and effectively.
Business Strategy field that deals with the major intended and emergent initiatives
taken by general managers on behalf of owners, involving utilization of resources, to
enhance the performance of firms in their external environments.
Finance addresses the ways in which individuals, businesses and organizations raise,
allocate and use monetary resources over time, taking into account the risks entailed in
their projects.
Marketing social and managerial processes by which products, services and value are
exchanged in order to fulfil individuals' or group's needs and wants. These processes
include, but are not limited to, advertising, promotion, distribution, and sales.
Organizational Behavior field of study that investigates the impact that individuals,
groups and structures have on behavior within an organization.
Military sciences[edit]
Military science study of the technique, psychology, practice and other phenomena which
constitute war and armed conflict.
Military Education and Training Recruit training, more commonly known as Basic
Training and colloquially called Boot Camp, is the initial indoctrination and instruction
given to new military personnel, enlisted and officer.
Military History humanities discipline within the scope of general historical recording of
armed conflict in the history of humanity, and its impact on the societies, their cultures,
economies and changing intra and international relationships.
Spatial science[edit]
Main article: Spatial science
Fundamental science science that describes the most basic objects, forces, relations
between them and laws governing them, such that all other phenomena may be in
principle derived from them following the logic of scientific reductionism.
Hard and soft science colloquial terms often used when comparing scientific fields of
academic research or scholarship, with hard meaning perceived as being more scientific,
rigorous, or accurate.
Politics of science[edit]
Disruptive technology innovation that helps create a new market and value network,
and eventually goes on to disrupt an existing market and value network (over a few
years or decades), displacing an earlier technology.
Kansas evolution hearings series of hearings held in Topeka, Kansas, United States
May 5 to May 12, 2005 by the Kansas State Board of Education and its State Board
Science Hearing Committee to change how evolution and the origin of life would be
taught in the state's public high school science classes.
List of books about the politics of science list of books about the politics of science.
Science by press release refers to scientists who put an unusual focus on publicizing
results of research in the media.
History of science[edit]
Main article: History of science
By period[edit]
History of science in early cultures history of science in early cultures refers to the
study of protoscience in ancient history, prior to the development of science in the
Middle Ages.
History of science in the Middle Ages Science in the Middle Ages comprised the
study of nature, including practical disciplines, the mathematics and natural
philosophy in medieval Europe.
Scientific revolution scientific revolution is an era associated primarily with the 16th
and 17th centuries during which new ideas and knowledge in physics, astronomy,
biology, medicine and chemistry transformed medieval and ancient views of nature
and laid the foundations for modern science.
By date[edit]
By field[edit]
History of natural science study of nature and the physical universe that was
dominant before the development of modern science.
Natural philosophy the study of nature and the physical universe that was
dominant before the development of modern science.
History of biology traces the study of the living world from ancient to modern
times.
History of geography
History of the social sciences has origin in the common stock of Western
philosophy and shares various precursors, but began most intentionally in the early
19th century with the positivist philosophy of science.
History of science and technology
History of scientific method history of the methodology of scientific inquiry, as
differentiated from a history of science in general.
History of archaeology, Timeline
History of cognitive science
History of criminal justice Throughout the history of criminal justice, evolving
forms of punishment, added rights for offenders and victims, and policing
reforms have reflected changing customs, political ideals, and economic
conditions.
History of economics study of different thinkers and theories in the subject that
became political economy and economics from the ancient world to the present
day.
History of education development of systematic methods of teaching and
learning.
History of law study of how law has evolved and why it changed.
History of linguistics endeavors to describe and explain the human faculty of
language.
History of marketing as a recognized discipline, along with concomitant
changes in marketing theory and practice.
History of parapsychology
History of political science social science discipline concerned with the study of
the state, government, and politics.
History of psychology, Timeline
History of sociology, Timeline
See also: Outline of technology:: History of technology
By region[edit]
History of science in present states, by continent[edit]
See - Category:Science and technology by continent
History of science in historic states[edit]
Philosophy of science[edit]
Scientific community[edit]
Scientific organizations[edit]
Scientists[edit]
Types of scientist[edit]
By field[edit]
The scientific fields mentioned below are generally described by the science they study.
Archaeologist study of human activity, primarily through the recovery and analysis
of the material culture and environmental data that they have left behind, which
includes artifacts, architecture, biofacts and cultural landscapes (the archaeological
record).
Biologist scientist devoted to the study of living organisms and their relationship to
their environment.
Astrobiologist study of the origin, evolution, distribution, and future of
extraterrestrial life.
Biophysicist interdisciplinary science that uses the methods of physical science
to study biological systems.
Biotechnologist field of applied biology that involves the use of living organisms
and bioprocesses in engineering, technology, medicine and other fields requiring
bioproducts.
Botanist discipline of biology, is the science of plant life.
Cognitive scientists scientific study of the mind and its processes.
Ecologist scientific study of the relations that living organisms have with respect
to each other and their natural environment.
Entomologist scientific study of insects, a branch of arthropodology.
Evolutionary biologist sub-field of biology concerned with the study of the
evolutionary processes that have given rise to the diversity of life on Earth.
Geneticist biologist who studies genetics, the science of genes, heredity, and
variation of organisms.
Herpetologist branch of zoology concerned with the study of amphibians
(including frogs, toads, salamanders, newts, and gymnophiona) and reptiles
Earth scientist all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth.
Geologist scientist who studies the solid and liquid matter that constitutes the
Earth as well as the processes and history that has shaped it.
Glaciologist study of glaciers, or more generally ice and natural phenomena
that involve ice.
Hydrologist study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on Earth
and other planets, including the hydrologic cycle, water resources and
environmental watershed sustainability.
Limnologist study of inland waters
Meteorologist study of weather
Mineralogist study of chemistry, crystal structure, and physical (including
optical) properties of minerals.
Oceanographer branch of Earth science that studies the ocean
Paleontologist study of prehistoric life
Seismologist scientific study of earthquakes and the propagation of elastic
waves through the Earth or through other planet-like bodies.
Volcanologist study of volcanoes, lava, magma, and related geological,
geophysical and geochemical phenomena.
Social scientist field of study concerned with society and human behaviours.
Anthropologist study of humanity.
Technologist
Architectural technologist, a specialist in the technology of building design and
construction
Educational technologist, a specialist in tools to enhance learning
Engineering technologist, a specialist who implements technology within a field of
engineering
Layperson someone who is not an expert or someone who has not had
professional training
Famous scientists[edit]
Main list: Lists of scientists
Andreas Vesalius Flemish anatomist, physician, and author of one of the most
influential books on human anatomy, De humani corporis fabrica (On the
Structure of the Human Body).
Alexander von Humboldt German geographer, naturalist and explorer, and the
younger brother of the Prussian minister, philosopher and linguist Wilhelm von
Humboldt.
Charles Darwin Charles Robert Darwin FRS (12 February 1809 - 19 April
1882) was an English naturalist.[I] He established that all species of life have
descended over time from common ancestors, and proposed the scientific
theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he
called natural selection.
Marie Curie Polish physicist and chemist famous for her pioneering research
on radioactivity.
John Bardeen American physicist and electrical engineer, the only person to
have won the Nobel Prize in Physics twice
Science education[edit]
Science education
See also[edit]
Science portal
References[edit]
1. Jump up^ Alan Y. Wang, thecrimson, December 2013
2. Jump up^ COLIN MCGINN, New York Times, March 2012
3. Jump up^ Friedland, New York Times, April 2012
4. Jump up^ Philosophy: The Journal of the Royal Institute of Philosophy,
81(316), 189-207. 19 p./ Priest, Graham, April 2006]
5. Jump up^ Environmental Impact of Aquaculture
6. Jump up^ Aquacultures growth continuing: improved management techniques
can reduce environmental effects of the practice.(UPDATE)." Resource:
Engineering & Technology for a Sustainable World 16.5 (2009): 20-22. Gale
Expanded Academic ASAP. Web. 1 October 2009.
<http://find.galegroup.com/gtx/start.do?prodId=EAIM.>.
A large number of scientific principles and rules are represented in the form of mathematical
expressions, for which it is very necessary for the student or person intending to get advanced
study of science subjects to have sound mathematical basis. Without making use of mathematical
expressions and rules, it is not possible for any teacher to conduct science teaching in effective
manner.
The significance of mathematics in the science can be proved by the views of the experts that
mathematics has given sound footing to the scientific laws and principles. Before beginning any
topic in the science, it is essential for the teacher to make sure that mathematical basis of all the
students is strong and vast.
Probably, mathematics is considered to be sole language of science because of which real
understanding of science is considered to be impossible without adequate knowledge of
mathematics. Some of the useful mathematical tools which are generally used in the science
teaching are Algebraic equations, Geometrical formulas, Graphs etc.
Correlationship existing in between one of the subject of science and mathematics can be
understood. Astrology is an advanced branch of science in which it is predicted or enumerated
that which planet revolves at which speed and when it will get appeared to the people of earth.
This is quite complex area, and no one can enter into this complex area without having a sound
mathematical basis. Likewise, mathematical rules and theories are also applied to considerable
extent in physics, in which no one can intend to take even single step without relying on the
subject of mathematics.
Thus, it can be said that science teacher should make all efforts by which he can establish corelation in between the subjects of science and mathematics. It will not be improper in any way to
consider both of these subjects as complementary to each other, which can be studied
simultaneously or at the same time.
For this reason it can be said that without making use of examples from mathematics, it is not
possible for science teacher to explain various scientific principles and concepts properly to the
students. To make it possible, sincere and deliberate efforts should be made by science as well as
mathematics teacher to co-relate both the subjects in accordance with the syllabus.
Science and History:
It sounds quite amazing that some kind of correlation can exist in between the science and
history as earlier subject is practical in nature while nature of later subject is purely theoretical.
However, it is possible to co-relate these subjects with each other.
While mentioning about the various scientific discoveries taken place in the earlier periods,
teacher can relate with the major events of the world history. Students should be told about that
what was the situation of science at the time of reigns of various famous kings or rulers. Teacher
should narrate to the incidences which inspired various scientists to found out the medical
remedies of various diseases.
Not only this, the function of co-relating science with history can be done by mentioning the kind
of living standard people used to experience at different parts of the human history. With such
knowledge, they will become aware of the scientific concepts like sanitation and healthful living.
Science and Geography:
Geography is the subject in which various concepts relating to earth on which we live are dealt
with. Everything existing on earth, on different planets of the universe are also main subjects of
geography. Which kind of crop should be sown in which kind of soils, how many kinds of rocks
are found on the earth are some of the main topics which are covered by Geography. One will be
surprise by this fact as these topics are also covered by the subject of Science.
In science, various concepts relating to the atmosphere and earth in which living and non-living
beings exist are made. For this reason, temperature, wind directions and measurement of rainfall
are conducted in the subject of science by making use of various apparatus.
Results obtained by the science in terms of climate and the manner in which it affect the human
beings and earth are being interpreted by subject of Geography. The manner in which it is
mentioned by the geography that how soil gets produced through crushing process of rocks, it
makes the subject a special branch of science.
Therefore, geography lessons on these subjects will be best understood and appreciated if they
have been discussed in length by the science teacher. There are various topics which are of
common interest for geographers and scientists. Thus, it can be said that both of these subjects
are complementary to each other. Both of these subjects are very near to each other, thus science
teacher will not find any kind of problem in relating science with the subject of geography.
Science and Social Studies:
If one explores the history of development of human society, he will find various incidences in
which human got victory over forces of nature, by which he got control over the land, sky and
seas. As said that an important impact of science teaching is that outlook and perspective of
students or people become scientific in nature, as a result of which, various kinds of changes take
place in their way of living.
Scientific thinking affects the standard of living of human beings to considerable extent, as
through such information, outlook and perspective of human beings become more wide and they
can freed themselves successfully from the clutches of superstitions and false beliefs.
Various evidences can be found in our life which can show the significant way in which life style
of human beings have got affected by inclusion of scientific developments in their life. Today, we
can found various kinds of machines for performing different functions, about which primitive
men even did not think.
As a result of these machines, our life has become very easy and smooth and now we can
accomplish complex functions within short period of time, which were considered to be very time
consuming. Not only this, various research works has led to development of various medicines
with the help of which physicians have found the remedies of various diseases, which were once
considered to be incurable and were responsible for bringing about heavy loss of life in earlier
times.
Not only this, earlier a large number of manpower was being engaged in the agricultural sector,
but now we are moving towards highly developed industries, as a result of which we are ready to
participate in the competition taking place in global market. We have third highest number of
professionals engaged in different areas of the world.
Now a large number of students intend to get education from foreign universities, but they want
to serve their own nation and want to play effective role in bringing about development of the
nation with greater pace. Earlier people were not provided with the developments taking place in
the scientific area, as a result of which they used to accept all the orders imposed on them.
But now, in a scientific advanced time, people have learned that being human beings, they have
certain rights, and if any attack is being made on their rights, they begin to agitate. This can be
the possible reason that why women of our nation has attained those rights which were not
permitted to them in the earlier time.
Another change which has taken place in our society through such reasoning ability is the
manner in which people belonging to minority section of the society are asking or reservations in
various spheres of the life. They are asking about reservations in educational institutions and
even in parliament of the nation.
Thus it can be said that science and social sciences are two subjects which can be co-related with
each other without much problem. A science teacher can correlate science with social studies on
different occasions by providing suitable relations of relevance.
Science and Civics:
The main objective of imparting information of both the subjects is to create good and useful
citizens for the nation, thus it is possible to correlate both of these subjects with each other.
Through science, students become able to understand the utility of scientific inventions in their
life, by which they become more responsible.
They begin to realise a sense of responsibility, which help them in playing important role in
development of the nation. Through information of scientific facts, students get to know about
various kinds of diseases and the role which they can play in creating a healthy and clean
atmosphere around them. Through this kind of information, they become more responsible
citizens and play an important role in creating an ideal civic life in the society and nation as a
whole.
Science and Art:
It is considered by the majority of people that it is science who has contributed a great deal in
developing the field of art, but this is not true, as both of these subjects or areas has played
important roles in enriching each other. All types of arts have got enriched as a result of scientific
developments, but it is not possible for a science teacher to impart information relating to various
scientific facts and principles without having thorough control over the art.
As known that science is a practical subject, as a result of which, science teacher is required to
draw various kinds of diagrams, models and charts, which cannot be performed unless he does
not have sound artistic skills. Not only this, it is equally important for an artist to have thorough
knowledge of scientific principles, as without it, he will find it difficult to keep the colour contrast
of his images in attractive and controlled position.
An artist should know the principles of light and shade, objects and background for drawing or
keeping the colour contrast in attractive condition. Thus, it can be said that some common
features are found in the subjects of science and art, because of which they can be co-related with
each other effectively.
Science and Music:
In our nation, music has its own importance as different kinds of songs are found in different
parts of the nation. There are songs and theories of music in different languages. Various musical
stars got born in our nation, but the number of persons engaged in musical area has diminished
to considerable extent as now people consider it as wastage of time and efforts.
To encourage people and especially students to get involve themselves in professions having their
roots in music, this has been accepted as an independent subject in various schools and
institutions and it forms an integral part of school curriculum. For the students of music,
knowledge of resonance, vibration systems in strings and air columns is very necessary and
important.
To make improvements in their voice and manner of singing, various scientific equipments are
being used today, which could not come into being without scientific developments. Thus, it is
only through the utilisation of scientific developments in the real life that led to development of
various apparatuses used in the musical field. Science teacher can relate subject of science with
the music by narrating the students that what led to development of various equipments used by
the musicians and on which principles do they operate or function.
Science and Craft Works:
Some people will find it quite unsound to relate science and craft works with each other, but
various kinds of improvements can be brought about in ability of students to understand various
scientific principles and facts. During craft periods, students can be provided with the task of
designing various pieces of scientific apparatuses and equipments.
Through such step, scientific interest can be developed in the students, which will help in
arousing the interest of students in various scientific incidences. An urge will get developed in
them to see or observe the equipments or apparatuses designed by them in reality, by which they
will be motivated to get more and more information regarding the research functions conducted
in the scientific field through various means and sources.
Thus, it can be said that if science teacher will relate science with other subjects of the
curriculum, then he will get more justifiable and satisfactory results.
Physical science, the systematic study of the inorganic world, as distinct from the study of the
organic world, which is the province of biological science. Physical science is ordinarily thought
of as consisting of four broad areas: astronomy,physics, chemistry, and the Earth sciences. Each
of these is in turn divided into fields and subfields. This article discusses the historical
developmentwith due attention to the scope, principal concerns, and methodsof the first
three of these areas. The Earth sciences are discussed in a separate article.
Physics, in its modern sense, was founded in the mid-19th century as a synthesis of several older sciences
namely, those of mechanics, optics, acoustics, electricity, magnetism, heat, and the physical properties
of matter. The synthesis was based in large part on the recognition that the different forces of nature are
related and are, in fact, interconvertible because they are forms ofenergy.
The boundary between physics and chemistry is somewhat arbitrary. As it developed in the 20th century,
physics is concerned with the structure and behaviour of individual atoms and their components, while
chemistry deals with the properties and reactions of molecules. These latter depend on energy, especially
heat, as well as on atoms; hence, there is a strong link between physics and chemistry. Chemists tend to be
more interested in the specific properties of different elements and compounds, whereas physicists are
concerned with general properties shared by all matter.
Astronomy is the science of the entire universe beyond the Earth; it includes the Earths gross physical
properties, such as its mass and rotation, insofar as they interact with other bodies in the solar system. Until
the 18th century, astronomers were concerned primarily with the Sun, Moon, planets, and comets. During
the following centuries, however, the study of stars, galaxies, nebulas, and the interstellar medium became
increasingly important. Celestial mechanics, the science of the motion of planets and other solid objects
within the solar system, was the first testing ground for Newtons laws of motion and thereby helped to
establish the fundamental principles of classical (that is, pre-20th-century) physics. Astrophysics, the study
of the physical properties of celestial bodies, arose during the 19th century and is closely connected with
the determination of the chemical composition of those bodies. In the 20th century physics and astronomy
became more intimately linked through cosmological theories, especially those based on the theory
of relativity.